"

~he Engineering.-~
of. 7C!il.jO
V .Tift
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Dams ~~1
[11h

Part I {
!
HENRY H. THOMAS
. Engineeri1tlf Consultant,

Formerly Deputy Chief Civil Engineer,

The Hydro-Electric Commission, Tasmania,

Australia

A Wiley -Interscience Publication

JOHN WILEY & SONS

London • New York . Sydney . Toronto
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Acknowledgements
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I am greatly indebted to Sir Allan Knight, C.M.G., M.E., B.Sc" B.Com., F.I.E.
I
I Aust., Commissioner of The Hydro-Electric Commission, Tasmania, for mak­
ing available the records of dam building by that Commission, to its former
Chief Civil Engineer, Mr. G. T. Colebatch, O.B.E., B.E., F.I.E. Aust.,
M.I.C.E., and to my many friends within the Civil Engineering Branch who
have in various ways contributed to and encouraged me in the preparation of
this book.
Dam building Authorities throughout Australia and many leading
Engineers across the world have made available special items of interest that
have greatly enhanced the volume. In listing them below I wish to express my
I sincere gratitude to each for information and photographs furnished.
i
Department of Public Works, New South Wales

I Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, N.S.W.

Blue Mountains City Council, N.S. W.
Lithgow City Council, N.S.W.
Metropolitan Water Sewerage and Drainage Board, Sydney, N.S.W.
Hunter District Water Board, Newcastle, N.S.W.
The City of Hobart, Tasmania
The City of Glenorchy, Tasmania
State Rivers and Water Supply Commission, Victoria
State Electricity Commission, Victoria
Irrigation and Water Supply Commission, Queensland
The Northern Electric Authority of _Queensland
Australian National Capital Commission, Canberra, Australia
Australian Department of Housing and Construction, Canberra
I Public Works Department of Western Australia
I
Snowy Mountains Hydro Electric Authority, Cooma, N.S.W.

Engineering and Water Supply Department, South Australia

Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Canberra,

Australia
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation,
'\ Australia-Division of Cloud Physics
Ministry of Works, New Zealand
Prof. J. D. Lawson, University of Melbourne, Australia
I Dr. Jai Krishna, University of Roorkee, India
E. Polak, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Australia
M. G. Speedie, Engineering Consultant, Melbourne, Victoria
I John MeG. McIntyre, McIntyre and Associates, Townsville, Queensland
Coffey and Hollingsworth, Adelaide, South Australia

Sinclair and Knight, Sydney, N.S.W.

Gutteridge, Ha.skins and Davey, Melbourne, Victoria

James M. Antill, Consulting Engineer, Sydney, Australia

Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation, Cooma, N.S.W., Australia

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Dr. Ing. R. Urbistondu, Ministerio de Obras Publicas, Madrid, Spain

Dr. M. Rocha, Laboratorio Nacional de Engenharia Civil, lisbon, Portugal
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Dr. Ing. E. Fumagelli, Instituto Sperimentale Modelli e Statture, Bergamo,
Italy
Dott. Ing. G. Gentile, Torino, Italy
Dr. Ing. A. Rebaudi, Venezia, Italy
Dolt. Ing. G. Torno, Milano, Italy ,~
Dr. G. Lombardi, Locarno, Switzerland ;.l
Imprese di Costruzioni Specializzate, Milano, Italy
Motor Columbus, Baden, Switzerland
Electricite de France, Paris, France
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Coyne & Bellier, Paris, France

Compagnie Industrielle de Travaux, Paris, France :t
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Sato Kogyo, Tokyo, Japan
Strabagbau A-G Koln, Germany
Cementation Company of India
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Cementation Specialist Holdings, Croydon, England reI
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Harza Engineering Co., Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. L
The United States Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.
The U.S. Dept. of Army, Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, Miss. r-
California Department of Water Resources, Sacramento, U.S.A. L·
Tennessee Valley Authority, Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A.
North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board, Edinburgh ,­
Swedish State Power Board, Stockholm I
D,epartment of Water Affairs, Johannesburg, South Africa I
Secretariat d'Etat a I'Hydraulique, Algeria
Hydro Quebec, Montreal, Canada
Empresa de Energia Electrica de Bogota, Colombia
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The Japanese National Committee on Large Dams , .. :
The Australian National Committee on Large Dams
The American Society of Civil Engineers i_~
South Mriean Institution of Civil Engineers
~ :.
The Institution of Civil Engineers
The Institution of Engineers, Australia t1

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'I, Foreword I
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L, In the long term, one of the most important problems facing the world today is
i the provision of adequate supplies of fresh .water for industry, for agriculture

and for the very continuance of mankind. Inherent in this problem is the

avoidance of waste, one serious aspect of which is the loss of valuable water

carried regularly to the sea in floods. In all countries the ultimate objective

must surely be to conserve and control all fresh water in order that what is so

freely provided by Nature might be applied efficiently and effectively for the

future wellbeing of mankind. Coupled with this is full recognition of the

seriousness of our rapidly diminishing reserves of fuel such as coal and oil­

:1 so vital at this time for the generation of power for industrial and domestic

...J use. Unlike fossil and liquid fuels, water is not el<pendable; the supply by
Nature may vary from season to season and from year to year, but there is no
general diminu tion.
These factors and others highligh t the importance of water and the need to
apply maximum engineering skills to its conservation. Mr Thomas, in this ex­
cellent book, has set out to guide engineers in the art of dam engineering.
While fully conscious that safety is of paramount importance, he has in.c
traduced many novel features that will surely encourage them to apply in~
itiative and ingenuity to this fascinating phase of civil engineering.
Recent advances in technology, permitting the construction of dams of
much more ambitious heights than ever contemplated a few generations ago,
places great· responsibility on the engineers entrusted with their design and
construction. Today, dams el<ceeding 150 metres in height, often associated
with difficult foundation and structural conditions, are by no means uncom­
mon; in fact the world is now seeing dams that exceed 300 metres. Failure of
dams of such dimensions could be expected to cause enormous loss of life and
property. We have indeed entered into a new era in the design and construc­
tion of large dams~ne that calls for the maximum of skill and el<p,ert
knowledge--hence the value of such a publication as Mr Thomas has now
made available to the engineering world.
I have kept closely in touch with Mr Thomas throughout his engineering
career. From his association with some thirty large dams he is indeed well
equipped, as an expert of wide el<perience in his field, to undertake the task
that he has now completed. I commend this book to the profession.
W. Hudson, K.B.E., F.R.S.,

F.I.C.E., 1l.SC.(llNG.)

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Preface

'The Art is long and Life is short, Experience is fallacious

and Decision difficult.
(Hippocrates)
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Dam building is a challenge. It was a challenge 4000 years ago when 'The
Sadd-el-Kafara' was built near Cairo;' it was a,challenge 2000 years ago when
the Romans built what we believe to be the fIrst arCh dam; it is still a challenge
today! The twentieth century has brought sophistication: the computer .to
make possible our present designs, and modern machines to translate these
designs into structures. However, the overall harnessing of the forces of
Nature is still an Art; the final decision will be a personal one for someone. It
will be his responsibility, and it will live with him and after him.
It is fundamental for the Engineer to realise that no matter how strong he
, '1
may build a dam there will always remain .some risk-however small-that
j unforeseen forces may cause .it to fail. He must recognize the various u~­
desirable events that may occur, and. assess the probability of their
simultaneous occurrence. To accept the possibility of some damage under the
worst combination of adverse conditions may be both acceptable and
economical, but the Engineer must understand the risk that he takes.
It is obligatory for an Engineer to know his subject; it is a legal respon­
sibility that his work should at all times conform to the 'present state of the'
Art', a state that is continually changing and always advancing. Safety is of
paramount importance, and to ensure safety the Engineer must combine the
latest techniques of investigation and design with the best available methods of
construction. He must investigate every detail but never become so involved in
I , the intricacies of design that he fails to visualize the project as a whole. The
effects of a new reservoir on the lives and habits of people, fauna and flora
deserve the same attention that is given to the mathematical analysis.
The materials to be used must be und:erstood. If our objective is to store
water, then we must follow through to the effects of such storage--pore
pressures, uplift, piping, corrosion and perhaps induced seismicity. if we are to
build on a foundation, we must look beyond the rock itself to the properties in
situ, particularly when saturated and loaded. If we are to use concrete, then we
must comprehend its properties. What will be its strength in the particular
,! dam? It is certlrinIy not the stress at failure of a small, laboratory prepared,
uniaxially loaded cylinder. If we are to tninimize settlement and creep in rock­
I
fill, then we must satisfy ourselves on the properties of the rock, the voids ratio
and modulus required in the embankment, and the construction procedure
necessary to obtain the required consolidation.
,. ,1 A dam must be understood in its three dimensions. What is the true
significance of an isolated tensile stress? It will probably be relaxed by creep,
by the opening of joints or even a crack that can be acceptable in certain cir­
cumstances. On the other hand, a zone of tension will usually be a matter of
grave concern that may warrant a complete redesign. ,,'-'

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Weather modification by Man may well change the whole subject of Y-1\
Hydrology, impact on the environment will certainly be a major factor in pro­ : !i
ject planning, and the possibility of seismic activity being induced by the fill­ U
ing of large reservoirs may be vital in some .localities. Modern methods of !
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analysis will make it mandatory to consider the dam and its foundation as a
three-dimensional problem, even including the dynamic behaviour of the
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water in the reservoir during an earthquake. It is clear that the engineering of
a dam is a complex undertaking. ;"]
)
The International Commission on Large Dams has recently published a u

report on accidents to dams. Some of these are discussed in Chapter 3. It is dis­

turbing that so many failures have occurred in countries that are credited with q
wide experience. Errors of omission rather than of commission have led to ~~
many of these disasters. The failure of a dam is usually a catastrophe--the

~]

responsibility of the Engineer is therefore great.

The world is at present seeing a proliferation of technical papers and the
subject of dams is no exception--certainly more than 1000 articles appearing ::
,
each year. Improved systems of information retrieval may provide the
Engineer with thousands of references but most Engineers will not have time
q

to read sO many articles even if they were available to them.

Based upon a career in dam engineering and supported by many good
friends throughout the world, I have therefore endeavoured to gather together
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in one book many of the facets of this subject. Some unique structures are
reported, some novel designs are described, some warnings issued and some in­ .' -.
!
novations suggested. My purpose is to guide Engineers along safe paths but at j
the same time to provide stimulation so that they will treat each problem as a
special one to be solved with initiative and ingenuity.
It has been my aim to present the subject matter in simple language. Ade­
1,

quate references have been provided so that each topic may be studied to the
depth desired for the specific project in hand, or beyond into the realms of q
research. My purpose will have been served if I have encouraged Engineers to ~J
use initiative, to think creatively, and above all to apply common sense to all
their work. It has been said that the Universities may give degrees but it is
God who gives us comm'Jn sense. Let us never neglect that gift.
:,'

H. H. THOMAS
Hobart, 1976

Reference '1
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1. Norman Smith, A History "OJ Dams, 1971, Peter Davies, London. ::'.J

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Contents

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Foreword (By Sir William Hudson K.B.E., F.R.S., B.Sc. (Eng.), Hon.
F.I.E. Aust.) Formerly Commissioner, The STWWY Mountains
Hydro Electric Authority, Australia ....... . ix
Preface Dam Building-A Challenge to the Engineer--an Art or'a
Science? . . . . . xi
Introduction xvii
1 Engineering Responsibility
1.1 The Chief Engineer and the Team 1

:1. -
1.2 Experience and the Computer 1

1.3 Responsibility in New Concepts . 1

:-)
1.4 Responsibility-Moral and Legal, 2
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1.5 Lex Romana and Insurance 2
.(
1
1.6 The Contract . . . . • . . • . 3
: 2 Planning

.'
'!, 2.1 Water Resources-National and International 6

2.2 Reservoir Utilization 8

2.3 Life of a Dam 10
1 2.4 Environmental Implications 13
2.5 Multi-disciplinary Approach 29

1· 2.6 Finance • . . . . • . . 30

.1 2.7 Contract and Day Labour Construction 31

2.8 Decision Making . . . . . . 32
3 Accidents to Large Dams
3.1 Consequences of Failure 35
3.2 Statistics . • . . --. -'-.--." 35
3.3 Security v. Failure . . 36
3.4 Examples ....• 37-~ ~--_
\4 Loading and Factor of Safety
4.1 Static Loading .....•...... 55

J 4.2 Dynamic Loading . . . • • . . . • • • 58

i 4.3 Behaviour of Concrete under Complex Loading 60

4.4 Load-carrying Capacity of Dams 62

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i· 4.5 Model Representation 63

4.6 Factor of Safety . • . . . . • 64

5 Investigations
5.1 Preliminary Investigation and Reconnaissance 70
5.2 Time and Money for Investigations 74
5.3 Basic Concepts 74
5.4 Basic Data 75
5.5 Height of Dam 82

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,5.6 Selection of Type of Dam • . 83
S.7 Deep Outlets and Controlled Filling 95
x5.8 River Diversion. • 96
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6 Hydrology , ~

6.1 Hydrology and Meteorology 99 ,j l

6.2 Storage Requirements
6.3 Floods
6.4 Freeboard
117
119
128
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7 Geology
7.1 Regional Geology 139
7.2 Local Geology • • 141
7.3. Recording and Presentation 156
7.4 Seismic Activity • 159

7.5, Valley Wall Stability 163

7.6 Mining .• . 166

7.7 Materials Investigations 166
8 Foundations
8.1 Properties of Rock 170
8.2 Testing 176
8.3 Sliding 182
8.4 Permeability 190
8.S Foundation Improvement 199 1
9
8.6 Instrumentation •
Concrete
9.1 Basic Requirements ••
206

210
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9.2 Constituents •. 212
9.3 Concrete Mix Design and Grading 227
9.4 Physical Properties of Concrete 228
9.5 Strength of Concrete 232
9.6 Curing' 236
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9.7 Cracking in Concrete 237 ,,1.
9.8 Special Concretes 240
10 Gravity Dams
10.1 Evolution •• 245
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10.2 Design Concepts and Criteria 249
10.3 Uplift •.. . 252
10.4 Stresses in Gravity Dams 256
,. 10.5 Contraction Joints 260
10.6
10.7
10.8
Galleries • • ••
Apl'urtenant Structures
Prestressed Gravity Dams
264
268
272
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10.9 Special Gravity Dams 278 "1)1
11 Arch Dams ,j "
11.1 History . . • . . . 283
11.2 Design Concepts and Criteria 294
11.3 Valley Shape • .• 301
11.4 Abutments-Stability and Deformability 302
11.5 Shell Geometry 373
11.6 Methods of Analysis 320
11.7 Contraction Joints 333
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11.8 Foundation Treatment 339
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11.9 Prestressing 340

> 11.10 Modern Arch Dams

12 Buttress Dams
342
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12.1 Concrete Slab Deck 354 ,!
12.2 Massive. Head Buttress
12.3 Multiple-arch Dam
355
355 !
12.4 Buttresses
12.5 Uplift and Sliding
.. 369
372 I
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12.6 Spill-over Buttress Dams 372
12.7 Prestressing 374 ,~:
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~3 Embankment Dams
13.1 Evolution 377 ~
13.2 Types of Embankment Dam 379 n
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13.3 Design 381
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13.4 Homogeneous Embankments 393

13.5 Tailings Dams 396
§"
13.6 Earth-Rockfill Dams . 399
13.7 Decked Rockflll Dams 417 ~
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13.8 Foundation Treatment 440 ~
13.9 Settlement 447 Ii,.
14 Spillways i"f
14.1 The Handling of Flood Waters 457
14.2 Uncontrolled Spillways 468
14.3 Gated Spillways 484
14.4 Spillway Chutes 500
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14.5 Energy Dissipation 5.fJ8
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15 Flow Through and Over RockfIn r:
15.1 History
15.2 Experience
526
528
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I 15.3 Research and Development
15.4 Conclusions
539
545
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16 Construction~enerru
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1.·.1 ·16.1 Economical Construction 548 ,~
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16.2
16.3
Organization .
Decision Making
551
552 ,~
8
I 16.4
16.5
Safety
Specifications
552
554
554
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16.6 Inspection and Testing
16.7 Plant 555 ,~
16.8 Cost and its Control 556 ~
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17 Construction--Concrete Dams it
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17.1 Preparation of Foundations 581
,.,
IJ 17.2 Aggregate Production
17.3 Concrete Production and Handling
17.4 Concrete Placing, Consolidation and Curing
587
592
597
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17.6 Formwork
602
603 1
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17.7 Built-in Items • • . • 604

17.8 Cooling of Concrete . . 614

17.9 Economical Construction 615

~18 Construction-Embankment Dams f.'11

18.1 General • . . . • . 621 ~'. ~
18.2 Foundation Preparation 628

18.3 Materials . . . . . 637

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18.4 Quarry Development and Haul Roads 645
18.5 Material Compaction 646 lJ
18.6 Earth-Rockfill Dams 656
18.7 Decked Rockfill Dams
19 Models
660
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19.1 Topography 673 'I
19.2 Site Geology
19.3 Structural Models
674
683
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19.4 Hydraulic Models
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20 Safety and Surveillance
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20.1 Reasons for Surveillance and Legislation
20.2 Safety Legislation . . • . . .
.' 701
702 C':":II
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20.3 Inspection and Monitoring 705 :!

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20.4 Observations and Instrumentation 710
21 Repair, Strengthening and Raising
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21.1 Reasons for Modifications 725 ,J
21.2 Inadequacy of Spillway 731
21.3 Inadequacy of Structure 731 "1
21.4 Deterioration of Foundation 745 u
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21.5 Raising for Increased Benefits 748
22 The International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD)
22.1 The International Commission 763 ~]
22.2 National Committees 766
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Index 769 : .j
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 "Introduction
A large dam has been defined by the Inter­
national Commission on Large Dams as either:
A dam above fIfteen metres in height,
measured from the lowest portion of the
general foundation area to the crest, or
A dam between ten and fIfteen metres in
height provided it complies with at least one
of the following conditions:
(a) the length of crest of the dam to be
not less than 500 metres;
(b) the capacity of the reservoir formed
by the dam to be not less than one
million cubic metres;
(c) the maximum flood discharge dealt
with by the dam to be not less than
2000 cubic metres per secondj
; (d) the dam has specially difficult foun­
1
dation problems; or
(e) the dam is of unusual design.
Although this book has been prepared for
application to dams of heights 30 m to 100 m,
the text will generally be applicable to smaller
dams. On the other hand, any dam exceeding
e'l 100 m in height must be considered as unique.
"I Every aspect of its design and construction must
J
be treated as a problem specillcally related to
that particular site.
""I At this time in history, when advances in
technology are so rapid and when the flow of
technical papers is so great, the Engineer should
pause and carefully study some of the monumen­
I tal hydraulic works of the past. He may be sur­
prised how often our forebears adhered to prin­
ciples now credited to the twentieth century.
, I A prestige publication was prepared in 1970
by Norman Smith for the Spanish National Com­
I mittee on Large Dams to mark 'the crossing of
the barrier of its 500 completed dams'. Under the
title The Herilage of Spanish Dams, it presents the
<1 history of dam building on the Iberian Peninsula.
I
It was there that the Romans built some of their
rmest dams, at least two of which are still per­
forming their useful functions.
The same author covered the world scene with
A History of Dams 1971.' This provides an in­
triguing story from 'Sadd-el-Kafara' built south
from Cairo between 2950 and 2750 B.C. to dams
of the twentieth century.
Possibly the fIrst arch dams were those built
by the Romans in the fIrst century A.D. in
Northern Italy and Southern France. Ponte Alto
arch dam 1 was built some 5 metres high from
1611 to 1613. In 1752 it was raised to 17 m
curved to a radius of about 15 m, with a
thickness of 4 m. In 1824-5 it was raised to
25 m. In 1847-50 further additions were made to
bring it to a height of 33 m. The fInal stage of
3 m was added in 1887 and the dam still stands
at a height of 36 m. It appears reasonable to
assume that the original builders selected a good
foundation!
In the Australian continent dam building is
perforce of the modern era. As a developing
country considerable ingenuity was displayed to
conserve water at minimum cost. Australia is the
world's driest continent and it was very soon
after settlement that the incidence of droughts
threatened the very existence of the early settlers.
Naturally the ftrst dams were of earthflll, often
consolidated by the feet of sheep driven back and
forth across the dam. Possibly the dams that fIrst
provoked world interest were the thin arch dams
built in New South Wales at the end of the
nineteenth century. 2 Typical of these are Medlow
dam (Fig. 1) and Wollongong dam (Fig. 2). These
represented a boldness of approach that is still
evident in Australian dam building. Restrictions
on capital expenditure both then and now have
brought forth considerable originality, not un­
duly influenced by custom.
Although a history of dam building, in
Australia has not yet been written, an excellent
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bibliography has been prepared by the Institu­
tion of Engineers Australia. J
Turning to the mid-twentieth century, we find
many dams exceeding 250 m in height and a few
over 300 m. When dealing with such dams the
Engineer has three basic problems-the strength
, 1 and safety of the structure, the adequacy of the
foundations and the manY"and varied effects of
both the high pressure and the weight of the
stored water.
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Another factor of increasing importance is
that in the more developed ~countries many of the
best dam sites have now been utilized. It is
therefore incumbent upon the Engineer to deter­
mine the best and safest dams that' can be
i Failure
adapted to the remaining sites. Whereas the dam
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.[ is of prime importanc;e when the foundations are
good, it is often the strength and stability of the
II
foundation that are now ofmore concern. There
is thus a move from the rigid type of dam to
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those of more flexible design (whether they entail
loose blocks of concrete, rockftll dams with flex­
I ible decks or internal cores or buttress type dams)
! I all of which can accept some deformations
1 without failure.
1I The handling of materials is basic to dam
engineering. The high cost of labour in some
countries has led to the development of very
sophisticated equipment, and to justify such high
capital investment great emphasis has been
placed on the speed of construction. This, in
itself, has introduced problems: heat generation
in concrete, high pore pressures in earthfill and
continuing settlement in rockfill. All such factors
have a direct bearing on the premises of design.
In other countries many very large dams have
been built almost' entirely with hand labour, for
. I instance the Nagarjunsagar Dam (123 m), the
I Srisailam Dam (142 m) and the Tang-e-Soleyman
I
Dam. Such methods of construction though
generally selected to suit the economy of the
country have in fact avoided many of the adverse
effects of over-rapid construction.
The real safety of a dam depends upon the ac­
tual stresses and strains in the completed struc­
ture. Unless the designer's. mathematical models
take cognizance of the methods and sequences of
Fig. 1. Medlow Dam, Australia-1907
Fig. 2. Wollongong Dam, Australia-1902
construction he may find that the final stresses
bear little relationship to the values derived from
his sophisticated analyses; in some cases serious
damage has resulted from unforeseen construc­
tion practices.
In 1964 the International Commission on
Large Dams authorized a study which was com­
pleted by its Committee on Failures and Ac­
cidents to Large Dams and reported to the 11th
International Congress held in Madrid 1973.
This report is divided into the following sections:
Evolution of Design and Construction of
Dams
Major Dam Failures and a Major Reservoir
Reported Dam Inciden ts
Special Incidents . associated with Dam
Building
Conclusions and Recommendations.
This is good basic reading for the dam
Engineer since it covers the development of dam
design and construction and describes the
numerous ways in which dams may fail. It
emphasizes that many failures have resulted
from ignorance, poor workmanship and lack of
attention to details either in design, in construc­
tion or in maintenance. One's greatest worry is
that some item has been overlooked whether it be
in the assessment of the design flood, interpreta­
tion of foundation conditions or in the assumed
loadings that may be imposed upon the dam.
Correct determination of all the design criteria is
basic to sound engineering, especially for dams.
Since there are today in the world many dams
which were neither designed nor built tc modern
standards it is urgent that they be reviewed and
either approved, modified or condemned for
removal. Many States and countries have legisla­
tion relating to the safety of dams,' possibly the
most comprehensive in recent times being the
National Dam Safety Law passed on 8th August
1972 in the U.S.A. whereby the Corps' of
Engineers was made responsible for the continu­
ing safety of all large dams in the United States
of America.
Future provision should also be made for the
adequate surveillance of large dams. The extent
of monitorillg will depend upon the size and im­
portance'of the dam-the minimum should be
that which will convince the public that the dam
 iii." '**"p,,, , .m h 4

is safe. Beyond this it will be desirable for more
extensive observations to be made on large or
novel dams so that design and behaviour may be
more closely correlated and engineering techni­
. ques thereby improved.
The purpose of this book is to assist Engineers
to discern the problems associated with the
engineering of darns, whether these problems be
in the field of hydrology, geology, the premises of
design or methods of construction. The Author
acknowledges the assistance of dam building
Authorities and many famous Engineers
throughout the world. Withou t this cooperation
it would have been impossible to provide as many
examples of modern practice. It is hoped .that this
collection of experience will encourage Engineers
to bring both enthusiasm and ingenuity to the
exciting field of darn engineering.

References

1. Nonnan Smith, History of Dams, 1971, Peler
Davies, London.
2. L. A. B. Wade, 'Dam Construction in New South
Wales', Proc. I.C:E. Vol. CLXXVIII 1908-9 Part
IV.
3. I.E. Aust. 'Bibliography of Dams in Australia',
Journal I.E. A utI. Vol. 42 No. 10-11, Oct.-Nov.
1970, pp. N 97-N 108.
4. ASCE Symposium, 'Public Supervision of Dams',
Trans. ASCE VoL 98, 1933 p. 827.
5. F. M. Lea and M. G. Speedie, 'Earth Dams in Victoria-A
Historical Review', 4th Aust.-New Zealand Conference
on Soil Mechanics atid Foundation Eng., 1963.

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/1 CHAPTER 1
Engineering Responsibility
I 1.1 The Chief Engineer and the Team
The title of this book was chosen deliberately
to emphasize the complexities that face the
Engineer in dam building. These have mUltiplied
as the heights of darns have increased; they ro­
q~ire a multi-disciplinary approach and call for
I tee effort rather than decision-making by a
I
single Engineer, as in earlier times.
11ie-'Chief Engineer will, however, carry the
ultimate responsibility for his structure. He must
rely upon specialists in such fields as surveying,
hydrology, geology, geomechanics, and proper­
ties of materials, as well as in the mathematics of
design and in the safety, method, speed and
economy of construction.
To these engineering aspects must be added
the effects on the environment-on people as
well as on ecological balance. Botanists, bi­
ologists, conservationists, economists and others
have an important part to play. The Engineer
must recognize the professional competence of
such people, and amalgamate their factual sub­
missions with his own professional opinions so
that the project will be both viable and accept­
able.
1.2 Experience and the Computer
At this time in history we have a versatile tool
in the electronic computer. It permits a rapid
study of alternatives whether they be in matters
of pure design, in scheduling of construction, in
effects on the environment, or for financial
modelling of the project. The Engineer must be
able to interpret the output of the computer,
realizing that this can only be as reliable as the
input. Only with experience will he know what
'looks right'. I would quote Mr J. A. Banks:'
Guided as he would be by technical knowledge, the
Engineer must, in the end exercise his practical
..,e , , '" : .,
judgment. He must do so even if it meant departing
from what academic findings might indicate. He
should not hesitate to overrule academic
calculations, however positive they might seem to
be, if in his practical judgment there was any ele­
ment of doubt about the safety of the reservoir.
Harsh words maybe, but truly emphasizing the
ultimate responsibility of the Engineer. Who
could forget the experience of William
Mulholland of California in 1928 when the great
5t Francis dam failed with disastrous results and
fatalities to the conununities below the dam?
Mulholland stood up and declared, 'Don't blame
anyone but me. The responsibility is mine. I envy
only those who are dead'. This was the
pronouncement of a great man and an engineer
of highest integrity.2
1.3 Responsibility in New Concepts
The Royal Commission into the disaster of the
West Gate Bridge, Victoria, Australia, on 15th
October, 1970, included in its report the follow~
ing statement on the Engineer's responsibility
regarding new developments:
Engineers engaged on the design of major bridges
cannot stand still. It is part of their duty, not only
to their clients but to the community as a whole, to
advance, to develop new concepts of design, to
adopt new methods of calculation such as the com­
puter and to encourage the production and use of
improved materials such as high-tensile steels and
prestressed concrete. These advances have led to
ever-increasing spans of bridges, to lighter and
more economical structures and novel methods of
design to as.ist in combating the forces of Nature.
It is, however, necessary to emphasize that when
leading designers are working as pioneers, only JUSt
within the bounds of the Engineers' knowledge,
some slight misjudgment or failure to' appreciate
every aspect of a new problem miy ~rove dis­
r
1
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._.,.."
 2
astrous, and bring tragic and fatal results. Under
these conditions, it is more than ever essential to
employ really adequate margins of safety and to en­
sure that they are not eroded by various unexpected
and accidental factors including, of course, im­
ponderables and human fallibility.
Simply substitute the word 'dam' for 'bridge' and
we are again warned of the Engineer's special
responsibility in advancing the science and art of
dam engineering.
1.4 ResponSibility-Moral and Legal
The Engineer has responsibility both moral
and legal to the community. The first implies that
he must act with integrity, giving due consider­
ation not only to the particular purpose of his
..' project but also to the ultimate effects of his
project on his fellow human beings. His first
responsibility is safety. In Chapter 3 examples
are given of some 'of the catastrophie. that have
followed the failure of dams. At the same time,
the Engineer is also responsible to the community
for the cost of the structure. There is always a
limit to the fmance available, so the Engineer
must be fully conscious of any risk involved in
cutting costs. Dam building must therefore be
regarded a an Art: some risk will always be
present and the true assessment of that risk is the
measure of competence of the Engineer.
The Engineer also carries a serious legal
responsibility. I am obliged to the Hon. T. R. F.
Hughes, Q.c., M.P., for permission to quote at
length from his addr~ssJ given to the New South
Wales Council of Professions on 7th October,
1971. This may not be of world-wide application
but Mr Nathaniel Rothstein' provides support
with a quotation from the case Bayne v. Everham.
It will therefore serve to warn Engineers that
they are responsible at all times for both what
they do and what they say:
Everyone who undertakes to perform for reward
services requiring the exercise of skill and com­
petence implicitly promises that he is possessed of
those qualities to a reasonable degree and that he
will bring them to bear in the performance of his .
contract. Tbe law does not require that sucb a
person sbould possess and exercise the highest stan­
dard of expertise or else be found Hable for damages
for breach of contract if something goes wrong.
Generally speaking,' tbe relevant standard is tbe
ordinary skill of the average practitioner of tbe
particular profession.
If, as professional men, we are to keep out of
various forms of trouble, eacb of us will always do'
well to have a brutally frank appreciation ofour in­
dividual ceiling of competence and experience. The
tendency towards specialization in professionalHfe
is 'an inevitable product of the development and
refinement of knowledge. In his own interests tbe
professional man should refrain from doing work
that is above his. ceiling. I sometimes wonder
whetber people are sufficiently frank in their
assessment of their capabilities.
If a person holds himself out as possessing par­
tieular specialist qualifications in a field of
professional work, he promises tbat be bas and will
exercise~' the skill that he claims to bave. The
measure of bis contractual liability to his client is
that he must exercise tbe skill to be expected of an
average practitioner of that particular specialty.
The duty to possess and use reasonable skill in the
performance of any. contract for professional ser­
vices applies generally, but the degree of skill will
vary from case to case, depending upon .11 the cir­
cumstances. Any representation that may be made
by the practitioner concerning his qualifications
.will be an important circumstance.
Attempts are sometimes made to exclude liability
for negligence in the performance of a contract.
While tbere is no reason in law why a professional
adviser may not contract out of liability for n
. 1
negligence there are, obviously enough, sound prac­
~. j
tical reasons why he may not wish to do so. At all
events, any attempt at contracting out is always
critically scrutinized by any court that maybe
called upon to pass judgment upon its efficacy. Ade­
quate words must be used, and in tbis connection
the standard of adequacy is strict
The common law was never in doubt as to the
contractual liability of a professional man wbo gave
negligent advice for reward.
Every person wbo practises a learned profession
owes a duty quite irrespective of any contract and
quite irrespective of the receipt of any fee to possess
and to exercise reasonable skill and care in the per­
formance of his professional work. Care must be .
exercised as much in the performance of a gratu­
itous undertaking as in the performance of one for
reward
Tbe common law has developed a principle, now
well entrenched, concerning the existence of a duty
of care in relation to physical acts or omissions. Tbe
duty depends upon tbe relationsbip that eXists
between one person and another. The relevant
relationship may be described as being one of
proximity: any person owes to another whom he
sees, or ought reasonably to foresee, as likely to be
directly affected by his act or omission, • duty to
exercise reasonable care to prevent physieal harm
from accruing to that otber as.a result of any such
act or omission.
fJ
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1.5 Lex Romana and Insurance
This old' la,w stated that anyone who in- '.
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I
troduced into his land anything likely to be mis·
chievou5 if it escaped did so at his own peril and
was primarily responsible for all damage caused
I
as a consequence of its escape. To this, modern
legislation added, 'Such an owner can only ex·
cuse himself by proving that the escape was
caused by a third party or the consequence of
i I supreme power'.
I i This' old law has found application in the
failure of dams, and it has been used for the
Engineer to be named as the third and co-­
defendant in such cases. Thus, under common
law, the consequences of a. dam failure may lie
I with the owner and perhaps the Engineer, that
I is,. those who suffered fmancialloss must look to
him or them for compensation. It is obvious,
I however, that except possibly in the case of
nationalized Authorities supported by the
resources of the State, compensation might well
be so vast as to be beyond the ability of the owner
and/or Engineer to pay.
This then raises the question of the need for
some form of compulsory insurance to protect
the public. The need for such protection has been
I recognized by the British Parliament in the case
of hazard created by nuclear reactors. Under an
II Act of 1959 the owner of a reactor was required
to cover himself by insurance up to a limit of five
million' pounds. Beyond that figure Parliament
would provide compensation.
Since there are in existence some 10 000 large
dams with 1000 under construction it has been
suggested that the establishment of an Inter­
national Insurance Fund might well be justified. >
. I
This was attempted some years ago but lapsed
through lack of support and possibly the dif·
I ficulties'of implementation. However, the Inter­
national Commission on Large Dams, following
the Congress in Montreal, 1970, set up an ad hoc
committee under chairman Edward Gruner of
Switzerland to report on the insurance of dams.
I 1.6 The Contract
The Engineer must exercise great care in the
[1 handling of contracts. In recent years we have
seen :.'the unfortunate' swing from. simple
arrangements where a man's word was his bond
to the intricacies and implications of legally
worded contracts, often in words and phrases
scarcely understandable to the layman. Court
cases involving millions of dollars and lasting
l
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3
years before settlement are no credit to man's in·
telligence or integrity. A plea is therefore made
for greater simplicity in Contracts. When dis­
agreements do occur there should be provision
for arbitration by an independent Engineer or
Tribunal before it becomes necessary to resort to
costly and attenuated litigation in the Courts.
The following notes" are included solely for
the general information of tlie Engineer inex·
perienced in Contract Law. They are by no
means complete, but will serve to indicate the
responsibility of the Engineer in the matter of
Contracts:
A contracti. a legaUy enforceable agreement or a
set of promises the law will enforee. The law of con·
tract is that branch ofthe law which detennines the
circumstances under which a promise is legally
binding on the person making it. Such a promise is
a declaration of assurance made to another person,
stating that a certain state of affairs exist, or that
the maker will do, or refrain from doing, some
specific act, and conrerring on the other the right
to require fulfilment of that declaration or assur·
ance. The promise must be more than a mere stat...
ment ofintention for it carries with it a willingness
on the part of the person making the promise to be
bound to the person to whom it is given.
A contract comprises a promise or a set of
promises for the breach ofwhich the law provides a
remedy or the performance of which the law
recognizes as imposing a duty. A contract is.. an
agreement giving rise to legally enforceable
obligations. Contractual obligations are dis­
tinguished from other legal obligations in that ihey
are based on the agreement of the contracting paI"
ties.
It is necessary that the mutual assent be in the
nature of a bargain-an agreement whereby
something is given by one person in exchange for
something given by the other person. There must
be a price to be paid altbougb the price need not be
in money. A gratuitous promise will not be en­
forced, nor will bargains tbat are not intended by
the parties to be legally enforceable. e.g. promises
binding in honour only. The law of contracts
presumes that parties do not intend their domestic
and social promises to be enforced by the rigour of
the law.
A contract depends partly upon the actual agree-­
ment of the parties, partly upon the rules of law
which determine whether the parties have reached
agreement and partly upon obligations imposed on
the parties by law. The sanctity of contractual
obligations is an expression of the principle that
once a contract has been freely and voluntarily
entered into, it should be held sacred and enforced
by the Court if broken. The reason why contracts
were held sacred was that the parties bad entered
.-,:
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4 "1'
into them of their own volition and settled the
terms by mutual agreement.
Standard form contracts are becoming one of the
major features of the modern law of contract. In
most of these cases there is agreement only in a very
narrow sense. The terms are imposed by one party
and the other mUst either accept them or go
without. From the very nature of the case, such
terms are likely to be more favourable to the
supplier than to the receiver. The organization has
every advantage over the individual. It usually has
the advantage of large resources, ready legal advice
and draftsmanship, of being able to litigate, if
necessary, without the same worries of legal costs
and knowing that the individual, squirm though he
may, cannot really do without the services.
On the other hand standard forms do save time,
trouble and expense in bargaining over terms. They
have the advantage that a dispute arising over one
matter, particularly if there is a legal decision, will
often provide a guide Obviating disputes in other
similar situations. It is, however, important in
drafting such documents to ensure that these con­
tracts are not drafted with the interests of only one
party. in mind, and similarly when examining such
a document prepared by the other party to ensure
that not only his interests are protected since it
must always be remembered that the classical prin­
ciples created under the influence of the concept of
freedom of contract compel the Courts to treat
these contracts with the same sanctity as would be
due to them if the whole contract had in truth been
fully negotiated between the parties,
The parties to a contract may, as part of the
agreement between them, fIX the amount which is to
be paid by way of damages in the event of breach.
In some cases this amount will apply to all
breaches, in others only to particular breaches. In
some cases it will apply to breach by either party, in
others only to breach by one particular party.
Whether the agreed sum is recoverable from the
party in breach depends upon whether it con­
stitutes liquidated damages, when it is recoverable,
or a penalty, when it is not.
The law has been restated for today in a number
of authoritative decisions of the House of Lords and
Judicial Committee between 1905 and 1915
culminating in Dunlop Pneumaric Tyre Co. v. New
Garage and Motor Co. (1915) A.C. 79. Lord
Dunedin in that case reframed in a series of rules .
the principles for ascertaining whether a stipulated
sum is liquidated damages or penalty. Upon these
cases and upon these rules the modern law rests.
Where the parties to a contract, as part of the
agreement between them, fix the amount which is
to be paid by way of damages in the event of a
breach, a sum stipulated in this way is classed as
Iiquated damages where it is in the nature of a
genuine pre-estimate of the damage which would
probably arise from breach of the contract. The in­
tention behind such a provision is generally to
"avoid, wherever the amount of the damage which
1t.
,; ji
would probably result from the breach is likely to
be uncertain, the difficulty of proving the extent of
the actual damage at the trial ,of the action for
breach. A stipulated sum will be classed as a penalty
where it is in the nature of a threat flXed in terrorem
of the other party.
The Courts implement the intention of the par­
ties in the case ofliquidated damages by holding the
plaintiff entitled to recover the stipulated sum on
breach, without requiring proof of the actual
damage and irrespective of the amount, if provable,
of the actual damage.
The Courts refuse to implement the intention of
the parties in the case of a penalty. The plaintiff is
held entitled to sue and recover for such loss as he
can prove in the ordinary way. "
The wording used by the parties is of marginal
importance. Though the parties to a contract who
U
use the words 'penalty' or 'liquidated damages'
may prima facie be supposed to mean what they say,
yet the expression used is not conclusive, The Court
must find out whether the payment stipulated is in
truth a penalty or liquidated damages.
A stipulated sum is a penalty if it is extravagant
and unconscionable in comparison with the greatest
loss that could conceivably be proved to have
followed from the breach. Otherwise it is liquidated •1
damages. This is the principal test for assessing the
nature of the sum, i.e. whether pre-estimate or sum
,J
fixed "n llltTorem. For, as Lord Dunedin said, 'It is
;1
no obstacle to the sum stipulated being a genuine :L
pre-estimate of damage, that the consequences of ,1'
the breach are such as to make precise estimation
almost an impossibility. On the contrary that is just
the situation when it is probable that pre-estimated
damage was the true bargain between the parties'.
Lord Deplock in a more recent judgement said:
Nevertheless the courts would be doing an ill turn
to those whom the rule about penalty clauses is
designed to protect if they were to apply it so as to
make it impracticable for parties to agree at the
time when they enter into a contract on a fair and
easily ascertainable sum to become payable by orte
party to another as compensation for the loss which
the latter will sustain as a consequence of its
breach. It is good business sense that parties to a
contract should know what wiII be the financial
consequences to them of a breach on their part, for
circumstances may arise when further performance
of the contract may involve them in a loss and the
mOre difficult it is to prove and assess the loss
which a party will suffer in the event of a breach,
the greater the advantage to both parties of fixing
by the terms of the contract itself an easily ascer­
'·1'
,
i....:!1
tainable sum to be paid in that event. Not only does
it enable the parties to know in advance what their , 1
position will be if a breach occurs and so avoid
litigation at all, but, if litigation cannot be avoided, U
it eliminates what may be the very heavy legal costs
of proving the loss actually sustained which would
;,
have to be paid by the unsuccessful party. il
"
Id1
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References

1. J. A. Banks, Discussion on 'Dam Disasters' (E.
Gruner, Paper 6648, Proc. I.C.E., 24, Jan. 1963)
Proc. I.C.E., 27, Feb. 1964, p. 345.
2. Adolph J. Ackerman, 'The Art of Creating a Dam',
World Dams Today, 1970,. Japan Dam Association,
Tokyo.
3. T. R. F. Hughes, 'Legal Responsibility for
Professional Negligence', Journal I.E. AuSl., 44,
No.9, Sept. 1972, pp. 8-10.
4. Jacob Feld, ConSlructio. Failure, 1968, John Wiley,
New York.
5. E. M. de Saventham and C. A. Muller,
'Comprehensive Insurance of Dams, Its Scope and
Feasibility', 10th ICOLD Congress, Montreal,
1970, Q38, R2!.
6. J. l. Phelps, Address given to the Tasmania
Division, The Institution of Engineers, Aust., 4
Oct. 1971.

1
I
Bibliography

Ma" W. Abrahamson, Engineering Law and I.C.E.
COlllracts, 3rd edn., Applied Science Publishers,
London..
E. H. E. Barber, 'Engineers and the Law',journal I.E.
Aust., May-June 1976, pp. 23-26.
R. E. Coxon, 'Dams and Third Parries', Water Power and
Dam Construction, June 1977. p. 33.
J. P. Garmond, 'Insuring Dam Risks',loc. cit., p.60.

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 CHAPTER 2
Planning
The engineering of a large dam goes far beyond
the mathematics of design and difficulties of con­
struction. Even though a reservoir may be
created to. ~erve a single purpose, there will be
some effects on the environment. Control of a
river will affect the lives of people-especially
those living in the valley above and below the
dam-in general, a few must be inconvenienced
to benefit many. Fauna and flora may be
destroyed; the weather patterns could be altered;
natural stock boundaries may be lost by drying
up a river and the landscape will be changed. In
these days, therefore, the planning of a project
becomes a multidisciplinary study which the
Engineer should be fitted to direct. T. W. Lambe,
in presenting the 7th Terzaghi Lecture' described
the Integrated Civil Engineering Project, evolved
during the last decade at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. Its objective is
'to create and utilize a constructed facility to meet
specified criteria of function, economy, life, safety
and comparability. All tbese criteria except com­
patability are well understood by tbe Civil Engineer.
Tbe term comparability means tbat tbe constructed
facility must barmonize witb and complement its
environment. It must not offend Nature and Life
near the facility; it must obtain public acceptability.'
In order to obtain a facility that meets the
specified criteria it is essential to integrate the
components of the project-.-the need; the plan­
ning, the effects, finance, investigation, design,
construction, operation, surveillance, main­
tenance and future alteration. This is a com­
prehensive list, but· programmes have been
developed that will provide for a wide variety of
input to the computer; the facility is therefore
available to change any or all items of the input
and obtain the various outputs for comparison.
As an example, normal practice may require a
certain factor of safety for a dam but it may be
prudent or mandatory to provide a greater factor
of safety if the dam is to be bnilt in a<"-.·densely
,,' ,'- -,
populated valley (Fig. 7.21). The computer makes '1
possible II rapid assessment of the effect of 1
change in factor of safety on cost and time to
construct. It cannot, however, make the vital
decision as to what additional cost may be
justified to ensure public acceptance of the pro­
ject.
2.1 Water Resources--National lind Inter­
national
Water is probably Man's most vital com­
modity; its optimum utilization will be of prime
importance in our expanding civilization. Plann­
ing in the widest sense is therefore most desirable
prior to the development of a particular site. For
preference the ultimate potential of the whole
river basin should be envisaged, its stage develop­
ment conceived and each unit undertaken to best
advantage. The greatest obstacle to this is usually
the unavailability of finance for the comprehen­
sive investigations.
The Hoover Dam, Fig. 10.02, stands as a
monument to dam engineering of the early 20th
century. It was built to control the flow of the
Colorado River, U.S.A., to generate electricity, flLj,
and to ensure a continuity of flow for irrigation
and other purposes. Besides fulfilling its primary
function the impoundment of flood waters has
already avoided damage estimated in hundreds of
millions of dollars. By retention of silt it has
improved the quality of water in the lower
Colorado. On the other hand, the development at
that time at 'that site necessitated the installation
of two mighty spillways each incorporating four
automatic drum gates. With subsequent
i]. .
developments upstream as well as environmental
restrictions on the method of operation of the
:c..I
I
reservoir it now appears uulikely that these gates
will ever be needed. Such occurrences are un­
avoidable when part only of a river system is
de,:eioped, i.e. when the economy of the country ,l
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requires that the 'best' damsites be exploited
. , first. It would, of course, be desirable from the
. ;
engineering viewpoint to start development high
up in a river and then progress downstream. This
would improve water quality and the gradually
increasing control of the river would facilitate
and lower the cost of the downstream stages.
However, in the headwaters, there is usually less

TASMANIA

SCALE
o 3D 60
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KILOMETRES

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I Fig. 2.01 Tasmania, Australia-River basin development

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potential (energy or storage), access and con­ development. For the satisfactory allocation of
struction costs are often higher and the benefit to costs it is desirable, if not essential, that a basic
COSt ratio is generally lower. However, planning programme for the full development of the river
of the whole river basin to the limits of the basin be evolved and accepted. 4•5 Development of
resources available will indicate the ultimate the Euphrates River in Turkey' commenced in
potential and permit orderly development. !:'or 1966 with the uppermost dam-Keban. Within
example, in Tasmania, the island State of Turkey the Euphrates River has a catchment of f]: ."r
Australia, four major river systems have their 128 428 k.m' and twenty-two plans were for­ ,:
.-,
'

sources in a central plateau some 1000-1300 m mulated for the multipurpose development of the "
above sea level, Fig. 2.01. The rainfall varies basin. One was selected in 1970; this provides for
from 1200 to 1500 mm per annum. Ten dams three new reservoirs with a total capacity of
and power stations have been built in the 25 840 million cubic metres and total surface
Derwent River catchment, seven in the Mersey­ area of 680 k.m'. About 27 000 people in 66
Forth catchment, three for the Gordon River villages will be displaced. Water will be diverted
development with sites for more, whilst four for irrigation of the Firat plains, an area which
dams are under COnstruction in the Pieman once produced food for ancient civilizations but
catchment. is now largely used for the raising of winter ..
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'

t.
Although primarily conceived for hydro­ grains in a two-year rotation and for grazing of
electric power generation, secondary benefits cattle and sheep. The area receives only 500 mm
have ensued for water supply, irrigation and of rain each year; most of this falls in winter and n
LJ I
flood mitigation. Since storages have never the land lies fallow in summer. It is estimated
been full when major floods have occurred, con­ that for ·power development alone the
siderable flood damage has been averted by benefit-cost ratio over 75 years will be 2 to 1 ex­
ponding part (up to 30 per cent) of the flood pressed in terms of present worth at 8 per cent ~- -
waters. This is a factor that should not be interest. The internal rate of return should be ,; :

overlooked when any project is being evaluated. 12.6 per cent. When the 700 000 hectares ofland
The overall benefits from planned development are fully developed the gross value of agricultural
are well illustrated by the work of the Tennessee production in a single year might well be more
u
Valley Authority, U.S.A. This area has been sur­ than half the total cost of constructing all the ,.
veyed and studied for 100 years but in 1933 the irrigation facilities. It is from such comprehen­ "J'
1.
·.Authority was established with a mandate that sive studies that the greatest benefit can ul­
can be summarized as the 'full development of timately be derived, and public acceptability en­
the Tennessee VaIley--engineering, agricultural sured. ;D

,.
and social'. At the end of 1971 cumulative flood
damage averted by the T.V.A. system exceeded 2.2 Reservoir Utilization
$392 million whilst land values had increased by
$150 million. The total cost to 1971 was $281 2.21 Single-purpose Resel"lJoin
million made up of $190 million capital cost and
$91 million operating costs. The area protected These are created mainly for industries such as
exceeds fifteen times the area inundated and mining where the life of the dam will depend
tourism has increased sevenfold in twenty years. upon the resources of the mine, for town water
On a larger scale the major rivers of the world supply or for beautification and recreation.
Typical of the last is Lake Burley Griffin, Fig.
1]

L.
often form international boundaries--or they
2.02, created within Canberra, the Capital city of
rise in one country and flow through several
countries. Outstanding present-day international Australia. The essential feature for such a lake is
agreements are those that concern the Mekong maintenance of a practically constant water level
River, the Danube, the Euphrates' and the regardless of flash or major floods--see Chapter
Columbia.3 To ensure the smooth functioning of
such agreements it is essential that attempts be Fig. 2.02 Scrivener Dam, Australia. Beautification
made to put a value on each of the benefits as and recreation for Australia's capital-Canberra
well as On the disadvantages of the ultimate .Fig. 2.03 Talbingo multipurpose project, Australia
,1
I .
10
14. It is, however, rare that single-purpose reser­
voirs remain as such.
Many darns have been built solely for water
supply, their catchments being protected to en­
sure high-quality water. Agricultural and even
urban encroachment into the catchment area
have gradually introduced pollution; treatment
of the water for human consumption has become
necessary and that being so, the lakes have then
been opened for recreational purposes.
It is also of interest to note that the operating
procedures for many reservoirs have been
modified by outside influences after completion
of the project; in one instance a reservoir is
drawn down regularly to permit the regrowth of
food for fish; the T.V.A. reservoirs are varied by
0.3 m on a weekly basis so that mosquito larvae
will be regularly stranded and killed, whilst
many reservoirs are maintained a little below full
supply level so that flood peaks can be decreased
and even delayed to permit warnings being given
to the residen ts of the valley below.
2.22 M ulzipurpose Reservoirs
For many years dam building Authorities have
been aware of the great benefits which result
from the development of water resources. 6 It has
not been easy, however, to gain public recogni­
tion of and a willingness to pay for such benefits.
With the advent of environmental impact studies
it becomes mandatory to list all benefits and dis­
advantages and to endeavour to put some value
on these. The most common usages of multi­
purpose reservoirs are for:
(i) Water supply, domestic and stock as well
as industrial.
(ii) Irrigation, for food production.
(iii) Silt retention, to improve water quality.
~(iv) Transportation, mainly for low-cost move­
ment of materials.
(v) Flood mitigation, to protect life and
property.
(vi) Electricity pollution-free source of
generation, energy for domestic c0m­
fort and industry.
(vii) Recreation and for a general improve­
beautification ment in the standard of
living.
For (i), (ii), (iv) and (vi) the aim is to keep the
reservoir fun
.; .. -.'.­
to ensure continuity of supply in
dry periods; for (v) the reservoir level should be
kept low in order to have storage available for
part or whole of the flood inflows, whilst for (vii)
the public desire a constant level in the reservoir.
Resolution of these conflicting requirements is
involved.
Talbingo Darn, Fig. 2.03, forms one unit of
the Snowy Mountains Hydro Electric Project,
Australia. The power station includes three nor­
mal turbo-generators and three units for pumped
pondage operation. The highly variable discharge
is regulated in a downstream pond whilst
seasonal regulation of the water for irrigation
purposes is obtained in the Blowering reservoir
further downstream. In view of the low
probability of these reservoirs being at full
supply level there is considerable potential for
flood mitigation. The reservoirs are also n
iJ
recreational and tourist centres of increasing im­
portance.
Although some benefits are intangible it is n
tJ
reasonable to put a value on them. Ifrecreation is
worth, say, one dollar per person per visit for the
general health of the nation it can amount to a
considerable annual amount. In U.S.A. the
Federal Government does in fact make grants to
dam owners for development of recreational
facilities. With computer facilities it is simple to
include a value for such benefits-even though
each may be small and variable. Tourism would
be in this category, though spill over a high arch P
,1
darn, Fig. 2.04, cali be a big anraelion.
2.3 Life of II Dam
If a darn is faithfully built it will have a very
~
long life--many dams are in existence that were
built 1000 years ago. Gravity and rockfill dams U
at least must qualify for long structural lives.
Thin arches, multiple arches, or buttress dams
may have more limited lives, especially if they re­
tain aggressive water. However, cores drilled
from the 50-year-old Miena multiple-arch dam
(Figs. 21.1 0 and 21.11) showed no corrosion of
reinforcement although the cover to the steel was
only about 30 rnm. q [I
One of the thinnest darns in the world would U~
be Faux-la-Montagne, France, Fig. 2.05. This
Fig. 2.04 Devils Gale Dam-Tourist altraction
11
Fig. 2.05 Faux-la-Montagne Dam, France .r 1,
• 1
L;.;
U!
 2.05

2.04
 me ,,"
2 &1111 eN
12
multiple-arch darn was built with pneumatically
applied mortar over dou ble reinforce­
ment-Chapter 12. It is only 140 mm thick
at its base and 80 mm thick at the crest. When
examined after 20 years service it was in ex­
cellent condition. *
The Sirinimu Dam, New Guinea, is of rockfIlI
with a steel plate on the upstream face. Very
little corrosion is occurring-but such dams are
usually built for a specific purpose and for a
limited life, i.e. for mining purposes or at sites
where they are likely to be submerged by a larger
dam at a future date. .
Although the structural life of the dam may be
great, its economic life may be considerably less,
i.e. for a mining project.
It is usual to finance the building of a dam on
the basis of repayment of its cost over 50 or 60
years. After this time the only cost will be for
maintenance--though something of continuing
value to the nation will remain. It is unreal to
overlook this permanent value, even in the
planning stage. On the other hand some dams
become obsolete for their intended purposes; by
virtue of their location they have little value for
the general public and their removal may be
necessary for reasons of safety.
The life of a reservoir may be prejudiced by
the amount of silt carried by the river. It is ex­
pected that Lake Mangla, Pakistan, will lose
1 233 million m' of its capacity every 20 years
and, to counteract this, provision has been made
to raise the dam at a future date.
Lake Nasser, behind the High Aswan Dam,
has a planned capacity of 164000 million cubic
metres of which 39000 miUion is for sediment
storage over 500 years. '
The Euphrates River at Keban, Turkey,
carries 21 million cubic metres of silt per
year-Qr 1050 parts per million of average dis­
charge--a removal of 325 m' per km' of
catchment. At Hirfanli Dam in Turkey the an­
nual silt load is 36 million m' per year.
The Mahaweli Ganga is the largest river in
Ceylon, having a catchment area of 10 420 km'.
Its length is 328 km, the lower half being across
the plains. Annual rainfall varies from 5080 mm
in the mountains to 1650 mm near its mouth. It
discharges 74 000 million m' of water per year.
* Private communication from Electricite de
France.
", M WEd
rr
For purposes of design the total annual sediment
load (suspended and bed load in nearly equal
proportions) has been estimated as 295 000 m3
but has been increased by 50 per cent to give a
yield of 350 m 3 per km' at Polyolla barrage
n
l:!
(catchment area 1300 km'). Cotton· comments
that 'the Yellow River in China carries as much
as 40 per cent solids'; this high silt load is due to
vegetation due to overgrazing--especially by
o
goats that do much more damage than sheep.
Rates of sediment movement in Australian
rivers are generally low compared with those in
other countries,· being about 25 m' per km' per
n
year for the east coast rivers compared with a
world average of about 150 and high values ir.
Asia up to 450 m' per km' per year.
An estimated life has been given for reservoirs f1d
of the Snowy Mountains Projecf as in Table 1.
~l
Table 1 [j
Reservoir
Estimated life due to
siltation (years) rtJ1
Eucumbene 10000
Tantangara 10000
Tumut Pond 4000
Tooma 4000
The Ord River in Western Australia drains an
area of 3700 kro' which has in the past been
seriously overgrazed. From sampling done prior
to construction of the Ord River Dam the annual
sediment load would approach 600 m' per km'
per year but it is planned to decrease this by con­
trol of the catchment.
Although pessimists foresaw the silting up of
the Norris Dam, U.S.A., in 50 years,IO the deposi­
tion is averaging about 230 m 3 per km' of catch­
ment (120 to 360 from various parts of the
catchment). The life of the reservoir should
therefore be about 4000 years.
At Hoover Dam, U.S.A., about 4000 million
tonnes of silt has been deposited in Lake Mead in
24 years-but the amount has decreased as other
dams have' been built upstream.
A study in Japan has shownl! that at around
60 years, which is considered to be the life of a
dam in evaluation of worth, only about one-fifth
u
of 1 per cent of reservoirs show sedimentation n. 1
reaching 40 per cent of their capacity. (Note that ~l
J
U
 n

13

ent as a generalization these figures refer to small a monetary value on them. However, there were'
ua! reservoirs.) many individuals and authorities who were con­
m' In the planning stage the life of a dam is cerned with the wider picture; one outstanding
'e a __ usually considered to be the term for repayment example being the launching in 1933 by the U.S.
'ago of its cost. On the other hand a life of 100 years Government of a unique demonstration
~ntb J may be given to a dam when assessing the unit
uch cost of electricity generated at the site. The To build a better way of life for the people of the·
Tennessee Valley. This revolved around a carefully
e
b,
t'/ phy~ical life of a dam can always be extended­
Chapter 21-usually with II heightening of the
coordinated plan which regarded all resources, not
as competitive entities, but as totally integrated
!p. structure to provide greater benefit. There can parts of a grand unisphere we call environmetj,,I'
li~1 therefore be no definition of the life of a dam.
e 1_ The fact to be remembered in planning is that Unfortunately more than three decades were to
per ,the Nation will continue to benefit long after the pass before the wider implications of such a pro­
:h "~I dam is paid for. The Engineer should therefore ject were to become of live concern to the
s i: ensure the highest practicable quality in his laymen. Around 1960 a realization dawned that
structure. there was more to life than a monetary benefit­
oirl to<ost ratios. In fact the 1970s might well be
:1 2.4 Environmental Implications remembered in history as the decade when Man
rebelled against pollution and desecration of the
Engineers in all ages have endeavoured to environment. The words of Lt. Gen. Clarke of
I build dams of aesthetic as well as utilitarian the u.s. Corps of Engineers" seem appropriate:
value. Arising no doubt from pride in his struc­
: to 'What is happening today is nOt simply the injection
ture the Engineer has spent money on its
architectural treatment and in most instances in of a new factor, tbe environment, into planning. Its
not even the emergence of new sources of opposi­
re-establishment of the area after construction. tion to or of new criteria for evaluating develop­
In general, dams are not in aesthetic conflict with ment project proposals. It is ratber the evolution of
th'eir surroundings--concrete structures har­ a new way of looking at resources and their
monize with rocky mountain gorges (Fig. 14.75), management, new concepts of planning. Nobody,
earthfill dams with wide valleys of the plains. not even those most energetic in bringing it about,
can define this new concept with any precision. It is
The 228 m high Oroville Dam, U.SA., is hardly something we must all work out together.'
discernible in the countryside (Fig. 14.72). The
:en Khancoban embankment, Australia, was curved That there has been a world-wide reaction was
iOI ' on plan so that the grass<overed downstream borne out by the subject being selected as Ques­
ua~-l face would blend in with the gentle hills of the tion 40 for the 11th ICOLD Congress, Madrid,
m2 valley, Fig. 2.06. 1973. Fifty-nine Papers were submitted, which
In 1 Except for strictly single-purpose dams, it has
been general practice for the Engineer to con­
with
Volume
discussions and the General Report form
1 of the Proceedings.
of sider the side benefits likely to accrue from con­ The Engineer should, therefore, be introduced
si:1 struction of the dam. It is unfortunately true that to at least some of the matters that warrant
:h- ,; during the past half<entury the dominant con­ attention if his dam is to be acceptable to the
he cern in water resources development has been public.
.ld --I engineering feasibility-not only by Enginee,rs
but by the taxpayers who clamoured for quick
~n
2.41 Effects of Ihe Reservoir
and tangible returns; the rapid industrial expan­
sion and pressure from competitive business 2.411 Land. Creation of the reservoir will inun­
,: J
placed undue financial restraints on the Engineer. date land-frequently good land-and it may
As a result, great interest centred on economic cause people to be displaced. Both these factors
nd analyses, and benefit-to<ostratio became a catch­ lead to loss of productivity and personal
s cry. Techniques were developed and economic hardship.. Land adjoining the lake may be
'th evaluation was of dominant public concern, In­ affected by the permanent raising of the water
In tangibles-whether good or bad-were omitted table; whilst marginal land may also be affected
,at from the studies since no one was prepared to put during and following floods; if inadequately

Fig. 2.06 Khancoban Dam, Australia
j drained such land can quickly become sour and
infertile.
When relatively flat areas are inundated, the
operation of the reservoir will often expose un­
sightly mudflats. The Northumbrian River
Authority, U.K., in its proposed Kielder Reser­
voir scheme, has made provision for the COn­
struction of a 20 m high gravity dam near the
head of Kielder reservoir. The level in the upper
reservoir will be maintained reasonably constant,
but the water would be available therefrom in an
emergency. The Kielder reservoir will fluctuate
to meet demand, but with water against the
Bakethin dam and steeper sides of the valley, Fig.
2.07.
i Roman multiple-arch bridge, Fig. 2.08.
i Fig. 2.07 Kielder Reservoir proposal-Northum­
brian River Authority, U.K.
The inundation of slopes and the raising of the
water table through steep gorges of a new reser­
voir may cause instability of the hillsides. This
necessitates careful geological investigation­
Chapter 7--since landslides can be dangerous
and at least a disfigurement of the countryside.
, the beholder, and rarely will two people agree on
2.412 Dislodgment of People. In Eastern AnatoHa
the Keban dam on the Euphrates entailed the
!, dislodgment of 30 000 people" as well as reloca­
tion of 300 km of roads and 48 km of railway.
Expropriation in this case cost more than the
!, dam and power station but it is understood that
the whole process acted as a stimulant to the
economy of the region. On the other hand, in
Ghana . the Volta River project had been
developed primarily for electrical energy; it in­
volved 'the relodging of 80 000 people and
although this movement was started .two years
I before the first filling of the reservoir it was not
solved satisfactorily in the short term." This was
evident from the fact that 40 per cent of the
L " .t
15
farmers abandoned the new land allocated to
them by the Government.
2.413 Wildlife. The filling of a reservoir may
drown many animals. as they become stranded on
temporary islands; on the other hand it may
become a sanctuary for waterbirds. It is a healthy
sign, however, that people throughout the world
were sufficiently interested to finance the
massive 'Operation Noah', a gigantic effort that
rescued wildlife as the water rose to inundate
4400 km' of land above Kariba Dam, Rhodesia.
That some species of life will be destroyed is
almost inevitable but prior studies should resolve
whether such species are unique to the reservoir
area; only in rare cases would this be so..".
2.414 Archaeology. An obvious effect of a' new
reservoir would be the inundation of items of
archaeological value. World-wide reaction to
such losses emerged prior to the ftlling of Lake
Nasser (High Aswan Dam); an international fund
made possible the $50 million removal to higher
ground of the temple of Abu Simbel.
. The siting of Alcantara Dam, Spain, was
largely influenced by the desire to retain a
2.415 Anthropology. In many countries there is
also active opposition to the destruction of items
of anthropological interest, especially evidence of
past cultures, such as the rock paintings and
artifacts of the Australian aboriginals.
2.416 Beauty. Beauty is of course in the eye of
its assessment. Lake Pedder, Tasmania, Fig. 2.09,
was a shallow morainal lake surrounded; by
barren moorland and mountains, Fig. 2.10;,.
accessible only to hardy bushwalkers or light air­
craft but famous for its summer beach. I ts inun­
dation into a much larger lake, Fig. 2.11, raised
sharp protests. The new lake has covered :the
bleak moorland country but the beach has been
lost. Operation of the new lake is restricted
a
within a range of 1.5 m; it is accessible by good
highway and is rapidly developing as. a tourist .
area.
2.417 Silt. In Section 2.3 the effect of siltation
on the life of a reservoir was discussed. It is,

16
however, necessary to consider the effects in the
valley below the dam of detention of silt in the
reservoir. Normally the silt would enrich the
lowlands in times of flood. The complexity of this
problem is illustrated by reports on the effects of
the High Aswan Dam. These have revealed that
silt-laden water flows only during the flood
season and more than 88 per cent of the silt is
carried into the sea. Thus storage in the reservoir
would never deprive land owners of more than
12 per cent--especially as fine suspended matter
would still be carried over the spillway. It is es­
timated that loss to the farmers could be made
good with 13 000 tonnes of calcium nitrate fer­
tilize! each year. This can be manufactured with
power generated at the dam for $600 000 to
$800 000 per year which is only one-third of the
former costs of dredging and removing silt from
canals... There is also concern regarding possible
degradation of the river bed downstream from
the Aswan dam, effects on the Nile" delta and
the coastline and on the sardine industry by
decrease in nutrients.
2.418 River Regime. When a river is dammed
and the water is diverted to a power station or
another valley, there will result a length of dry
river bed below the dam. This is aesthetically dis­
pleasing. At the same time a river may constitute
a national frontier or a property boundary. It has
been relied upon as a barrier for animals. In some
locations it is convenient to build quite small
weirs in the river, Fig. 2.12. A small release from
the dam will keep the stream clean, improve
the appearance of·the river and retain the stock
barrier.
On the other hand the river may be in a tourist
centre where a release-:-say twice daily-will
provide a scheduled spectacle for tourists. This is
done at Tully Falls, Queensland, and in the
Aratiatia rapids, New Zealand, Fig. 2.13.
2.419 Fwod Warnings. Alteration of the natural
flow in the river can be serious to inhabitants as
well as to animals and fishlife. Irregular dis­
charges from a power station can introduce a
hazard to life and it is not unusual for a limit to
be placed upon the rate at which the river level
will be permitted to vary.. As discussed in Chapter
20, the possibility of collapse of the dam should
be considered and a study made of the effects in
77 7
the valley of such a disaster. The consequences of
failure of many dams have been studied both
mathematically and with models-for example at
Roselend Damn and El Atazar Dam.'"
2.42 Effects of Storage on Water Quality
When a river is dammed the water can be
affected in many ways." On the benefit side the
reservoir will reduce turbidity, reduce hardness
by algae assimilation of carbon dioxide and sub­
sequent precipitation of calcium carbonate,
reduce colour and RO.D. and average out con­
centrations of pollutants. However, there are
adverse affects such as less mixing and aeration,
increase of algae. problems and thermal
stratification.
2.421 Eutrophication. The Organisation for
Economic and Cultural Development (OECD)
had defined Eutrophication as the enrichment in
stagnant and partly stagnant water bodies of
materials which have plant nutrient properties.
The result is an excessive growth of planktic
algae and rooted aquatic vegetation with conse­
quent adverse effects on the quality of the water.
This can be a matter of considerable concern es­
pecially in lakes that receive domestic and in­
dustrial wastes that accelerate the process. Weed ~-.~
; l,
growth in reservoirs is a very definite adverse
:j
ecological effect of damming. The Committee for
Coordination of Investigations of the Lower
Mekong Basin has found that most methods of
weed control also lead to adverse side effects. 20
The use of fish is a possibility but it has not been
proven. Associated with eutrophication is the
generation of gases from the decay of vegetable
matter. These gases can permeate the rock and
Fig. 2.08 Alcantara Dam, Spain (Roman bridge
preserved)
Fig. 2.09 The original Lake Pedder
Fig. 2.10 Lake Pedder-Surrounded by moorlands
and mountains
Fig. 2.11 The new Lake Pedder-One metre below
full supply level
Fig. 2.12· . Weir for beautification and animal barrier
Fig. 2.13 Aratiatia Rapids, New Zealand-Water
release for tourism
:rl
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n

: j

, .~

I
•I
I

i
].

1
j
J

']

Ii]

'II

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2.11

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n

~.~

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,:]1

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o
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 21

I
c
find their way into tunnels and shafts and can be may be due to chemical action since in the cold
lethal in their effects. hypolimnion the percentage of dissolved oKygen
can drop to almost zero. Under this anaerobic I.
2.422 Thermal Stratification. 21 The fact that condition, iron and manganese are reduced and ,, 1'­ ­
water has its temperature of maximum density go into solution, sulphates are reduced and :
,I
'

above freezing point brings about, in lakes eK­ hydrogen sulphide is formed; excess carbon dioK­ :);
ceeding 30 m in depth, twice-yearly periods of ide occurs and the pH value is lowered, Water
uniform water temperature and corresponding drawn off through low level can therefore be
seasonal vertical circulation. As air temperature adversely affected especially as regards colour,
increases, heat enters the -water and is mixed odour and temperature." Unless multilevel 'out­ : ;
downward by wind actiori resulting in an upper lets are provided it may be necessary to introduce
·1 layer of water of relatively uniform temperature. methods of destratificationP This can be -done,
, ~

1
This is known as the 'epilimnion'. Beneath this is at a cost, with pumps and air lifts; it will lower
a layer in which the temperature decreases the temperature of the lake and decrease
rapidly--and density increases-with depth. evaporation; on the other hand, by circulation of
I This is the 'thermocline', through which the algae it can improve fish growth but impede the
temperature drop may be as much as 1.5°C per operation of water-treatment plants.
metre. Below this thermocline lies the 'hypolim­
nion'. Water temperatures_ in Lake Barrington, 2.423 Quality. The following criteria are im~~­
Tasmania, are shown in Fig. 2.14. From winter tant in assessi!1g the potability of water. In view
I of the wide variations in the chemical composi­
I Reservoir surface
tion of water in different parts of the world,
rigid standards of chemical quality cannot be
established. The limits designated 'acceptable'
10 apply to a water that would be generally accept
able by consumers; values greater than those
listed as 'allowable' would markedly impair the
20 potability of the water.
However, these limiting concentrations are in­
- : dicative only.

(i) I lQ·69
Max, acceptable Max. allowable
® 6-11 -69 :i Substance concentration concentration
40 @ 9·12·69 I
@ 29-1-10 Total solids
500mg/l
1500 mg/l ,
@.221.10 Colour
5 units'
50 units'
50 Turbidity
5 unitst
25 unitst
Taste
, Unobjectionable
Odour
Unobiectionable
Iron (Fe)
0.3mg/l 1.0mg/l

I,
60 Manganese (Mnl
0.1 mg/l
0.5 mg/l
Copper (Cu)
1.0mg/l
1.5 mg/l
10 20 Zinc (Zn)
5.0 mg/l
15 mg/l
Temperature toe} Calcium (Ca)
75 mg/l
200mg/l
J j
MagnesiUID(Mg)
50 mg/l
150 mg/l
, Fig. 2.14 Water temperature, Lake Banington,
Tasmania Sulphage (SO.)
200mg/1
400mg/l
II to summer the temperature in the epilimnion
Chloride (CI)

pH range
2oomg/l

7.0-8.5
600 mg/I
Less than 9.2 or
.I:
1
l:
:

greater than
varies from 6°C to 19°C; there is a rapid drop in
)j temperature through the thermocline in summer
6.5

whilst the temperature is almost constant in the • Platinum-cobalt scale

hypolimnion. Note a small increase in t Turbidity units.

III temperature near the bottom of the lake. This

Reference: World Health Organisation, lnrernall'onal Standards
for Drinkillg-warer1 p. 29.

,J
~'~~<:II' P"'-"'-"""-""!!,.II'!!','"""III_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..;._ _ _ _ _ _ _iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii__==="­
 !
m

22

2.424 Fish-Nitrogen Problem. At Dworshak 3 to'3,7m

Darn, U.S.A., it has been found that spilling '" ,
;
.,
'I

highly aerated water produces some supersatura­ Ll

tion of Nitrogen in the river downstream. Some
measurements indicated 119 per cent super­
saturation, when the flow over the spillway was
1150 m'/s and 123 per cent when the flow was
,6300 m'/s. However, with 2800 m'/s through the Fig. 2.15 Fish pass--Overfall type
power station plus the same flow over the
spillway the figure was about 110 per cent. This dividing walls between the pools, Fig. 2.16. The
latter type has proved most successful at
condition had also been noted on the Columbia
River, but the effects do not appear to be as bad Pools
as were first imagined." Such measurements do, 4.5 10 5.5 m long
however, confirm that the natural equilibrium is 2.4 to 3.0 m wide
fragile and must be carefully studied.
1,8 to 2.1 m deep ~l
.:.:.2 ;1

2.425 Water-borne Diseases. These are serious in

some countries, particularly in large rivers subject
to large seasonal floods. The mosquito problem in
the reservoirs of the Tennessee Valley was solved
by a regular weekly variation of reservoir levels
of 0.3 In. This is sufficient to disrupt the life
cycle of the mosquito, the larvae are stranded,
their food supply is disturbed and they are ex­
posed to predators,'2
2.43 Fish
The free migration of fish in rivers may be im­
portant commercially or 'for sport. In England
legislation for the protection of salmon and trout
has been in force for centuries. Section 9(1) of
the Hydro Electric Development (Scotland) Act,
1943 required that the North of Scotland Hydro
Electric Board 'shall have regard to the
desirability of avoiding, as far as possible, injury
to fisheries and to'the stock of fish in imy waters'.
This type of legislation is now common in many
countries and fishing authorities should be con­
sulted in the planning stage of a dam. If provi­
sion must be made for the passage of fish
upstream and downstream past the dam then
some form of ladder or lift will be required. If a
power station is incorporated in the dam then
screens will be necessary both at the intake and
the outlet from the turbine. 2s •26 One of the
earliest fish ladders was built at Hury on the
River Tees in 1883. It has no less than 80 pools
each with a rise of 37 cm.
There are two types of pool pass, the first with
notched weirs between the pools, Fig. 2.15, and
the second with submerged orifices in the
Fig. 2.16 Fish pass-Orifice type
Pitlochry Dam, Scotland, Fig. 2.17, the Clunie
Dam, Scotland, Fig. 2.18. The ladder at
Pitlochry was built in 1951, it is 311 m long and
n. ,
has thirty-four pools including three large
d
resting pools, Fig 2.19. The rise from pool to
pool is 45 em and the required flow is 1 m3/s.
Based on twenty-two years experience the
operator at Pitlochry has noted26
(i) Where there is a ladder or pass fish are
generally cleaner and freer of disease;
(li) On ladder-assisted rivers the numbers of
salmon have increased relative to counts on
natural rivers;
(iii) Salmon are found on tributaries above fish
ladders where no salmon fishing existed
before;
(iv) The death rate of salmon in natural rivers is
greater than on fish pass assisted rivers.
Electronic counters installed at Pitlochry have
recorded the. average number of salmon and
gri1se ascending the pass over seventeen years
was 4500, the highest recording of 7665 being in
1972. At Kilmarock Darn the average recorded
over five years was 8400.
Fig. 2.17 Orifice fish ladder, Pidochry Dam
Fig. 2.18 Clunie Dam, Scotland-Fish ladder in
foreground ,,
Fig. 2.19 Fish ladder, Pitlochry Dam j
1
u
i.l •
U
 2.17

2.18

2.19
 ··PC Xifi·· :nt

Construction of either the orifice or the over­ sorting and fmgerlings can be retained and
fall type of fish ladder is expensive since the protected until sufficiently grown.27
difference in elevation of adjacent pools is only The entry of fish into the draft tubes can be
30 to 45 em. This led to the development of the prevented with mechanical or electrical . 1 :

Borland fish pass, Fig. 2.20. By this means fish screens-but to date electrical screens have not .i

l
can be raised or lowered past a dam-with com­ proved successful to stop descending fish from
pletely automatic operation. At Orrin Dam, entering intakes to turbines. " ",'

: ~ j
Scotland, where there can be a variation in reser­
voir level of 21 m, four Borland passes have been
2.44 Forest Fires
installed. The pass that is in use when the water
in the reservoir is at its maximum level carries Once access to a reservoir is open to the public
fish up 41 m from river to reservoir. The flow there is a great increase in the risk of forest fires.
through each pass is about 140 I/s. Each fIre depletes the country's timber resources.

Max. water lever! tm

f o, 5 10
4.6106Jm molt for O.3em
Single sluice foMn. woief level 0 !

Seole melres
!

Lem
a,38m
1.2 m wide overfull
sfulee gote

Max. foilwoter level

Min.toilwoter level
m

Fig. 2.20 Borland fish pass

If the filling of a new reservoir will inundate
spawning grounds it may become necessary to
provide fish hatcheries or artificial spawning
channels. The latter was done at Aviemore Dam,
New Zealand, Fig. 2.21. This channel is 336 m
long and is supplied with 700 I/s of water from
the turbines or the cooling system. The water
velocity in the channel is 0,45 mls. The fish are
attracted into the tailrace area and climb the fish
ladders 0.3 m at each jump to reach the spawning
channel. Spawning of anadromous fish below
Shasta Dam has been enhanced by the creation
of a spawning bed in the Techama-Colusa irriga­
tion canal which is supplied by the Sacramento
However, a secondary effect of intense burning
on a catchment is evident from the hydrograph
of flood flow in the Y arrangobill y River,
Australia28 following severe forest fires in 1965,
Fig. 2.22. The very rapid run off will cause ero­
sion from the catchment; this will impede
regrowth so that further erosion will occur fl ..,
cuhninating in denudation of the catchment and U
complete change in the river regime.
On the other hand the creation of reservoirs
should minimize the spread offorest fires. Proper
management plans for new reservoirs must be
developed by the dam owners. .!
, j :

River. The facility provides for maximum

management of the hatching environment; the Fig. 2.21 Aviemore Dam, New Zealand--Fish
gravel bed can be flushed, fish can be trapped for spawning channel
,v

, j

_.... _....J
2.21


.9!''''1'
26
6r---~----------------,
5 carried out with proper specification for en­
2 Hot water effluents;
8th
9th 10th
October 1965
Fig. 2.22 Yarrangobilly River at Hospital
Flat. Typical flood hydrograph after March
1965 bushfl1'es-Catchment area: 228 sq. km
2.45 Induced Earthquakes
Increased seismic activity consequent to the fill­
ing of large reservoirs is discussed in Chapter 7,
but is mentioned here as a real factor to be con­
sidered in any Environmental Impact Study.
2.46 Climatological Change
Although not universally proven, there are
claims that the creation of large reservoirs will
affect the climate of the district. This could be
serious in proximity to centres of population, i.e.
if fogs were intensified over an airport. It is a
subject for study by meteorologists and in special
locations the possibility should not be overlooked.
2.47 Construction and the Environment
The whole process of building a dam must affect
the environment29-from the first access track
for investigation to the removal of the last equip­
ment from the site. Our objective is to minimize
the adverse effects by careful planning.
2.471 Access roads and tracks may be extensive,
Fig. 2.23. If not properly located and drained
'",U
"
they can lead to erosion and consequent turbidity
in the river. The excavation of trenches, pits and
adits, as well as surface sluicing, should only be
:."1!
vironmental protection. '!.
U
2.472 River pollution will occur due to
[}~.
Waste water from excavations;
The construction and removal of cofferdams;
Wash water from concrete and aggregate plants;
Oil leakage and waste disposal;
Sewage and stonnwater;
Soil erosion during reservoir clearing.
Of prime importance, therefore, is prevention
where possible and water treatment where
necessary. At Auburn Dam, U.S.A., the bid for
the diversion tunnel included half a million
dollars for turbidity control of water effluent,
and at least two more water treatment plants
would be added for the balance of the work. Side
effects must be controlled, i.e. excessive chemical
deflocculation to decrease turbidity can be lethal
to fish.
2.473 Erosion can be limited by prohibiting con­
struction activities outside prescribed limits, by
working along contours with proper drainage, by
r)
prohibiting heavy machinery where light : '.
machinery could do the work, by protecting and LJ
revegetating disrurbed areas and slopes as soon as
possible. Slopes steeper than 1 on 2 should
preferably be treated by hydro-mulching, care
being taken that the binder used is not toxic.
That erosion is a natural phenomenon should not
be overlooked; a comparison should be made
0.u,
between erosion likely to result from floods dur­ I
ing construction and that resulting from man's ~:-1 :
activities.
UI
2.474 Aesthetic appearance should be preserved
by a continuing programme of clean up and
protection of narural features. Storage and works
areas should be clearly delineated and
arrangements made for removal of spilled
materials.
2.475 Fire risks are always considerable around
Fig. 2.23 Auburn Damsite, U.S.A.-Access tracks
for investigations (By courtesy U.S. Bureau of
Redamation)
"~'I!
.J
\:

1.j

.J. ii PC
 ]E
I
•

28
a construction area. Provision should therefore
be made for adequate fire-fighting equipment
and the training of personnel. Public relations
programmes concerning the dangers of fire are
essential. .
2.476 Air pollution can be lessened by control of 91-190). In this Act Congress declared a national
engine emissions and the proper storage of
volatile substances. Open burning should be
minimized and electric air power used where
~} t
..,'I
2.48 Environmental Impact Studies
In many countries it has now become man­
datory for such studies to be prepared before
approval for a project will be given. On January
1, 1970, the President of U.S.A. signed the
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (PL
policy
,fl, .
u
'to encourage production and enjoin harmony

between Man and his environment; to promote ef­

practicable. forts which will prevent or eliminate damage to the

environment and the biosphere and stimulate the

2.477 Noise pollution can be both a nuisance health and welfare of Man; and to unleash the un­

and a health hazard. Action is necessary to derstanding of the ecology systems and natural

decrease noise at its source, to isolate the source, resources important to the Nation'.

to insulate and to protect the individuals. Max­ Implementation of such policies will necessitate a
imum noise exposure levels should be determined study of alternatives, both for engineering
for various areas and action taken with plant feasibility and cost as well as for impact on the
'c manufacturers to ensure that all equipment, in­ environment. Undoubtedly Man has awakened to
cluding construction vehicles, emits less than 88 the importance of his environment, but the pen­
dBAat 15 m distance. Since the noise level of dulum has swung so violently that most legisla­
crushing and screening plants usually exceeds tion has become both confusing and unduly
o
100 such plant should, if possible, be located restrictive.' An average multi-purpose project will
behind some natural noise screen. If near dor­ require at least two additional years for the ac­
mitory areas, where noise level should not exceed cumulation and assessment of environmental
45 dBA, the times of quarry blasting should be data-with the essential requirement that ade­
restricted. Visitor and recreation areas should be quate funds are available sufficiently far in ad­
located at least 200 ni from 80 km/h roads which vance of approval of the project. Whilst being
carry construction traffic. sympathetic to those who wish to maintain the
It is now known that noise-damage to hearing status quo it should not be overlooked that a
can be cumulative in its effect; attention should ·changed ecosystem may be just as satisfactory to
therefore be paid to symptoms that may appear Man.
amongst the workforce: 30
Abnormal behaviour;

2.49 Public Participation.

Digestive troubles;
The purposes of fostering public participation31

Imbalance in bodily organs;

are to

Heat imbalance;
Achieve a better plan;

Peripheral circulation.
Increase the probability of implementation;

·Increase the likelihood that potential bene­

2.478 Light spillage from construction areas ficiaries will in fact receive the proposed
should be minimized by correct design and loca­ benefits;
tion of light sources. Care should be taken on Ensure that what is done is in the best interests

such secondary effects as reflection from roofing, of the community.

;- -'1
silos and water surfaces. All welding operations Many Authorities have endeavoured to interest , \
should be shielded. the general public in developmental works. The ~J
U.S. Corps of Engineers mounted an intensive ; 1
2.479 Dust can be reduced by surfacing or grass­ ·programme under the title 'Fish Bowl Plan­
ing and the requirement that all bulk handling ning',32 The great difficulty encountered in such d
shall be by closed systems. Haul roads should be efforts is the general· apathy; a few people will
regnlarly cleared of debris and watered as re­ offer .constructive ideas, a militant few· will i 1
quired. usually be destructive in their criticism, bunhe J

,J

 29

majority are not prepared to give the time and ef­ as a joint venture that involved thirty-five dis­
fort necessary for a meaningful interest. The ciplines, namely:
Engineer, however, must not relax in his efforts Civil Engineering Hydrology
to interest the general public in his Sanitary Engineering Hydrography
proposals-for ultimately the public will pay for Hydraulic Engineering Meteorology
the project. Structural Engineering Soil

, 2.5 Multi-disciplinary Approach

As an introduction to this involved subject I
Construction Methods
Analysis
Electrical Engineering
lllumination Engineering
Agricultural
Economics
Biology
Forestry
',i would quote Prof. S. Taira and Prof. M. Kunugi,
I Air Pollution Engineering Range
! co-Chairmen of the Editorial Committee of the Acoustic Engineering Management
International Conference on Mechanical Demography Fish
Behaviour of Materials, Kyoto 1971: History Wildlife
J !
'As we work with each other across traditional field
lines, we become more aware of the overall im­
Landscape Architecture
Landscape Planning
Remote Sensor,
Interpreting
plications of what we are doing in our specialized Traffic Photogrammetry
fields. Each of us finds that tbe approacbes and Transportation Cartography,
specific" findings of our colleagues in other dis­ Ecology Systems .
ciplines can somehow be blended with our own to Geography Programming
add another dimension to tbe way in which vie in­ Environmental Engineering Mathematical "
terpret the data we collect. It is tbis interchange of
ideas and methods. which stimulates creativity in in­ Geomorphology Modelling I
dividual scientists and engineers in botb university Geology
and industrial settings. The report occupied six volumes and was sum­ I.
If the scientific approach to life is going to make
a contribution to the future of mankind we must marized by the Bureau for issue in December
share OUr ideas, try to understand each other across 1971.
disciplinary as well as lingual and cultural barriers As opposed to consideration by disciplines a
and forge together new hopes for the solutions to study was made of the environmental effects of
world-wide problems of humanity in our time'. the Teton Dam. This was analysed with respect
i to:
i
'j
We have undoubtedly reached an era when the
Engineer must cooperate with members of other Aesthetics and scenic beauty; j! :
)\ .
disciplines, if a project is to be completed for opti­ Harmony with Natural' surroundings;
mum benefits an!4 rtlinimum adverse effects. It is, Flora, fauna and fishlife;

howeve", believ'e~ that decisions can only be Geological and morphological features;

made by Il relal1w1y small multi-discipliilary team Watershed management;

made up' ofst;atesman-like individuals represent­ Erosion, sedimentation and channel regimen;

ing the l\1~r interests involved. Since such a Flood control;

group could only handle a limited number of Archaeological and historical considerations;

alternatives there must be a lower level of Socio-economic and cultural impact;

screening-and at this level there must also be Water quality

. and wastes disposal;
.

wisdom and impartiality. It is, of course, advan­ Human health;

tageous to interest the general public at this level
at a very early stage. Unfortunately, to exercise
impartiality in the face of biased pressure groups
can often be too great a responsibility for this
lower echelon.
, An example of what can be in.volved in an en­
vironmental study for a major project is seen in
,that authorized by the United States Bureau of
,Reclamation in February 19(1 relative ,to the
Auburn Dam. The work was d,One by three firms
Recreation and tourism.
The resulting - environmental 'improvement
features of the Teton Dam project added nearly
14 per cent to its cost.
Whichever approach is taken it is quite ap-'
parent that a thorough investigiltion of environ­
mental impact will
Involve many people, departments and dis­
ciplines;

..."...._.\!I£_...."'i,.,.'.'.&
'_ _ _ _ _ _ _ """=========__,

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _....................
~'··''N)'
 -rye­ -- 1M r 5n
flG
30
Cause delays, the effects of which will become
cumulative in many departments and hence to
many projects;
Cost· money, both for the investigation and for
the resulting modifications.
The Engineer must realise that, as initiator of
the project, he is responsible for its planning 'for
the benefit of mankind'.
2.6 Finance
The Engineer is not usually responsible for
procurement of finance for a project; he must,
however, provide data for economic evaluation.
Justification will vary with the job-a dam as
part of an hydroelectric project can be justified
on the relatively short-term financial return from
the sale of electricity; a dam built for an irriga­
tion development is often justified on a much
longer term, i.e. its value progressively increases
as the area under cultivation increases-though
overall benefits will depend upon markets and
lponetary values; on the other hand, a dam bnilt
for recreation or beautification is justified solely
on the taxpayers' willingness to pay.
The method of financing an approved project
will have a considerable effect on the final cost. 33
Some departments rely on annual grants; this
can be a very severe handicap; it can restrict in­
vestigation and design and influence both qUality
and cost of construction, i.e. a tendency can
develop to make do with old plant, despite higher
maintenance costs rather than outlay capital for
new plant. The cost of delays resulting from
breakdown of old plant can be considerable but it
is rarely evident from the costing system. Under
the contract system, the soundest tenders will be
received when the least number of items of un­
certainty remain with the Contractor, and the
financial gaps between hi·s incomings and out­
goings are kept to a minimum. 34 The sharing of
the cost of engineering uncertainties is men­
tioned in Section 2.7, but as regards finance the
following points should be considered:
(i) The job should be planned to avoid ex­
cessive peak demands for either labour or
equipment. Seasonal weather often controls
a programme, but the overall economy of
the job warrants a very detailed study of
the reality of the limitations; several dams
.J
have been built under movable shelters to
ensure continuity of work under adverse
c,
,,
.;. j
weather conditions, whilst quarries and
aggregate production have been installed
underground for the same reason;
(ii) Pre-tendering conferences with selected
tenderers can ensure that all tenders are
based on the same premises. In some cases
very useful suggestions are made that will
modify the specification;
(iii) The actual need for security deposit or per­
formance bond should be reviewed. If con­
sidered necessary it should be of minimum
rather than arbitrary proportion;
(iv) Joint insurances by owner and contractor
can result in considerable savings;
(v) Provision should be made in the specifica­
tion for variation in costs that are beyond
the contractor's control;
(vi) Interim financing-<!specially for es­ n
tablishment-will lower cost since the ;~
:'. J
Owner can usually borrow money under
more favourable terms; ,;. ,I
(vii) Retention money should be invested by the ,I
Owner for the benefit of the Contractor;
(viii) Retentions should be minimized and maybe < 1
applied only to the first half of the con­ ;..I'
tract;
(ix) Retentions should be released at substantial
completion of work to reduce such funds :]
progressively;
(x) Where possible a boous for early comple­
tion should be offered;
(xi) Prompt decisions should be given at all
levels, i.e. an instruction to remove a few
yards of suspect rock and replace it with
concrete will cost a definite amount
(usually in hundreds of dollars). Delay
whilst the matter is referred to higher
authority may cost thousands of dollars.
Delay on a large dam may cost the contrac­ , 1i
tor as much as $50 000 a day; .
(xii) Time between submission of claims and
J
payments should be minimized; this calls
for site agreement on quantities and close
liaison in the office;
(xiii) Acceptance of sub-contractor's work by the
. Owner and arrangements for full prompt
payment of sub-contractors will addhar­
mony to the job and ensure lower prices; f '
(xiv) Partial payment should be made on dis- LJ
:f
...
i.
]
_~rrr
L
_ __

puted claims, only witholding the value of
the disputed item.
2.7 Contract and Day Labour Construction
In the past the contract system has been
adopted so that the owner would know, at the
signing of the contract, that the job would be
done for a certain price and if not completed
within the specified time the contractor would be
liable to a penalty. Unfortunately the industrial
climate of 1975 nullifies both these. premises.
Day hibour construction (all work done by
employees of the owner) has been the practice in
many countries where the socio-economic
! benefits of maintaining a viable work force in
I I
continuous employment outweigh other factors.
I'
It is espec,ially advantageous where the owner un­
dertakes the investigation, design and construc­
I tion of the project; undoubtedly the Engineers
tenderer shall inform himself fully concerning
I i can feel a great personal involvel)1ent under this
conditions at the site ..• and accept all respon­
system. Given equal expertise, and often with
I I
greater knowledge of local conditions, the cost
I should be lower than by contract. However, a
IJ
Government department will usually have less
freedom of action than a contractor, both in
ability to offer incentives and to dismiss un­
satisfactory employees; each of these can
I seriously escalate costs.
I Day labour work permits changes in design
either for greater economy or as may be dictated
by changed conditions at the site. Although con­
J I struction should not be commenced before the
.,1 investigations have been completed, many in­
stances have occurred where the opening up of
'I the foundations has necessitated a change in the
type of dam. Such a change would complicate a
·i contract and probably lead to greater costs than
I
! the same change handied by a day lahour
organizati6n. On a smaller scale, temperature
effects can cause cracking in a concrete dam; a
simple solution may be to proceed in 'half lifts'
over a critical weather period. Such a change
would mean little to the day labour organization
but could easily lead to costly compromise with a
contractor. If day labour-with a uniform level
of employment--can be supplemented by con­
I
tracts to meet peak requirements, or to under­
.take specialist work, then the owner can develop
expertise adequate for the wise administration of
such contracts.
31
In earlier days, contracts were not large and
variations could be handled by the Engineer.
However, the present trend is towards very large
contracts, often handled as joint ventures by
several contracting firms. This has advantages
but it often removes decisions from the Engineer.
It necessitates 'watertight' specifications which,
with greater sophistication in. design and keener
economic conditions, have become voluminous
document$--Qften not clear to the respective
Construction Engineers and frequently the bases
for arguments by the legal profession. There is
therefore a great need for the rethinking of the
Contract system,particularly with regard to the
Owner-Engineer-Contractor relationship.'s.
The main purpose of the Specification is to
define clearly the work to be done by the
Contractor; it is axiomatic, therefore, that un­
knowns should be kept to a minimum. Many
specifications contain such clauses as 'the
sibility ...'. Relevant data collected by the
Owner-maybe over several years-will have
been included in the speclfication but without
interpretation. The tenderer is then expected to
interpret the data-and with one or two short
visits to the site accept all responsibility. The
amount that he allows as a contingency may lose
him the contract or make him bankrupt.
If the Owner expects to receive a sound tender,
he should share a conunon interpretation of the
data with all tenderers and be prepared to pay for
any mutually agreed change that may be .neces­
sary as work proceeds. This would apply to
foundations, borrow areas, and other uncertain
features such as the capacity of the river diver­
sion.
Provision might. well be made for 'value
engineering' ,'6--engineering wherein a contrac­
tor can suggest an alternative method of doing a
particular part of the work, the saving in cost
being shared by the Contractor and the Owner.
Value engineering has been defmed as a means of
securing better value at the same cost Or the. same
value at a lower cost and may well justify the
extra administrative costs .involved.
Particularly at difficult sites, there may be
advantages in dividing a project into separate
contracts for (i) river diversion, (ii) the stripping
of the dam foundation area, the borrow pits and
quarry areas and (iii) the actual Construction of
32
the dam-with the Owner undertaking the estab­
lishment of basic services such as· access roads,
initial accommodation, water and seWerage facili­
ties. Although such a procedure may prolong the
job, each contract would contain fewer unknowns
and should therefore be done at truer cost.
I am obliged to Professor J. M. Antill for the
following definitions of the forms of contracts:"
'Schedule of rates COnlracl! are those in which the
contractor offers to carry out various clearly
defined classes of work at stipulated unit rates. The
work to he done is scheduled as accurately as the
quantities can he estimated,· but the actual quan"
tities are measured in the completed work and paid
for at· the prices stated in the tender. These are
therefore tbe fairest type of contract for .both par­
ties.
Lump sum e<>nlraClS are those in which the contrac­
tor offers to do the whole of the work specified and
shown on the drawings for a total stipulated sum of
money. In these contracts it is essential that the
scope of the work he clearly defined and drawn,
although to cover any possibility of el<tension or
reduction of the work shQwn it is usual to include a
schedule of prices to .enable such additions and
'0
deductions he assessed. It should he clearly stated
as a lump sum contract, and if a schedule is re­
quired it is usually stated that this is for progress
payments and variations adjustment only, and that
the quantities are not part of the contract.
Cost plus a percontage contracl! are sometimes
adopted, but the system is .fundamentally bad for
there is no incentive to economize; the more the job
.costs the more the contractor receives. In this type
... of contract the contractor is paid the actual cost of
the work, whaiever it may be, plus an agreed
percentage thereof to COver his overheads and
profit. The ptactice arose because of rapidly chang­
ing conditions, labour and material shortages, and
other factors which made accurate estimating im­
possible, during the Second World War.
Cost plus fixed fee rontrael! overcome the objections
to the foregoing type by providing a fIXed sum to he
paid to the contractor in addition to the actual cost
of the work. Thus there is the inducement to speed
and economy, for every delay keeps the contractor
from another job,· ties up his plant, and increases
his overhead costs which he must meet from his fee.
This type of cOntract has the advantage on difficult
and hazardous jobs, where the risks are great, that
tenderers . n.eed not bid high to cover themselves
against P;!Issible loss. It also lends itself to the inclu­
sion of aiilOnus and penalty clause, whereby the fee
is increased or decreased in proportion· to the com­
pletion of the job at less or mOre than the agreed es­
timated cost; in this case it is then called a target es­
Iimale contract.
In any of the above contracts there can also be a
bonus and penalty clause with respect to comple­
tion time, whereby the contractor receives or pay. a
stipulated sum per day or per week for finishing
the work ahead of or later than the specified date.'
It is inevitable that disputes will occur; they
can, however, be minimized by
A closer relationship between Owner, Engineer
and Contractor;
Extreme care in the issue of instructions that in
any way modify the contract;
Provision in the specification for the Engineer to
determine variations at the time when theyoc­
cur;
Written agreement between parties at the tbne of
any variation if settlement is to be deferred.
Whenever possible provision should be made for
the appointment of an independent arbitrator to
determine disputes without legislation; he
would seek advice only on matters of law and
recommend court action only when necessary.
n!
Both parties shOuld accept that cooperation does r
not mean compromise but rather that there is
to be an equal sharing of responsibility with
competence, mutual confidence and equity,
2.S. Decision Making
Decisions relative to the purpose of the project
and the type of dam are basic for success. Care
must therefore be exercised that they cannot set
the stage for a train of circumstances that could
prove undesirable; any uncertainties that might
·.·
,
~. '.
later be unfavourable should be avoided. It is
only with proper application of initiative and
maturity that these decisions will remain good
decisions over a wide range of possible future cir­
cumstances. J8
The scheduling of a job should be undertaken
in the earliest stages of planning. This first
schedule should dc:fine dates when decisions will fl'
be required and by whom they are to be made. .: I
, Jl,
Adherence· to such a programme will establish
con.fidence and..an esprit de corps amongst per­
sonnel at all levels; this can be a major factor in
the success of the project. On the one hand there
will be specialists whose ambition for perfection
so often neglects the importance of tbne. On the u
'j'
• 1
LJ

nI
I
other hand the policy .makers cannot act until
they have data; if this is not available on time
their attention is diverted from the particular
job. It is therefore most desirable that a Project
Engineer be appointed at the earliest possible
date. His first responsibility will be adherence to
the timetable of decision making by all con­
cerned.
Completion of the Specification, invitation to
tender (preferably to pre-registered tenderers),
examination of tenders and the award of the con­
tract can each be a time-consuming operation.
Once a contractor becomes interested he ac­
cumulates charges which must ultimately be met
by his clients. Prompt decisions at this \tage can
create an atmosphere of confidence which' will
affect the performance of the contract.
References
1. T. W. Lambe, 'The Integrated Civil Engineering
Project', Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foun­
dations Division, Proc. A.S.C.E., 98, No. SM6,
June 1972.
2. K. Dolucca and W. Pircher, 'Development of the
Euphrates River Basin in Turkey', Waler Power,
February 1971, p. 47.
3. M. L Nelson and D. M. Rockwood, 'Flood
Regulation by Columbia Treaty Projects', Journal
of Hydraulics Division, Paper 7798, Pro<.
A.S.C.E., 97, No. HY.l, Jan. 1971, pp. 143-161.
4. J. W. S. James, 'Example of the Application of a
Computer to Water Resources Development',
Proc. I.C.E., Paper 7204, 43, June, 1969,
pp. 273-287 with discussion Nov. 1969.
5. W. K. Johnson, 'Use of System Analysis on Water
Resource Planning', Journal of Hydraulics
Division, Paper 9174, Proc. A.S. C.E., 98, No.
HY.9, Sept. 1972, pp. 1543-1556.
, 6. A.S.C.E. Symposium, Paper 2412, 'Multi Purpose
Reservoirs', Trans. A.S.C.E., 11S, 1950, pp.
780--908.
7. I. Z. Kinawy, et aI., 'Effect of Sedimentation in
High Aswan Dam Reservoir', 11lh ICOLD
Congress, Madrid, 1973, QAO, R.54, 1, p. 879.
I 8. W. C. Boughton, The Institution of Engineers,
Australia, Quumland DifJuion Bulletin, 14, No.6,
I!
. I
May 1973.
9. J, A. H. Brown; 'Some Environmental Con­
siderations in the Design and Construction of a
,Ii Large Hydro Electric Scheme', Ciflil Eitgng.
Tram. 1. E. AWl., C.E.16, No.2, 1974, pp.
130--137.
10. B. J. Witzig, 'Sedimentation in Reservoirs', Tram.
AS.C.E., 109, 1944, p. 1047.
, i
33
The Specification should require the tenderer
to submit a schedule of construction with his
tender so that it will become part of the contract.
The Specification should make clear the rights of
the Owner in the event offailure by the Contrac­
tor to adhere to the COntracted programme.
Vmations will occur due to unforeseen dif­
ficulties or circumstances; the programme should
therefore be updated regularly-but always
remaining part of the contract. The reasons for
each change should be carefully documented and
preferably agreed to by both panies at .thetime.
Prompt and firm decisions are the basis of a
successful project. Indecision and delays not only
cost money but also destroy confidence without
which no job can be brought to a satisfactory
conclusion.
II. K. Takase, 'Statistic Smdy of Failure, Damage
and Deterioration of Earth Dams in Japan', 'fIrh
ICOLD Congress,.xstonbul, 1967, Q.34, R.I, 111,
p. 14.
12.. R. A. Elliott, 'Consequences on ·the Environment
of the T.Y.A. Reservoir System', 11ih ICOLD
Congress, Madrid, 1973, QAO, R.15, 1, pp.
191-216.
13. F. J. Clarke, 'Interdisciplinary Planning to meet
Environmental Needs', Journal of Professional
Activities, Paper 9262, Proc. A.S.C.E., 98, No.
PP.4, Oct. 1972, pp. 497-503.
14. R. ReUehalls and D. Gill, 'Evaluating the Impact
of Large Dams on the Environment', 11lh
ICOLD Congress, Madrid, 1973, Q.40, R.48, 1,
pp. 773-782.
15. E. N. Kumi, 'Environmental Effects on the Yolta
River Project', 11th ICOLD Congress, ¥adrid,
1973, QAO, R.56, 1, pp. 907-922.
16. (a) I. Z. Kinawy, T. A. Wafo, A. H. Labib and W.
K. Sl;!enouda, 'Effect of Sedimentation in High
Aswan Dam Reservoir', 11lh ICOLD Congress,
Madrid, 1973, Q.40, R.54, 1, pp. 879~898; (b) Y.
M. Simaika, 'Degradation of the Nile due to the
Interception of Silt in the High Aswan Reservoir',
7th ICOLD Congress, Rome, 1961, Communica­
tion C7, IV, pp. 639':-656.
17. French National CoJnmittee on Large Dams,
'Measures Taken for Facilitating the Protection
of Population Downstream 'of Dams in
France-Regulations and .Calculations of
Submerged Zones', 11lh ICOLD Congr.ss,
Madrid, 1973, Q.40, R,42, 1, p. 661. .
18. L. Y. Gomez, 'Calculation of Flood Waves sup­
posing EI Atazar Dam were to Break', 11th

34
ICOLD Congress, Madrid, 1973, Communication
C5, IV, pp. 835-849.
19. W. C. Ackermann, G. F. White and E. B.
Worthington (Eds.), 'Man-made Lakes-their
Problems and Environmental Effects', Geophysical 29. 'Control of Pollution in Concrete Dam Construc­
Monograph Sems, 17, American Geophysical
Union, Washington, D.C.
20. D. J. Tumer, 'Dams and Ecology---(:an They be
Made Compatible?' A.S.C.E. Civil Engineering,
41, No.9, Sept. 1971, pp. 76-80.
21. W. C. Huber, 'Temperature Prediction in
Stratified Reservoirs" Journal of Hydraulics
Division, Paper 8839, Proc. A.S.C.E. 98, No. 31. G. E. Willeke, 'Citizen Participation-Here to
HY.l, April 1972, pp. 645-{i66, with discussion,
99, No. HY.3, March 1973.
22.. F. H. Posey, Jr., and J. W. de Witt, 'Effects of 32. H. 1.. Sargent, 'Fishbowl Planning Immerses
Reservoir Impoundment on Water Quality', Jour­
nal of· Power Division, Paper. 7041, Proc.
A.S.C.E., 96, No. PO.l. Jan. 1970, pp. 173-185.
23. J. E. Teerink and C. V. Martin, 'Artificial 33. E. J. Parker, 'The Planning of Project Finance,
Destratification in Reservoirs in the California
State Water Project', Trans. A. W. W.A., 61, No.9,
Sept. 1969, p. 436.
24. H. A. Smith Jr., 'A Detrimental Effect of Dams
on Environment-Nitrogen Supersaturation (?),
11lh ICOLD Congress, Madrid, 1973, Q.40, R.17,
1, pp. 237-253.
25. L. Aitken, 1.. H. Dickerson and W. J. M. Menzies,
'Fish Passes and Screens at Water Power Works', 36. N. L. Scott and C. T. McCreedy, 'At Hydro
Proc. I.C.E., 35, Sept. 1966, Paper No. 6928,
pp.29-57.
26. G. A. Bonnyman, 'Fishing Requirements' (Chapt. 37. J. M. Antill and P. W. S. Ryan, Civil Engineering
XXIVJ, Hydro Elecmc Engineering Praclke (2nd
Ednl, Volume 1, Guthrie Brown, B1ackie, Lon­
don, 1964.
27. E. L. Armstrong, 'Dam Construction and the
Environment', I11h ICOLD Congress, Madrid,
1973, Q.40, R.16, 1, pp. 236.
BibUography
11th lCOLD Congress, Madrid, 1973, 1, Q40, 'The
Consequences on the Environment. of Building
Dams'.
Commissioner, United States Bureau of Reclamation,
Final Environmental Statement, 1972-Puehlo Dam
and ReseTflOir, Dept. of Interior, Washington D.C.
Snowy Mountains Hydro Electric Authority, Calch­
ment Protectwn in the Snowy Mountains, April 1967.
R. 1.. Urie, 'Environmental Aspects of Dam Construc­
tion', ANCOLD Bulletin, No. 37, Feb. 1973.
R. W. Bond and E. G. Warrell, 'Catchment Protection
Works on the Snowy Mountains Authority', I.C.E.
Conference on Civil Engineering Problems OfJlJl'seas,
June 1966, pp. 119-137.
H. E. Dann 'Planning for Water and Power
Utilisation' Proc. Ecological Society of Auslralia, 5,
Jan. 1971, pp. 8!-85.
Shih-Tun Su and A. H. Barnes, 'Geometric and Fric­
tiona! Effects of Sudden Releases', Journal of
L s
1'fi7"
·ij: .
28. J. A. H. Brown, 'Hydrologic Effects on a BushflfC
on a Catchment in South Eastern New South
Wales', J. Hydral., Amsterdam, IS, June 1972, pp.
,
n"
77-96.
J
tion', being Session III of Engineering Founda­
tion Conference, 1972, on The Economical
CotlSlt'Ucllim of Concrete Dams, Special A.S.C.E.
Publication, 1972.
30. J. Ferjoo and F. Fz. Fole, 'The Noise in Construc­
tion of Dams', 11th ICOLD Congress, Madrid,
1973, QAO, R.51, I, pp. 831-849.
Stay', A.S.C.E. Civil Engineering, Jan. 1974, p.
78.
Pacific North West Citizens in Corps Projects',
A.S.C.E. Civil Engineering, 42, No.9, Sept. 1972,
pp. 54-57, with discussion Jan. 1973, p. 59.
Proc. I.C.E., 43 June 1969, Paper 7197, pp.
261-273•.
34. J. Fondahl, Cash Flow and Bid Prices, Western
Construction, U.S.A., May 1973, p. 44.
35. Engineering Foundati0n Conference, 1972, The
Economical Construction of Concrete Dams, special
A.S.C.E. Publication.
Plant-Value Engineering Saves $600000',
f]
t
A.S.C.E. Civil Engineering, March 1973, p. 73.
Construction (4th edn.), Angus and Robertson,
Sydney, 1974, pp. 6 15-{i 16.
38. S. O. Russell and W. D. 1.. Finn, 'Evaluating the
Impact of Large Dams on the Environment', 11th
ICOLD Congress, Madrid, 1973, Q.40, R.48, 1,
pp. 773-782.
Hydraulics Division, Paper 7650, Proc. A.S.C.E.,
96, No. HY.ll, Nov. 1970, pp. 2185-2200.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Hydrology Branch,
Sedimentation Section, Sediment in Large Reser­
"oirs, March 1962.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Hydrology Branch,
Sedimentation Section, The 1965 Sedimentation
Survey of Angostura ReseTflOir, South Dakota, Jan.
1967. .
B. M. Maclean, 'Model and Prototype Research on
Fish Ladders', Journal Power Division, Paper 2856,
Proc. A.S.C.E., 87, P02, July 1961, pp. 57-{)s.
E. M. Krokosky and C. L. Dym, 'Noise Con trol and
Civil Engineering', A.S.C.E. CMI Engineering,
. May, 1974, pp. 45-49.
fl
,
Ll
.
H. A. Smith, Jr., 'Spillway Redesign Abates Gas
Supersaturation in Columbia River, A.S.C.E. CMI
Engineering, Sept. 1974, pp. 70-73.
i]
,
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I;

CHAPTER 3

Accidents to Large Dams

3.1 Consequences of Failure However, lest we become over-confident in our
present abilities, this chapter will be devoted to
The. failure of a large dam is a national
some typical accidents to large darns. It is rarely
catastrophe! It happens with fearful rapidity, and
possible to pin-point the initial cause of failure
usually with litde warning. Unfortunately no one
but in each case there are lessons to be learnt.
has yet come up with a design for a dam that
The words of Edward Gruner! sum up our
·1 would show clear signs of impending failure. in
progress in dam engineering and serve as a warn­
the way that an elastic structure usually does.
ing:
When' the Oros Dam failed in Brazil in March,
1960, between 30 and 50 people were lost and 'The evolution of each type of dam was accom­
100 000 people were evacuated; some 730 panied by ehanges in its inherent factor ofsafety. In
million m 3 of water was released in 34 hours with the case of a novel design, the tria1-and-error aspect
a peak flow of 9600 m3/s. The flood front in the was inevitably present. With increasing knowledge
and experience it was possible to achieve economies
Jagnaribe River reached the Atlantic Ocean, 340 and this might in time tend either to routine design
kilometres away, in 4 days, the peak of the flood procedures or to undue boldness In design which
arriving 2t days later, and the tail not for 13 might ultimately end in disaster.'
days. It is not difficult to visualize the devasta­
tion along that 340 km.
That we learn from our failures is un­
doubtedly true in all phases of life-but it is a
method that we cannot afford to adopt in the 3.2 Statistics
building of darns. Many ancient dams failed It is interesting to study some of the reviews
through lack of knowledge on the part of their that have been .made of the causes of failure of
builders, but in recent times it has usually been large darns. In 19332 the main causes were listed
an omission that has led to failure. Our aim must as:
be to visualize all the factors that could affect the
dam and to assess their importance and Embankment dams
likelihood of occurrence at the particular site. 30o/'".--imidequate spillways
In the first half of this century lO%--inadequate cutoffs

Dams have been built bigger in height and ConcreUi gravily dams.
I volume, but observations on darns and models
have increased our understanding of the load­
319'o---inadequate cutoffs

129'o---faulty design

I carrying capacity of dams; 129'o---faulty construction.

The electronic computer has made possible most

II sophisticated methods of analysis and has thus
increased our knowledge of stress distribution;
In 1959 a list prepared in U .SA attributed two­
tltirds of all failures to geological causes.
In 1961 a review in Spain 3 considered 1620
I ConstrtJction teChniques and equipment have
been improved to keep abreast of the rigid
darns of which no less than 19 per cent had been
subject to 'serious incidents. Of'these:
specifications required for the sophisticated
designs; and 40% related to foundations,

Darn engineering in all its aspects has become 23% to inadequate spillways,

subject to better organization and control. 12% to poor construction.

35

I
 £ '.,",

36

In 1963 Sherard et al.4 gave analyses of 214
cases of unsatisfactory perfonnance, mainly in
U"S.A., with the following summary:
41% attributable to seepage,
28% to overtopping,
11% to slides of various kinds.
In 1967----on the other side of the Atlan­
tic--Gruner suggested5 that
1/3 of failures could be attributed to foundation
'Lessons from Dam Incidents'. This includes
historical sections dealing with the evolution in
design and construction of the various types of
dam, with major dam failures and reported dam
incidents. In toto 466 incidents were studied, of
which about 140 could be described as failures.
This report should be basic reading for all dam
engineers.
Table 3.01 quoted from the ICOLD Report
highlights the preponderance of incidents with

earthfill dams, and the high proportion of in­

defects,

cidents related to inadequate investigation and

1/3 to inadequate spillways, and

design.
1/3 to other causes.

In his continuing interest in this subject Gruner

presented his 'Classification of Risk" the

3.3 Security v. Failure
statistics of which might be summarized as:

The statistics of failures of dams are somewhat

45%-hydraulic conditions (floods, seepage, alarming, particularly the number of incidents
piping, uplift) that have occurred to dams built in couritries
30ru-type of structure and construction where expertise was available. It would appear
(hydraulic fill, seepage through poor con­ that a great proportion of failures have occurred
crete, inadequate design) where the dam height was 40 to 60 metres.
7%-geology Maybe these have been taken too lightly in an era
6%-environment (frost, ice, earthquake, when dams of 250 m height are being built.
decay, hostile action) As will be evident from the examples of failure
6ru-consequences (decay, abandonment, in­ in the following section, there have often been
duced earthquake). errors of omission that have had serious conse­
The above percentages are purposely tabulated in quences, i.e. insufficient study of possible floods,
U·
order to emphasize the need for care--par­ inadequate examination of foundations and inac­ ..1
d
ticularly in our investigation of hydrology and curate knowledge of the behaviour under load or
geology. Since 1965 the International Commis­ saturation of materials of the dam or its foun­
sion on Large Dams has made a continuing study dation.
of Failures and Accidents to Large Dams With a relatively small dam a higher percent­
culminating with a report prepared in 1973 on age of the cost is required for investigation and
this is often difficult to procure, particularly
Table 3.01 before a project has been approved. Once
approval has been given the pressure is usually
Number ofincidents on to get started with construction. However, in­
vestigational work should persist into the early
A B G E R M Total stages of construction for frequently it is only
when foundations have been opened that one can
Exploration 9 5 6 49 2 1 72 assess their true value. Although it will cost
Material 1 2 8 11
Layout 1 4 17 3 25 money, it is never too late to change.
Design 4 6 13 48 3 2 76 The cost of security can be estimated with
Construction 1 1 2 32 5 41 reasonable accuracy if proper investigations have
Operation 5 1 6 been done. The cost of failure is intmeasurable.
Supervision 1 1 3 5 Damage to property may be assessable, damage ,1
to the environment is less tangible but no less d
Total 16 14 27 162 14 3 236 real, but loss of life is a matter of personal suf­
A-Arch; B-Bultre$S; G-Gravity; E-Earthf1l1; R-RoduJll; fering. ~'l
M-Miscellaneou$. The Engineer must be continually aware of .J
jl
lJ
 37

possible consequences--water can lubricate clay
seams, it can adversely affect the physical proper­
ties of most rocks, it can act as a colossal
hydraulic ram, it can erode and corrode, it may
induce earthquakes. If a dam should fail, water
will devastate and destroy.
When so much attention is being given to en­
vironmental impact studies, it may be opportune
to consider the overall risk to the community of
any vast storage of water. Can any oc­
currence--earthquake, sabotage, or structural
degeneration-lead to a disaster? If frnance is not
available for guaranteed security, there may be a
case for rejection of the proposal.
Cost is of vital importance to the Engineer,
water rose to the designed maximum level and
the darn cracked horizontally, Fig. 3.01; a section
, 250 m long carried away to a depth 10 m below
the crest and 150 people were killed. Un­
doubtedly the cracks admitted water causing
uplift within the darn and ultimate failure.
In discussions at the time it was pointed out
that both Habra and Bouzey Dams were subject
to high temperature differentials that could cause
serious cracking. The concept of curving gravity
dams was silggested as a means of defeating this.
Significant factors were
DESIGN

but security must always be paramount. Innova­ UPLIFT

tion in design and construction is to be com­

mended ,but only after thorough examination of 3.402 Habra Dam' was built in .Algeria
1 the con~,equences of departing from established 1865-1870. The dam was 324 m long and 36 m
practice. high. An inadequate spillway caused flood waters
!

2 9.35 2 11,35 4.40

0 5 10m
I , . . . [ •• " I

1 & 3 Height of water at times of rupture

2 First rupture

4 Second rupture ,.:

5 Part destroyed
Fig. 3.01 Bouzey Dam (After M. Mary; reproduced by permission of
·'1 Dunod, Paris)

3.4 Examples to raise the reservoir level until water was 5 m

above the maximum design level. The additional
3.401 The Bouzey Dam in France was built in
water pressure is believed to have caused cracks
1878, its designers assumed stress limitations of
11 0.14 MPa tension and 1 MPa compression but
which athnitted water to the body of the dam.
Uplift pressures extended the cracks until shear
r neglected the 'middle third rule'. In 1884 with
water 2.7 m below maximum level the darn
stresses in the uncracked section were excessive.
J cracked; the reservoir was emptied and repairs INADEQUATE SPILLWAY
were carried out. The reservoir then filled and it UPLIFT
stood with only a few leaks until 1895 when SHEAR
1
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38
3.403 An outstanding example of failure due to
uplift is described by Mary.' The Gleno Darn in
Italy was originally conceived as a masonry struc­
ture and the base for a gravity dam was ,con­
structed. However, between 1920 and 1923 a
multiple-arch darn was built on the base--ap­
parently with no provision for the relief of uplift.
The distribution of uplift pressures as shown in
Fig. 3.02 would have been sufficient to move the
resultant outside the base of the structure and
even to make sliding imminent. The dam failed
on 1st December, 1923, due to uplift and high
shearing stresses at the base.
UPLIFT
SLIDING
SHEAR
E
o
.
o
N
1 Resultant without uplift
2 Distribution of uplift to overturn the. dam
3 Base upon which uplift assumed to act
4 Resultant with uplift
Fig. 3.02 Gleno Dam (Mter M. Mary; reproduced
by permission of Dunod, Paris)
;.
3.404 In 1850 the Woodhead Dam, U.K.,
collapsed; whilst there is no certainty as to the
cause of failure it seems most probable that the
water percolating through the grits under the
dam undermined it. The Holmfirth Dam built on
similar grit met a similar fate in 1852.
FOUNDATIONS
UNDERMINING
3.405 The Dale Dyke Dam, U.K.,8 was built in
1858 to supply water to Sheffield. It was 380 m
long and 29 m high; its thickness at the crest was
3.7 m; slopes of the faces were 1 on 2.5 and the
maximum base thickness was 150 m. The clay
puddle core was 1.5 m thick at the crest, 5 m
thick at the base and extended 18 m into the
foundation. The upstream and downstream parts
of the datil were shale and rubble excavated from
the bed of the reservoir. On 11th March, 1864,
the reservoir filled for the first and last time. A
crack appeared on the downstream face and the
dam collapsed. A flood of 1200 m'/s bore down
on Sheffield at 30 krn/h-250 people were killed
and 800 houses destroyed. The results of the en­
quiry were inconclusive, although it was
generally agreed that the structure was 'a very
poor piece of work, the core wall was too thin,
the embankment much too loosely built, wrong
materials were used and the spillway capacity
was inadequate'. It is interesting that the official
report recommended that 'all dams and reser­
voirs in Great Britain should-by Act of
Parliament-be subject to frequent, sufficient
and regular inspection'.
MATERIALS
COMPACTION
INADEQUATE SPILLWAY
3.406 The St. Francis Dam, U.S.A.,9 was built
in an arid area of Southern California in 1926; it
was a curved gravity dam 60 m high. Seepage
from the abutment was noticed during 1927 and
the dam failed without warning on 12th March,
1928. Five hundred lives were lost and the
damage to property was in excess of $10 million.
The concrete structure suddenly broke up; a
single piece remained standing whilst the rest
slumped to the valley floor and was swept
downstream. BlockS of concrete weighing
thousands of tons were carried more than a
!J ;
I
,'
.[J
,
i 39

I kilometre down the canyon. The reservoir of

46.9 million m' was practically full at the time.
The upper right abutment was underlain by a
conglomerate ,shale, rock of low strength even
when dry; samples tested at about 3.5 MPa un­
confmed compressive strength. There was a fault
zone of material crushed to gravelly clay-about
I 2 m wide-:-half-way up the abutment. Underly­
I ing the fault and extending beneath the river bed
and left bank was medium to low strength mica
schist. Two Commissions of Enquiry (State and
I
City) found that the structure had been well built
and that the prime cause of failure was the
progressive weakening of the fault zone and the
conglomerate, some samples of which were found
to disintegrate after soaking in water for 15 min.
It was found that this 'rock' was cemented partly
with gypsum and partly with clay minerals. The
gypsum was soluble and the clay minerals easily
softened. In the original arid conditions the con­
glomerate remained as 'rock'; under saturated
conditions it weathered rapidly and failed. There

I
I

o
!
jQ
!
2030m
1 !

",
! _1--!~1.50m

m
100

'1
f 95

90

,1 85

,,

! I eo

I 75

Fig. 3.03 Malpasset Dam

i ~.: I

, j
40

was also reference to the possibility of movement the rock caused by the fault, the rupture which
along the fault which may have contributed to occurred in the ground beneath the foundation was
failure, but this was not proven. caused by poor local mechanical strengtb of a gneiss
with disseminated sericite in a zone where the
FOUNDATIONS stresses to which the dam bas been subjected were
ROCK WEAKENING ON SATURATION especially high.'
GEOLOGY A team of engineers and geologists later offered
the explanation illustrated by Fig. 3.04:
3.407 Malpasset Dam 10 was a thin double cur­
vature arch structure in Southern France. It was
60 m high. The crest thickness was 1. 5 m and
base thickness 6.76 m. The concrete was of very
high quality; its compressive strength ranged
from 32 to 54 MPa and Modulus of Elasticity
from 21 to 29 x 103 MPa. The dam failed on 2nd
December, 1959, when the storage was within
28 em of being full for the first time, Fig. 3.03. N.,u,./
Four hundred lives were lost and the town of
Fre;us was wiped out.
The rock at the site was sericite schist with
unconfined strength ranging from 30 to
50 MPa. The rock was very seamy and jointed.
The seams were minor faults up to 300 mm
thick-with soil properties-probably of silty
clay sizes. They were not, however, found during
the investigation stages. The in situ modulus
was very low-1 MPa-but calculations in
retrospect showed that this high deformability
alone was probably insufficient to cause failure.
Calculations were made for Ee/Er of 0, 1, 5 and
10. The Report of the Commission of Enquiry Fig. 3.04 Failure of Malpasset Dam
concluded that
'the mOSt probable cause of the disaster should be 'On the left bank there was a continuous seam

attributed either to the presence of a slip plane or to parane! to the layering of the schist, and another

the higher upstream .fault described in the report. continuous seam breaking out to the surface

The already high deformability of the foundations downstream. These two seams intersected beneath

was locally increased by the presence of this slip the abutment to isolate a wedge of rock of

plane. The structure was unable to adapt itself to triangular cross-section sloping steeply towards the

this increased deformability.' river. Experimental work showed that, under load,

highly jointed rocks sucb as the schist show large

Jean Goguel, Chief Engineer for Mines, stated in decreases in permeability. According to Londe the

his report dam thrusts ranging up to 2.5 MPa were sufficient

to render the shaded portion in Fig. 3.04 relatively

'If today it is impossible to analyse cu:ar1y the impermeable. Hydrostatic forces could then build

system of faults which appear in the sides of the up slowly against tbis 'underground dam' and the

Reyran Valley, the same must certainly have been wedge of rock between the two seams reacted by

true before tbe construction of tbe dam. These creeping upwards and downstream. At a certain

faults were not discernible in the natural conditions stage cracking could have occurred due to extension

of the outcrops. Exploratory drillings would have at the upstream ,earn, and this crack would bave

been of no avail, as the resulting break in the cores provided a direct connection to the reservoir; the

would have been uninterpretable. Without extreme resultant of tbe dam thrust and tbe 'hydrostatic
i
care--which is not usually exercised when drilling iJ
in gneiss--it would have been impossible to obtain
mylonite cores (examination of which would cer­ ,
tainly have been Cause for alarm). It seems to me !
Fig. 3.05 Malpasset Dam-A considerable part of ,..1
tbat, rather than by the mechanical discontinuity of the right abutment remaining
 ,

~ '.M# .. po£!!
42
pressure' resultant would have been sufficient to
cause rapid sliding out of the wedge. The arch at­
tached to the rock wedge turned like a door and
cracked away from the right abutment which
remained relatively intact. Fig. 3.05.'
Since grouting was carried out but was
stopped when the rock did not absorb
appreciable quantities of grout, it is also probable
«that this could have assisted in the formation of
tbe 'underground dam'. Jaeger10• reviewed the
findings of the enquiry showing that the dam was
well designed and not overstressed:
'Near the higher upstream rock fissure, the founda­
tion rock appears to have been more deformable
than elsewhere. Because of its rigidity, the arch
could not be deformed as much as required to trans­
mit to the rock in this area the calculated thrust.
That part of the thrust that was not taken by the
foundation rock was transmitted by the arch to the
two ends of the zone, increasing substantially the
stresses on these points, extending the zone towards
the top of the abutment which became
progressively overloaded--and towards the hottom,
The Commission estimates that these slow
changes in this redistribution of stresses in the dam
shell (first phase of the rupture) might have lasted
days or even weeks. . drainage system for the first time. Flow and ero­
The second phase was a rapid rupture of the
whole dam within a few seconds. Traces of
overstrain and displacement of concrete block. of
the right abutment indicate that just before the
final collapse the arches worked as "falling
arches"}
GEOLOGY
INADEQUATE INVESTIGATION
INSTABILITY OF ABUTMENT
3.408 Baldwin Hills Reservoir was a four-sided
basin partly carved out of a hilltop but involving
six embankment&-the highest being 50 m. The
hill was underlain by sediments of Tertiary and
Quaternary age. Some of the materials were
approaching rock in their properties but some
were still soils in the engineering sense--very
low density sands, silts and clays, all easily
erodible.
The site of the failure was 300 m from a well­
known major fault and several minor faults were
found to cut through the site. The area is one of
known land subsidence and earthquakes. A flex­
ible structure with a watertight lining and
elaborate system of drains was therefore adopted.
The structure lasted over 12 years and failed on
14th December, 1963, with only a few hours
warning.
•,
The Report" stated
'the reservoir met a sudden death following loog­
term development of displacement on its foun­
dation. Although the activity which precipitated the
collapses was not attributable to earthquakes,
movement was concentrated at faults which were
planes of foundation weakness.'
It is believed that the porous concrete drain
was damaged by early small movements at the
fault and leakage water found its way into the
fault. These earth movements were mainly
caused by land subsidence locally concentrated
along the fault which was a weak plane. During
the life of the reservoir, erosion probably took
place in the fault under the undamaged bitumen
blanket and partially damaged drain. The narrow
width of the fault permitted the porous concrete
drain to span the openings that were developing.
BI
These occurrences were gradual and progressive. 1
The perviousness of the fault permitted water to
disappear into the hill without emerging from 0
the abutment. Movement occurred along the
fault on 14 December, rupturing the blanket and
admitting full reservoir pressure to the fault and
sion increased rapidly, a cavernous opening piped
through the abutment, the overlying foundation
and embankment collapsed into this opening and
the reservoir drained quickly and completely.
GEOLOGY-PAULTS
FOUNDATIONS-PIPING
LAND SUBSIDENCE
LONG TERM EPFECTS
3.409 Frayle Arch Dam, Peru, a thin arch dam,
70 m high, Fig. 3.06, suffered a severe incident"
on 13 April, 1961. An earth tremor on 1 January,
1960, caused cracks to open on site, huge rock ,
falls and the fracturing of the diversion tunnel
under the left abutment. The collapse of the left
abutment--due to infutration of pressure
water-was imminent, Fig. 3.07. An early
suggestion was to provide a strut across the
valley but none of the specialists was willing to
predict the load that might come into such a
strut during an earthquake. Inclined buttresses
were therefore built from the left abutment to
the base of the right abutment, Fig. 3.08. The
ground was then grouted and a drainage system
was installed in the abutments.
'·1'
,
1...2 .
<
,. r , .-.... ~.,
 43

:1
GEOLOGY .,
EARTHQUAKE i
DRAINAGE

I
~ 7.40 :;:; 2ml

, .
3990

.,I,

4010

4000

3990

3980

3970

3960

3950
Fig. 3.06 Frayle Dam (After
3940
M. Mary; reproduced by per­
mission of Dunod, Paris) Fig. 3.08 Frayl. Dam-Remedial buttresses

4012
4010
thickness 3.4 m and base thickness 227m.
Because the joint system was unfavourably
4000 orientated in relation to the arch thrusts, both
abutments were stabilized with prestressed steel
3990 cables 55 m in length. Creep movements of the
mountain above the left bank were observed in
3980 1960 and 1961, and were carefully monitored::
iJ 3970
Movements up to 30 ern per week were measured,"
one early slide involved a million cubic metres of
material. In October, 1963, creep changed into a
......"
u .
,.' '.' 3960

3950
sudden slide that reached a speed of 25 mls. A
rock mass of approximately 250 million m', the
main part of which was situated on horizontal

o 3940
bedding planes, the minor part on the slopes of'
Monte Toe, was shifted over a horizontal distance
of 400 m, Fig. 3.10. It jumped over a 90 m wide

u Fig. 3.07 Frayle Dam-Une of cracking

3.410 Vaiont Dam, Italy, is a remarkable

gorge and displaced 40 million m' of water from
the reservoir." This water went up to a maxi­
mum elevation 260 m above the reserVoir on the

o double-curvature arch dam, 265.5 m high, Fig.

3.09. Its crest length is only 190.5 m; its crest
right bank-the wave passing over the darn
causing the deaths of 1900 people in the valley

'.··.l
U
 45

helow. The arch dam was practically undamaged.
LANDSLIDE
SOLUTION WEATHERING
GEOLOGY
JA 11 Another interesting example of land
Tl}ovement-but on this occasion brought under
,~ntrol--occuITed at Gepatsch Dam, Austria.
,'his dam is 153 m high and was completed in
.1,966. However, during initial filling in 1964
, lovements were observed on the western slope
;'~er a length of 1000 m and 350 m above the
valley floor. Interstitial pressure--a buoyancy
, ~ect-was recognized as the cause that led to a
_.!duction of stabilizing forces at the toe of the
slope which had an average inclination of 35°.
: ihe slope gradually adapted itself to the
,~iodified conditions of equilibrium through a
corresponding deformation.
" Regulation of the reservoir level allowed slope
'lovements to be kept under control. During
fillings in 1964-65, 1965-66, and up to
'eptember, 1966, the slope centre had undergone
,j deformation of 7.6 m vertically and 11.2 m
horizontally Y
LANDSLIDE
I GEOLOGY
3.413 Many steel-faced dams were built
around 1900. IS Sealing the base of such dams
was difficult. The Hauser Lake Dam, U.S.A.,16 of
maximum height 25 m was constructed on rock
foundation at each end but upon gravel across
the 90 m width of the river. A steel sheet pile cut­
off was driven 10 m into the gravel and an
upstream blanket of fine material 6 m'deep ex: -­
tending 30 m upstream from the dam were in-,
stalled to prevent underflow.,
The dam was completed in 1907 but failed in
the following year due to the inadequacy of the
foundation provisions.
UNDERMINING
CUT-OFFS
3.414 The Vega de Tera Dam, Spain, was
33.5 m high and was built at altitude 1500 m. It
was of the hollow gravity type with triangular­
shaped buttresses and a rectilinear upstream face
made up of the joined heads of the buttresses,
Fig. 3.11. The batter of the upstream face was
0.10 and of the downstream surface of the
buttresses 0.75.
The buttresses and the outer waterproofing of

'j.412 Very similar failures occurred at two

reh dams in U.S.A. in 1926. At the 16 m Moyie
Dam a very unusual flood overtopped the dam,
'lndermined and then washed away the spillway
'!hannel. This exposed the soft rock abutment
which, in turn, was washed away. Lake Lanier
,l'am-19 m high-failed through simple under­
,bining of the cyclopean masonry abutment
',which had been built at the left end to replace '8
'jnsound rock.
'I I t is interesting to note that in both cases the
'SedlOrl A-A
'thin concrete arch dams stolld up under the
'lressure of the water which in one case over­
'bpped and in the other reached the crest of the
dam, even after one abutment had been
:.1.' estroyedY
ABUTMENTS
I
::.
UNDERMINING '

, fig. 3.09 Vainnt Dam, Italy-After the 'surcharge

J,

of October 1963 (Compare Fig. 11.16)

,
fig. 3.10 Vaiont Dam, Italy-The landslide of
, .gctober 1963 Fig. 3.11 Vega de Tee. D.m

"
 46
the upstream head were of masonry-a type of
construction not uncommon at the time of design
(1952) in high mountain areas subject to frost
cracking of concrete. The upstream facing was
made of an inner part in concrete which varied in
thickness from 1.30 m at the crest to 3.07 m at
the foundation. The buttresses had a uniform
thickness of 4.25 m and were 8.50 m apart. Two
buttresses and the facing were to function
together with joints in the facing at 17 m inter­
vals., The foun~ation rock in the glacial valley
COnsists of gneiss whose crystalline formations
dip vertically with strikes parallel to the valley.
In the rock mass there were also softer masses
containing mica. The quality of the foundation
appeared good and safe for a 30 m dam. Only a
very general geological investigation was per­
formed and no borings or other methods were
used to test the rock. This was quite common at
the time of the design.
The design of the dam was based on the
hypothesis of a uniform specific weight for con­
crete and masonry of 2.4 rim' and of uniform
'.' susceptibility to elastic deformation of concrete,
masonry and foundation rock. In this, there was
serious disagreement between hypothesis and
reality.
Construction was carried out in the summers
of 1954, 1955 and 1956. In 1957-58 the
grouting between the blocks and the concrete
rock contact zone was completed. Destruction of
the dam occurred on 9th January, 1959. The
reservoir had been at maximum level for a few
days only. In 1957 it had reached 5.75 m below
maximum and in 1958 to 1.75 m below max­
imum level. A microseismic shock was recorded
at Coimbra in Portugal almost coincidental with
the failure. Seventeen buttresses on the left of the
spillway were carried away, and 8 km' of water
was released-a wave front 6 m high descending
on the village of Ribadelago, 8 km below the
dam. Although 170 lives were lost, a catastrophe
to the heavily populated district below was
avoided by the ponding of the flood wave in the
morainal Lake Ribadelago. Various calculations,
after the failure, indicated the possibility of ten­
sions at' the upstream face of the concrete screen
of 4.9 MPa and compressions at the downstream
face of 5.4 MPa. These appear to confirm that
the failure at first filling was not due to founda­
tion inadequacy. but rather to the excessive ten­
sion in the concrete slab that formed the
upstream face of the dam."
PROTECTION AGAINST CLIMATE
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
DEFORMABILITY
INADEQUATE DESIGN
3.415 San Fernando Earlhquake---Van Norman
Reservoir. This earthquake occurred on 9th
February, 1971, causing the loss of 64 lives,'8
and the partial failure of the Lower San Fer­
nando Dam.
The earthquake occurred in an unexpected
locality. Although only 6.6 on the Richter scale,
it developed unprecedented ground accelera­
tion~f only short duration, 12 to 16 seconds
-though felt for a minute. In the 3 days fol­
lowing the main shock more than a thousand
aftershocks were recorded. These were of magni­
tude 2 or greater, the largest being 5. At Pacoima
Dam 6.4 km away, Fig. 7.27, and nearer to the
: 1
epicentre (still 13 km away) an acceIerograph ; .;
;j i
located on bedrock at the left abutment recorded
a short duration peak of 1.01 g horizontal and
0.7 g vertical. These were highest accelerations
recorded in California. An accelerograph on the
crest of the Lower San Fernando Dam toppled
into the reservoir, but when recovered had :1
recorded a maximum horizontal acceleration of ,• .1'
0.5 g and more than 0.1 g vertically.
Originally built in 1912-15, the Lower San
Fernando Dam was raised by various methods
until its height was 44 m and its length 663 m. It
can be described as essentially an hydraulic fill
embankment capped by a potpourri of waggon
dumped and rolled fills, founded on alluvium
with three cut'<lff trenches to bedrock. The ~""it
upstream face was on a slope of 1 on 2.5, whilst .. ]1 i
<
the downstream slopes were 1 on 2.5 and 1 on ,I
I
4.5. It was faced upstream with lightly reinforced '1 '
concrete, with aim high parapet wall. The bed­
rock comprised marine sedimentaries. At the
H\'
Ui
time of failure the reservoir level was 11 m below
full supply level. Some 615 00'0 mJ of the em­
bankment, along a length of 550 m, slid into the
reservoir, Fig. 3.12. One outlet tower cracked at
Fig. 3.12 Lower San Fernando Dam-Damage by
earthquake (Reproduced by permission of Depart­
ment of Water Resources, California) ! ~ ~ ~i
i-J .I.'iJ
11
,
1 ;
i

,i

3.12

48
its base and broke off 7 m above the base; the
other did not suffer noticeable damage.
The dam was examined by testing the
materials of its construction and by analysing by
the conventional method, using a seismic coef­
ficient of 0.15 as recommended at the time.
Assuming the reservoir to be drawn down by 8 m
the calculated factor of safety was 1.01. However,
the reservoir had been operated to maximum
water level for more than 6 years.
Liquefaction was evident by the horizontal
movement of a steel tower by some 22 m. An
analysis was made for an embankment 40 m high
subject to a base rock motion having a maxi­
mum acceleration of 0.42 g and frequency
characteristics similar to those induced by the
earthquake. The computed maximum crest
acceleration was 0.38 g and that at the toe was
0.41 g which are in reasonable agreement with
the recorded values, Fig. 3.13.
Cresllevel350m 0.389
wale~
310m~O'~19
300m
;;:W {i:\
0_429
, "w"",
...
Fig. 3.13 Accelerations computed by response analy­
sis-Lower San Fernando Investigation
The Upper San Fernando Dam, of similar con­
struction, moved generally downstream-the
crest slumped 1 m ,vertically and 1.5 m
downstream. If the earthquake had lasted a few
seconds longer-sufficient to fail this dam with
consequent flooding into the lower reser­
voir-then it would have been a disaster.
The Lower Van Norman bypass dam on the
west side of the Lower San Fernando reservoir
was of rolled earthfill and was undamaged except
for limited superficial cracking of the asphaltic
concrete lining.
The Pacoima arch dam, on rock foundations,
was apparently undamaged though a measurable
decrease occurred in its chord length at crest
level. As a precaution, it has been taken out of
service until the left abutment is reinforced.
LIQUEFACTION (Hydraulic Fill)
EARTHQUAKE
3.416 Slip Circle I'n Eanit Dam. In 1929 a par­
tial failure occurred in the original Eildon Dam,
Australia. In the river section abutting the con­
&
crete spillway the bank was 43 m high founded
on bedrock of fairly hard metamorphic rock with
sandstones and shales dipping aimost vertically
with strike diagonally across the line of the dam.
A central vertical core of reinforced concrete was
provided, Fig. 3.14. The clay wall, of very stiff
puddle, averaged 9 m thickness at natural sur­
face, Construction was prolonged over 12 years
so there was time for consolidation to take place.
The reservoir filled and spilled to a depth of
1.3 m over the spillway in October, 1928. With
heavy demand for irrigation the level fell by
16 m by April, 1929, when without warning the
rockfill on the upstream side subsided suddenly
and the concrete core wall was exposed over a
length of 367 m to a maximum depth of 8 m, Fig.
3.15. The exposed top of the wall showed deflec­
tions as much as 1.4 m. Movement from 1929 to
1933 was slight and until 1938 totalled an ad­
ditional 50 mm.
The Enquiry, Board" concluded that the sub­
sidence had arisen directly as a result of the ac­
tion of the clay wall; that the clay had acted as a
stiff fluid and pushed the rockf!ll out into the
0/;;:
'
:::=-­ water and at the same time had exerted great
pressure downstream causing the concrete wall
to deflect. Although there was little leakage
through the concrete core wall, the clay underly­
ing the downstream rockfill was very wet and
there was considerable apprehension as to the
risk of entire failure. Remedial action'O was
proposed and completed as per Fig. 3.16.
MATERIALS
INADEQUACY OF DESIGN
RAPID DRAW DOWN
3.417 The failure of Sheffield Dam on 29th
June, 1929, has been examined by Seed et al."
This was a catastrophic slide failure of an earth
dam due to the effects of an earthquake of
magnitude 6.3. The dam, 8 m high, was con­
structed in 1917 near Santa Barbara, U.S.A. It
was built of soil from the reservoir, silty sand and
sandy silt. The upstream face was covered with a
1.2 m thick clay blanket that extended 3 minto
the foundation to serve as a cllt-{)ff. The clay
blanket was overlain by a 12.5 em concrete
facing. Seepage had been noted from the toe of
the dam before the earthquake. The maximum
ground acceleration was 0.15 g and the duration
of significant shaking was 15 to 18 seconds at
 I.

, 49
:'1' frequency 3 Hz. Analysis showed that the dam core was built of clayey soil. The downstream

J would not have failed under an acceleration of

0.10 g. The dam probably failed due to liquefac­
part was fonned in sound rolled layers with the
use of water spraying, the upstream part without
I, tion along its base. compaction. The upstream face was built on a
slope of 1 on 4 under water and 1 on 2.5 above
.i I MATERIALS
water. Sand forming this slope consisted of
LIQUEFACTION
1 EARTHQUAKE less than 0.3 mm-20%
I 0.3 mm-1.2 mm--6o-70%
I; 3.418 Liquefaction. Dams built of homogeneous
material are susceptible to liquefaction if sub­
jected to dynamic loading. This has been
greater than 1.2 mm-about 10%

The uniformity of the material represented a

evidenced by the failure of several hydraulic fill quick-sand effect and liquefaction was initiated
dams that have been subejcted to earthquakes. by nearby blasting.
The Lower Svir Dam, U.S.S.R., of height
28 m failed during construction in 1935. The LIQUEFACTION

o 25 m
~\10
Full supply level
'------',
,0· •
Concrete ~
• Clay Level 01 dote
core woll • wall ot subsidence
• "0/ Upstream rack fill
Natura! surface, Nolu(ol surface,
-~ray-~rying grovei

" 'Bed rock

Fig.3.14 Typical cross-section of embankment, Eildon Reservoir,

as completed in 1927

Concrele""--' _~__~
core won Waler level ot dote
Upslream (}f subsidence
Downstream rock fill rock fill
Noiurol surface ~ Noturol surface-...

Fig. 3.15 Typical cross-section of embankment, Eildon Reservoir-After

subsidence, April 1929

Top section fo be added oftcr _ _ _...., Roiseo section. If and

completion of upstream bonk where reQuired
(not COfifinuous)
fill

Fig. 3.16 Typical cross-section showing additional rockfill proposed by Board,

Eildon Reservoir and completed
50
3.419 Piping. The Morwell No.2 Fire Service
Reservoir, Australia, was filled hurriedly in
December, 1968, to give fire protection for the
summer period. A leak developed,22 discharging
approximately 450l/min within 2 weeks of
fllling; Fig. 3.17 shows the cavity formed at the
downstream toe. The two holes were each about
0.3 m diameter. Water entered the upstream face
of the embankment at the base of one of the piers
supporting the access bridge.
A modified homogeneous darn was adopted
because the readily available earthfill showed
little variation in permeability-the grading
limits being as shown in Fig. 3.18. The upstream
portion of the bank was compacted to a density
at least 98 per cent of standard maximum den­
sity, the balance being to 95 ± 4 per cent. Tests
indicated that the soil was dispersive and hence
should be compacted at moisture conditions close
to standard optimum moisture content.
However, the drought of 1967-68 dried out the
borrow pits so much that it was difficult to attain
the desired moisture conditions. The circum­
stances that contributed to the failure were:
The dry borrow pit resulting from drought;
An interruption to construction for 3 dry
DESIGN
months;
The necessity to fill the reservoir hurriedly;
POOR CONSTRUCTION
The dispersive nature of the soil.
PIPING
DISPERSIVE SOIL
0.001 0.005 0.01 0.050.1
Pcrticie size (mm)
0.5
Fig. 3.18 Morwell No. 2 Reservoir-Material
grading
3.420 Piping. At Rowallan Dam, Australia, the
central core of a rock!tll dam abuts on the con­
crete wing walls of the centrally located spillway,
J
d
Fig. 3.17 Morwell No.2 Reservoir, Australia­
Piping failure
Fig. 3.19. A cut-offwall was built integrally with
each wing wall to extend 1.5 m into the core
material. The specification made clear that
plastic clay was to be consolidated against the
concrete cut-off walls, surrounded by two
thicknesses of filter material. Unfortunately the
materials as placed did not conform to
specification, Fig. 3.20. Deflection of the
upstream part of the right wing wall provided
ready access for reservoir water into core
material, the water followed the concrete and dis­
placed clay into filter and filter material into the
transition zone. A sink hole 1.7 m deep appeared
in the crest of the dam-fortunately it deepened
progressively and the reservoir could be lowered
to avoid an accident. A shaft was sunk to remove
all material from around the cut-off wall. Backfill []
stricdy to specification was placed together with
a row of steel sheet piling to extend the cut-off as 'l
a factor of safety against future fracturing of the ;j
clay zone.
PIPING
3.421 Tailings Dams. The disaster at Buffalo
Creek, U.S.A.," in February, 1972, is a distinct
warning of the danger of non-engineered darns
built of mine wastes; some 125 people were killed
and 4000 left homeless. Dumping of mine waste
(low grade coal, shale and some sandstone along
with general mine rubbish) began in 1947. By
1960 the dump had grown to a height of 45 m
and a length of 365 m and was burning. In 1960,
in order to comply with stream pollution re­
quirements, the Company chose to clarifY waste
water from its plant by discharging it behind the
large waste bank, allowing water to seep through ']~~ .
:
,
to the face.
r
Shortly afterwards strip mine coal was
processed through the plant and the waste bank
fl1
J
became watertight, a large pond forming behind
Fig. 3.19 Rowallan Dam, Australia
Fig. 3.20 Rowallan Dam-Incorrect zoning of
materials adjacent to concrete cut-off
Ui
f1
u
 II

I
I
.]
52 :, ~:
.: J

it. A second and third embankment were built of only the finest material on the face of the
upstream from the original dump to receive mine dam.
wastes. LIQUEFACTION

Heavy rain feU for 3 days prior to flood rains. TAILINGS DAMS .,

Water behind the upper impounding structure . "'

CONCENTRATION OF FLOW
rose steadily during the week prior to 26th
February.. Between 6 a.m. and 8 a.m. on that day
water rose over the graded crest of the bank and
3.422 OveT1Opping of Rockfill. Cascade Dam,
forced its way through piles of ungraded waste
Australia, was a concrete faced rockfill dam built
that stood 1.1 to 2 m ahove the graded crest. The
in 1924-1926, Fig. 3.21. The rockfill was of
crest was cut by longitudinal cracks that ad­
granite, stones ranging from 3 to 5 tonnes.
mitted water and the bank gave way by slumping
In October of the year of completion there was
of the downstream face and liquefaction of most
quite an appreciable flood. Water passing over
of the dam. The second dam then overtopped and
the spillway flowed over and through the general
failed. Water reached the burning waste and ex­
rockfiU on the downstream face of the dam, a
plosions occurred causing destruction of the
practice that had been in use at the nearby
original dump. It was unfortunate that an
Frome Dam for some 18 years. Other floods oc­
attempt to improve the environment reaUy led to
curred in 1926 and 1927. The spiUway was
a disaster.
proportioned on the assumption that 125 mm of
. .: The upper bank failed due to:
rain could fall in 6 houts and 250 mm in 24
Non-preparation of the foundation;
hours.
Lack of zoning and compaction of material;
The Cascade Dam failed on 4th April, 1929,
Lack of water control facilities and adequate
with the loss of 14 lives. During the day
spiUways; preceding 9 a.m. on 3rd April, some 175 mm of
Lack of collars or baffles on a pipe under the rain were recorded at Derby, a nearby town, with
bank; a further 360 mm in the next 24 hours. Five
Discharge of waste water from the plant at the gauges surrounding the region recorded 400 mm
head of the pool resulting in an accumulation to 500 mm in the same period. At 4.30 p.m. a
1 .~ i '

Cascade Dam (1926 1929)

J
0-",

tGm

830mmfrl O.5'3m
--1...

3.6m

7.9m

7.3m

Lenqtb 01 crest - 137 rn

L~"qlb $pillway - 71 m
Deplb spillwoy-O.53m
o! 10
1
m

Fig. 3.21 Cascade Dam, Australia

,1
(.J
 53

witness saw the dam fail. There appeared to be circular, with diameter 50 m. The discharge
two big waves moving down the reser­ below each dam reached about 8500 m'/s.
voir-maybe 1.5 m high. It is considered that Where the Ruhr empties into the Rhine,
these waves shot over the spillway and impacted 150 km below the dam, the water level rose by
on to the rockfill with sufficient force to dislodge 4 m, some 25 hours after the catastrophe. The
.,
the stones and cause failure of the dam. The breach in Mohne Dam was closed in 1943.
nearby Frome Dam suffered damage but did not The Sorpe Earthfill Dam, 69 m high and built
fail-probably due to its smaller catchment from in 1935, was also subjected to aerial bombing in
which the discharge was 15 m'ls per km2• 1944. The concrete core wall was broken in two
places, the reservoir was lowered but kept in ser­
INADEQUATE SPILLWAY
vice until 1956 with some repairs. It was fully
SPILL OVER ROCKFILL
repaired in 1962:-;some 4350 t of cement and
1700 tonnes of clay were injected plus substantial
3.423 Sabotage is not unknown in the destruc­
amounts of synthetic material.
tion of dams. Gruner in 1964 1 stated:
Although not sabotage in the sense" of enemy
'The earliest record of a dam was to be found in action, the disaster at the South Fork Dam,
(.! Sura 34 of the Koran which stated "so we sent U.S.A}' in 1889 was due to inadequacy of the
'! upon them the flood of Irem". The scene of this dis­ spillway and later interference with the dam.
aster was first visited by a Frenchman in 1843. It
lay in the Yemen, 300 kID nortb of Aden and con­ Construction of the earthfill dam was completed
cerned the Mareb Dam. The dam was built about in 1853. Its purpose was to store water to ensure
1700 B.C. and according to the records which had adequate flow for the canal system between Pitts­
been banded down it was breached about A.D. 100. burg and Philadelphia; however, the extension
The dam was 3.2 km long and bad a height of
of railways made the canal system uneconomical
37m.'
and the dam was purchased by Pennsylvania
During the Spanish Civil War an unsuccessful Railroad. A serious break occurred in 1862 and
attempt was made to blow up Ordunte Dam near the dam remained empty for 20 years. The
Bilbao--a concrete gravity structure 40 m high. property was later sold to become a Hunting and
Fifteen tonnes of explosives were placed in the Fishing Club. During the repair of the dam the
gallery and detonated without achieving the centre portion was lowered 0.9 m to provide suf­
desired result. It has been reported that in ficient width for a carriageway over the dam.
December, 1938, a party of German army offi­ This unfortunately lowered the capacity of the
cers visited Aswan Dam, Egypt, to study the best spillway, decreasing freeboard on the dam from
I method of encompassing its destruction. Had it 3 m to 2.1 m. The capacity of the spillway was
I taken place some 4.9 thousand million cubic further reduced by the construction across it of a
'metres of water would have been released down timber trestle roadway.
I
i
the Nile. On 30th and 31st May, 1889, some 168 mm of
In" September, 1941, the Soviet Army rain fell on the catchment. The present estimate
retreating before the German advance took the by the U.S. Weather Service of the lOO-year
drastic step of destroying the Dnjeprogues Dam. flood is 102 mm in 4 hours and about 140 mm in
Some 90 tonnes of explosives were detonated in 24 hours. The 1889 storm was therefore
the inspection gallery. This destroyed the upper probably one of 25-year return interval.
part of the dam over a length of 200 m. The The drainage area was 124 million m2 and the
flood reached a peak of 36 000 m'/s--which ex­ lake area only 1.7 million m2 •
ceeded by 7.5 per cent the estimated extreme The dam failed by overtopping; the reservoir
flood in the river. emptied in 45 minutes, with a peak flow of
1 In May, 1943, the British Royal Air Force between 6000 and 8500 ml/s. The flood
bombed the Moeneand Eder Dams causing con­ descended upon Johnstown with the loss of 2200
i siderable breaches in the upper parts of the struc­ lives.
.J tures, both of which were built of masonry. The
breach in the Moene Dam was in the shape of a INADEQUATE SPILLWAY
trapezium 22 m high wit~ a base of 70 m. The INTERF ERENCE WITH DAM
breach in the Eder Dam was almost semi­ OVERTOPPING OF EARTH DAM

1
!
¥ P;P Jau' ".~ .. t t#
54
References
1. Edw.rd Gruner, 'Dam Disasters', Proc. I.C.E.,
24, Jan. 1963, pp. 47-60, Discussion, 27, Jan.
1964, p. 344.
2. 'F.ilure of Dam", Trans. A.S.C.E., 98,
pp.838-840.
3. Revist. de Obr. Publicas, 1961, Madrid, Spain.
4. J. L. Sherard et aI., Earth and Earlh-Rock Dams,
john Wiley, New York, 1963.
5. Edward Gruner, 'The Mechanism of Dam
Failure', 91h ICOLD Congress, Istanbul, 1967,
Q.34, R.12, 11, pp. 197-206.
6. 'Le Rupture du Barrage de I'H.bra', Le Genie
Ci"il Trans., XCII, 1928, No. 11, pp. 256-259;
No. 12, pp. 283-285.
7•. M. Mary, Barrages-VOUltS, Historiqut Accidents
,I Incidents, Dunod, Paris, 1968.
8. Norman Smith, A HiS/ory oj Dams, 1971, Peter
Davies, London.
9. (a) Committee Report for the State 1928, Causes
Leading 10 Ihe Failure oj Ihe SI. Francis Dam,
California State Printing Office, Sacramento,
~
:,i
U.S.A.; (b) F. L. Ransome, 'Geology of the St.
Francis Dam Site', Econ. Gool., 23; (c) R. F.
Leggett, 1962, Geology and Engineeri7/fJ, McGraw­
Hill, New York, pp.492-494; (d) T. Clements,
1972, 'St. Francis Dam Failure in 1928',
Engineering Geology ojSoulltern California, Special
Publication of the Los Angeles Section of tM
Association of Engineering Geologists; (e) L. C. 23.W. E. Davies, 'Buffalo Creek Dam Disaster',
Hill et aI., 1929, 'Essential Facts Concerning the
Failure of St•. Francis Dam', Report of A.S.C.E. 24. See Reference 8; 'Report on the South Fork Dam,
Committee, Tram. A.S. C.E., 94.
10. (aJ P. Londe, 1967, Panel Discussion"":'lst
Congress of the International 'Society of Rock
Mechanics, Lisbon, Proc., 111, pp.449-453
(French); (b)·Commi<sion d'enquete du Barrage de
Malpass.l, Rapporl. deFnitif, Ministere de
. I'Agriculture, Paris, 1960. Translation from F. Stenger, Bibliography "of Dam Failures, Technical
French ·puhlished by Israel Program for Scientific
Publications U.S. Dept. of Commerce,
Washington D.C., U.S.A.; (c) 'Dam
Disasters'~Reference I-Discussion, Proc.
I.C.E., 27, 1963-1964, Feb. 1964, p. 351; (d) C.
jaeger, 'The Malpasset Dam Report', Waler
'Power, umdon, ' Feb. 1963; (e) M. Mary,
Barrages=-Vauus, Histon'que Accidents el Incidents,
Dunod, Paris, 1968.
.11. State of California, Sacramento, U.S.A., Depart­
ment of Water Resources, In'l!fmigalion qf Failure
oj Baldwin Hills Reservoir.
12. G. A. Kiersch, 1964, 'Vaiont Reservoir Disaster',
A.S.C.E. Civil E7/fJI'neering, March 1964,
pp:l2-37; also Reference 7.
. 13. ' H. 'Lauffer; E. Neuhauser and W. Schober, 'Uplift
Responsible for Slope Movements During the
Filling of Gepatsch Reservoir" 9lh ICOLD
Congress, Istanbul, Q.32,R.4, 1, pp.669-694 .
.14. (a) R. E. Glover, 'Arch Dams--Review of Ex­
perience', Journal of Power Division, Paper 1217,
Proc. A.S.C.E., 83, No. P02, April 1957,
pp. 1-48; (b) Engineering News Record, 97, No. 16; ;0;-1
(cl Reference 7. :l
Ui
15. C. V. Davis and K. E. Sorensen, Handbook oj
Applied Hydraulics (lrd edn.), McGraw-Hili, New
York, 1969.
16. Engineering News, 58, No. 18, 1908, p. 491; No.
20, p. 501.
17. M. F. Bolio, Dr.Ing. Eicep, Technical Sludy oj rh.
BUrs/ing oj Vega d, Tera Dam, Technical Director
of I. Societe de Recherches et Geographiques,
Spain.
18. California Dept. of Water Resources, Sacramen­
to, Division of Safety of Dams, Interim Report,
May 1971, Effects oj lhe San Fernando Earthquake
on the Van Norman Reserwir Complex.
19. Reporc oj Elldon Weir Enquiry Board, 1929,
Government Printer, Melbourne, Australia,
20. R. G. Knight, 'The Subsidence of a Rockfill Dam
,
and Remedial Measures Employed at Eildon
:11
Reservoir, Australia', Journal I.C,E., March
1938.
21. H. B. Seed, K. L. Lee and I. M. Idriss, 'Analysis of
iJI
,.- I
Sheffield Dam Failure', Journal of Soil
. Mechanics and Foundation Division, Proc.
A.S.C.E., 95, No. SM6, No. 1969, II!
pp.1453-1490. ,
,,
22. J. p, james and R. T. Wickham, 'The Failure and ,i
Rectification of Morwell No.2 Fire Service Reser­
voir', ANCOLD Bulletin, No. 31, July 1970,
Ii
pp. 20-34. I
1~
A.S.C.E. Civil Engineering, July 1973, pp. 69-72.
Trans. A.S.C.E., XXIV, No. 477, June 1891;
A.S.C.E. Civil Engineering, Aug. 1974,
"I 1i
, I
, I
pp.61-62.
I
Bibliography ," j :!
L.l 1
j,
Education Branch, Office of Engineering
Reference U.S.B.R., Denver, U.S.A., Bibliography
r'o.242. .
A. O. Babb et aI., Calalog oj Dam Disa"ers, Failures
and Accidencs, P.B. 179243 (1968), U.S. Dept. of
Interior, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Jorgensen, 'Record of 100 Dam Failures', J. Elect.,
March IS, April 1, 1920. .
'Failure of Gravity Dams', Engineeri7/fJ, Aug. 20,27,
1937.
'Ringedal Dam', ingineering News Record, 17th Nov.
1932, p. 498.
'Lessons Learnt from Dam Disasters', Engineering,
197, No. 5117, May 1964, p.861.
A. D. M. Penman, 'The Failure of Teton Dam',
Ground Engineering, 10,6, Sept: 1977, p. 18.
Failure of Teton Dam-A Report of Findings April
r1
1977, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Eng. and Re- U
, search Center, P.O. Box 25007, Denver Federal
Center, Denver, Colorado, U.S.A. 80225.
Cause of Teton pam Fai/ure, Dec. 1976, U.S. Govt. ,'Ll
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.
 CHAPTER 4

Loading and Factor. of Safety

In many engineering structures it is po~sible to
calculate a definite value for the factor of safety;
it is the ratio of the stress at failure to the max­
imum working stress in a particular member.
Although this can be modified by secondary
stresses, these are usually amenable to calcula­
tion or reasonable estimation.
On the other hllnd, a dam is a three­
dimensional structure. Despite assumptions, it is
not homogeneous and its integrity is much in the
hands of the builders. The dam stands on foun­
dations that are neither isotropic nor truly
elastic. Concrete and rock are both brittle
materials, although elastic theories are applied in
stress calculations. The dam and the foundation
will, in due course, become saturated with vary­
ing effects on the materials of which each is com­
posed. The dam will be subjected to water load
and daily and seasonal temperature cycles that
can often induce stresses comparable with those
due to the water loading, as well as to a variety of
minor loads--both determinate and indeter­
minate. Some will occur simultaneously, others
are more akin to random events and their coinci­
I it would be unreasonably conservative.
dence becomes a matter of probability; amongst
I
these would be floods, waves, seiche effects,
earthquakes, ice formation and other natural
phenomena.
The factor of safety required in a dam must
primarily be related to its structural strength, its
stability and its durability, but consideration
must also be given. to the magnitude of the
economic loss and personal hardship that would
result from its failure. In any case its safety must
be constantly reviewed taking into account the
age of the dam, any modifications made to it, and
i progressive developments in the valley below the
I dam.
The aim of the Engineer must be to reduce the
number of uncertainties, both as'regards loading
on the dam and in the means by which the dam
55
and the foundations withstand 'such loads.
Every effort should be made to comprehend the
order of the factor of safety, but beyond all
mathematics the Engineer himself must be con­
vinced that no mechanism can exist by which the
dam could fail under any combinations of
loading that he can foresee.
4.1 Static Loading
The following loads and factors must be
considered.
Headwater. For,the basic calculation of
stability the level in the reservoir will be assumed
at or above the level required for the passage of
the design flood. The amount above the level of
the design flood will reflect the conservatism of
the designer. In many instances it is required that
the dam be designed for water at the highest level
of watertightness of the dam. This is often the
top of a concrete parapet. If the probabilistic
loads were then added directly to this water load
Tajlwater. In some cases water is ponded ,
downstream from the dam. Assistance from' this
water may be assumed' but it must not be
overlooked that, in the case of an overflow dam,
flood waters passing over the dam might well
evacuate such water from the face of the dam.
Vertical Water Loading. Such loading is im­
posed on any sloping surface ,of 'the
dam-usually the upstream face, but also on the
downstream face for overflow dams. In the latter
case allowance is made also for dynamic effect of
the water passing over the' crest (reduction of
pressure on the crest) or through the spillway dis­
sipator (usually an increase). '
 II

56

Water Density. Although, for determination of Calculations for a large reservoir in which the
the above loadings, the relative density of the fetch is 38 km would indicate the values shown
reservoir water is assumed to be one it should be in Table 4.1.
realized that some rivers in the world carry a very
heavy silt load in seasons. In fact the failure of Table 4.1
Habra Dam, Algeria, 1927, was partly blamed on
Return period Wind speed Set-up
the failure to recognize the density of the muddy (yrqrs) (km/h) (m)
water in the reservoir at the time of the collapse.
1000 160 0.75
Reservoir Behaviour. Wind and other natural 100 125 0.45
10 95 0.26
causes will induce movement in the reservoir 5 88 0.22
water-as· waves, reservoir set-up or an undu­ 2 77 0.17
lating -seiche effect. Wave patterns will depend
upon wind speed and duration as well as on the
fetch and depth of the reservoir. Fignre 4.01 is Seiche effect is an undulation in the reservoir
a metric representation of Fig. 18, p. 276 of water due to natural causes, intermittent wind,
Engl'neering for Dams, 1944 (Hinds, Creager and variation in atmospheric pressure, earthquake
Justin, Vol. 11). This indicates the order ofload­ and motion of the Earth. Though normally less
ing likely to be imposed on a dam by wave action. than 0.5 m, an undulation of 2 m has been
The actual loading will depend upon the shape of reported in Lake Geneva.
the dam, the slope of the upstream face and other Waves, set-up and seiche effects could be
factors as discussed in Chapter 5. cumulative but on a probability basis.

Wave pressure tim Silt. Although 'at the time of the investigation
5 7 9 eo 100 the river may be carrying no appreciable silt, it is
, 20
, 40 60
essential to look to possible future development

G 'I' I'
I
I
I

I
I

/
'

6
within the catchment area. A changed land usage
might well result in increased erosion. The crea­
I
I

I
I
tion- of the reservoir will cause deposition of
5 I / 5 silt-the location of deposition depending upon
E

I
II
I
,

I ~i$i"
I +;­
0/
,.. E
the particle size of the silt in suspension at entry
to the reservoir. The Engineer is obliged to assess
the possibility of siltation during the life of the
I '"
~ '"
~"(f/ dam--giving special attention to the location and

~~f
)L'--I--.;§"/ design of low-level outlets if they are to be
provided. Unless very deep deposits of silt are
l-~/ likely, it is adequate to assume a triangular load
2
V V I,
V::: c; ¢3
allotting an appropriate relative density to the
~
fluid. This would have a maximum value of 1.4.
1,
I
,, I
,
,I Ice Loading. It is normally assumed that ice
I I I I I o
2 4 6 8 10 15 20 40 6080 may occur when water in the reservoir is at or
Felch {Kml below the level of the spillway crest, that is, sheet
ice will not form and- exert pressure on the dam
Fig. 4.01 Wind speed, fetch and pressure on Dam
(After Hinds, Creager and Justin; modified; repro., at times of maximum flood. A great deal of
dilCed by permission Wiley, New York) research has been done on the loading likely to be
imposed on a dam by the formation of ice in the
reservoir. The slope of the upstream face of the
Reservoir sel-up is the- result of continuing dam as well as the slope and roughness of the
wind--one end of a reservoir may be at a higher valley walls will influence the magnitude of ice
level than the other. loading. Even wind blowing down the reservoir
i

'JIi
, -,
 57

at 50 km/hour may increase the ice loading by 4
to 5 tim of exposed face.
Older texts' suggested the' adoption of an
equivalent horizontal loading of between 15 and
30 tonnes per lineal metre applied to the dam at
water level. A symposium on the subject was
prepared by the American Society of Civil
Engineers2 from which it is noted that in 1947
Rose showed theoretically that thrusts of the
order of 7.5 to 30 tim were possible under North
·i American climatic conditions; a figure of 15 tim
was commonly used in Canada; Norway in
earlier years adopted 45 tim but has
progressively decreased this to 5 tim for dams
with sloping upstream faces; in Sweden it was
practice to use 30 tim. The U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation carried out tests at Eleven Mile
Canon Reservoir near Denver,' Colorado, at
elevation 2600 m above sea level, and the highest
seasonal thrusts were in the range 20 to 30 tim
depending upon ice temperature.
Research at McGill University in 1932 showed
that ice expands with rise in temperature, and
being plastic it flows under sustained pressure.
Consequently the yield strength is far below its
quick crushing strength. The rate of temperature
National Committee on Large Dams and
provides a guide to pressures likely to occur
under conditions of nsmg temperature
neglecting the effects of solar radiation. If this is
included the pressure would be increased, by
amOl,mts from 20 per cent to 30 per cent.
uplift (see also Chapter 10). Uplift is a general
term to cover hydrostatic forces acting within a
dam and its foundation including interstitial or,
pore pressures. Some Engineers are satisfied to
rely on drainage to prevent the occurrence of
uplift, but before this can be done it must be
proved that the drainage system will remain fully
effective during the life of the dam. Normally
safety regulations call for the inclusion of some
provision for uplift in the design. There is no
generally adopted distribution of uplift pressure.
When drains are provided in the dam and the
foundations it is usual to adopt a distribution of
pressure as shown in Fig. 4.03. The pressure at
Heodwoler
I
Ii'!
1'6

~
L
rise and its duration are therefore important fac­
tors in determining the pressure likely to be ex­
erted on a dam. Fig. 4.02 is reproduced from the
tl'L[ Gollery ~=.--L
T(lilwofer
I
i Revised Criteria for Dams, 1970 by the Japanese '-t-----"---,-'"

I\ I
I ­
E 1.0
I 2
I

h /
I' 3 2'

/, /
bI I . I
I
/
I
I
3'

r W[h + k (H-M]
:'."

~
~
w
C
~
u
;S
w
.!l / //
/ // L Fig. 4.03 Uplift assumption
0,5
,/ /
~/ / /_ _ Non-reslroiot oj the drains is a matter for individual
«,'/ ./ . reservoir bonks
decision-related to damsite, the grout curtaln
'/"'" FuH restroinj ot
reservoir bonks and the drainage incorporated. Based upon ex­
-, o 10 20 30
perience, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation nor~
Icc pressure 11 m mally uses a value of k =0.33; the Tennessee
0
Valley Authority has used 0.25, whilst the U.S.
1-Temperature rising at 2.8 per hour Corps of Engineers adopts what is considered
Q
2-Temperature rising at 5.6 per hour
3- Temperature rising at 8.4° per hour appropriate to the site--between 0.25 and 0.50.'
Special foundation conditions may necessitate a
Fig. 4.02 . Approximate ice loading higher value than 0.50.

c,. ' .... ~'-""'!! _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _iiiiiiii_iiii_ _ ==_____==__=======, _="""""'''''''=0

 XL,.L __ _
58
Weight of Dam. The unit weight of material
to be used in the dam should be determined as ac­
curately as possible, as soon as possible in the in­
vestigations. With modern methods of quality
control during construction it should be quite
realistic to adopt for the design a figure only
marginally below that determined by the
laboratory tests. An underestimation by 1 per
cent will represent a considerable additional cost
on the dam.
Thermal Effects. Concrete dams in particular
will be subject to loading from temperature vari­
ations within the dam caused by hydration of the
cement as well as by daily and seasonal cycles of
temperature. As described in Chapter 2, reservoir
water at depth maintains a reasonably const,ant
temperature. Water temperature in the upper
layers changes with the seasons. Exposed surfaces
of the dam ,are subject to variations of air tem­
peratures and direct solar effects. The result is
often a skew loading-reflected in the observed
behaviour
:.
of the structure.
Construction Loads. The designer must take
cognizance of the method and speed of construc­
tion. Concrete dams of cupola and buttress shape
offer good resistance to water loading when com­
pleted-,but during .construction it is frequently
necessary to control the rate of cOnstruction and
to include reinforcement in overhanging sections.
Direction of Force,. The direction in which a
force acts may often be of more significance than
the magnitUde of the force. At certain locations it
may be appropriate to increase the radius of an
arch dam and accept higher stresses within the
dam in order to ensure a better angle of incidence
of the resultant thrust with the abutment. The
direction of resultant forces is equally important
for gravity and buttress dam&--especially on
stratified rock.
Hydrostatic Loading within the Foundation or
Abutment. Faults; joints, or cracks are present in
most damsites. Even the loading of a large dam
may cause cracks to appear in the rock upstream
from the dam. This being so, there exists the
danger that water under reservoir head may enter
the cracks and exert serious jacking loads that
could cause failure or dislodgment of large rock
masses. Careful surveys should be made of the
orientation and inclination of fauits, joints and
cracks, and analyses carried out relative to any
blocks that could be unstable under such internal
hydrostatic forces.
:1
Tectonic Forces. Quite apart from seismic forces
discussed later, there may exist significant tec­
tonic stresses within the Earth's crust at the
site. These can be upset by deep excav,ations or
saturation of the countryside following the filling
of the reservoir--see Chapter 10.
4.2 Dynamic Loading
The Earth's crust is in a state of stress. When
;1
the stress is great enough and the crust weak
enough adjustments will take place. These
adjustments may be small and frequent
(microseismic) or large and infrequent (seismic)
depending upon the geological structures
present. The energy released in an adjustment
causes shock waves to be propagated from the
epicentre. These will be of varying wavelengths ~
, 1
"
and frequencies. With increasing distance from .J
the focus the short-period waves attenuate more
rapidly than do the long-period waves. Because
the short-period waves have predominant fre­
quencies within the range of natural frequencies
for dams, they are apt to produce conditions of
resonance in the dam. Consequently design
engineers are more concerned with the possibility
of moderate earthquakes occurring within 80 to
120 km of the dam than with larger earthquakes
occurring outside this limit. 3 How serious the
effects of these shocks will be will depend upon
the magnitude and intensity of shock and the
type of dam. .
Mainly in connection with high-rise buildings,
many countries have defmed zones of varying
seismic activity. Codes are then issued specifying
the seismic coefficient to be inclnded in the
design of structures within each zone. This
approach is not recommended since records and
general knowledge of earthquakes are far from
complete. For example, the State of Tasmania,
Australia, was considered to be earthquake-free
until a review of local newspapers over the past
100 years revealed references to 2000 shocks.
None of these caused serious damage but they
ii,',
U

 59

had been felt by people. Who can say that larger Zoning. Many countries were adopting the
shocks will not occur in the future? It would principle of seismic zoning.
appear to be unwise to neglect the possibility of
Seismic Coefficiencs. A coefficient offrom 0.1 to
seismic shocks reaching any dam. As mentioned
0.2 was commonly used.
in Chapter 7, there also appears to be evidence
that the filling of large reservoirs may trigger Seismic Waves. Analyses had been made by
seismic activity-but it is at present impossible applying sinusoidal or modified earthquake
to forecast such reactions. records-but actual earthquake records had only
To decide what factor should be incorporated been applied in rare cases for dynamic analyses.
in the design of a dam is not easy. Any provision
Propercies of Macerials. In some countries
will cost money. Table 4.2 shows the order of the
research had revealed the different mechanic al
increase in concrete volume in a gravity dam
properties of various materials when subjected to
designed for the same factor of safety but with
static and dynamic loading.
different seismic coefficients adopted, in the
design. Loads Considered. For dynamic water pressur,e
1. the formulae of Westergaard,' Zanger,' and the
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation were in use.
Table 4.2
Allowable Scresses. In many cases the per­
Approximate increase
Vertical in volume of dam missible compressive stress under dynamic
Horizontal
coefficient coefficient (per cent) loading was increased by up to 30 per cent above
the permissible static stress. Factors of safety for
o o o arch dams were usually 4 based on compressive
0.10 o 14 stress and 1.2 minimum for fill dams.
0.12 o 19
0.15 o 22 Deformacions. An embankment dam (New Don
0.10 0.10 24 Pedro) which employed dynamic analysis was
assumed to suffer 5 per cent axial strain.
Models. These were popular for arch dams and
These figures could be reduced if each monolith
were used for some gravity dams. There was a
could be designed as a separate unit and given a
tendency to employ model tests for fill dams.
different slope to the downstream face, but this is
unlikely both for aesthetic and construction In Sicu Tem. Some arch dams were shaken by
reasons. vibrating machines to study natural frequency
In October, 1969, the Committee on Earth­ and modes of vibration.
j
quakes of the International Commission on
Seismographs. In a majority of large dams
Large Dams (ICOLD} sent questionnaires to all
seismographs were installed.
member countries. From their replies the follow­
ing would summarize 1969 practice.
In the years since 1969 a' great deal of research
Design. For gravity'dams a horizontal coef­ has been focused on the behaviour of dams under
ficient was generally adopted and applied as an seismic loading6- 8 and upon the interaction
additional static load. Vertical effects were taken between the dam and the reservoir water.' T.!)
into account in very few instances. Dynamic neglect the compressibility of water in such
analysis was used by very few. For arch dams the studies can lead to serious errors. The reservoir
dynamic effects received greater attention with causes a significant increase in the resonant
both model tests and in sicu testing by vibration period of a dam. This lengthening of the reso­
of the dam. A theoretical analysis was being nant period depends upon the depth of reservoir
developed. For embankment dams additional water and the modulus of elasticity of the dam.
horizontal static loads were considered; dynamic For a practical range of values of elasticity a full
analysis was being developed and closer attention reservoir may cause an increase in the fundamen­
was being given to the characteristics of fill tal resonant period of 25 to 50 per cent.
material. In February, 1972, ICOLD issued its Guide
60
and Recommendations on Aseismic DeSign (Ten­
tative), stressing the importance of the above
items and recommending that a design by con­
ventional methods, i.e. additional static loading,
be supplemented by dynamic analysis.
Most recent studies have shown very good
agreement of results from finite element dynamic
analyses and the testing of models under dynamic
loading.
At many dams accelerographs are being in­
stalled to study seismic activity. In Japan, some
such installations are. connected directly to the
Central Research Institn te of the Electrical
Power Industry so that immediate comparisons
can be made between the behaviour of dam and
model.
It is essential to stndy the components of an
earthquake in three directions. Any vertical
acceleration will reduce the effective weight of
the dam and for low dams the vertical component
of ground motion can have a greater effect than
the horizontal component. Each dam must be
a
considered as an entity; for instance, horizontal
ground acceleration may seriously damage a
buttress dam that is not adequately braced
between buttresses but may have little effect on a
gravity dam.
At Honenike Dam, Japan (built in 1930 to a
height of 30 m) an earthquake of intensity 4
caused a crack in the centre arch near its junc­
tion with a buttress. Leakage also appeared at the
left abutment which was founded on weak rock.
The resulting damage was repaired by grouting.
The behaviour of some dams under earth­
quake shocks has been discussed in Chapter 3. It
is a form of loading that cannot be
neglected-the possible severity of such loading
at a particular site can only be assessed after close
liaison between geologists an,! engineers. It must
be remembered that during an earthquake a dam
will be subjected to strains, firstly due to its own
resonance and secondly due to impact of the
reservoir water. This dynamic loading is nor­
mally of short duration. Concrete displays
remarkably high strength under instantaneous
loading whilst fill dams can usually be designed
to be self-healing should minor cracking occur.
Seismic action will induce stresses within the
dam-whether they can be absorbed into the
'factor of ignorance' can. only be determined by
dose examination of each individual dam and the
severity of earthquake likely to occur at the site.
A coefficient of 0.2 is now finding fairly wide n
acceptance in areas that are known to be subject U
to earthquakes. The world's highest embankment
dam-Nurek in U.S.S.R.-will be 317 m high
and its stability has been studied under an
horizontal ground acceleration of 0.45 g.
It is not unusual to consider the probability of
an earthquake occurring concurrently with all
other loadings on the dam and to accept a
reduced factor of safety for such a contingency.
The 1965 Japanese Code specifies the maximum
allowable compressive stress in an arch dam as
0.25 times the 91-day strength of the con­ ,
crete-but under earthquake loading this stress "1
i
1 :~
would be permitted to rise to 0.325 times the 91­
day streogth.
On the surface of the earth the value of the
acceleration due to gravity-g-varies between
9.77 and 9.83 mls'. Within Australasia it varies
from 9.782 at Port Moresby (TPNG) to 9.8 at
Melbourne, Victoria. By definition, the kilogram
force equals 9.806, 65 Newtons, and the figure
9.8 is therefore finding general acceptance in
engineering.
4.3 Behaviour of Concrete under Complex
Loading
4.31 Volumetric Strain and Time Effect
The study of the fracture of concrete has not
developed to the same extent as that on metals,
glass or near homogeneous rock. lo .!! Concrete is
heterogeneous and its behaviour depends upon
the properties of the cement paste and the
aggregates. The cement paste, being mainly com­
posed of silicates, may be likened to silicate rocks.
The mechanisms responsible for the high com­
pressive strength of cement paste are still uncer­
tain, but may be related to the fibrous crystalline ;1
structure of the paste which would inhibit crack ,; !~J.
growth. The aggregate in concrete is usually con­
sidered to be chemically inert. If there is no :1
.
chemical reaction between the aggregate and the i 1
i)
cement paste the physical bonding forces
between them will be lower in magnitude than
those within the cement paste. A typical
stress-strain curve for concrete loaded in com­
pression is shown in Fig. 4.04.
Concrete, even before loading, contains
U I
 61

fact, be much lower than the strength of similar

stress
Volumel,ic
sirain "- LOnqihJdinol
strain
Stmin
Fig. 4.04 Typical stress-strain curve
for concrete loaded in ,unial<ial
compression
shrinkage cracks and air and water voids in the
cement paste at the aggregate surfaces. On
loading internal stress 'concentrations arise from
the differing elastic properties of the components
and also due to shrinkage cracks and voids. Local
cracking under uniaxial compression can occur
at stresses of the order of 3.45 MFa, Fig. 9.33.
For short-term loading, the stress-strain curve
is practically linear to about 50 per cent of the ul­
concrete tested under normal laboratory
procedures.
4.32 Biaxial Loading
Under uniaxial compression micro-cracks tend
to grow generally in the same direction as the
compressive stress, whereas under uniaxial ten­
sion the micro-cracks grow in the direction nor­
mal to the direction of tensile stress. It can
therefore be expected that under combined ten­ , '
sile and compressive stresses at right-angles the
effects would be additive and the stress to cause
failure would be lower.
An experimental study of the strength of con­
crete under combined tensile and compressive
stresses was made by McHenry and Karni 12 using
hollow concrete cylinders loaded by internal
hydrostatic pressure and axial compression. The
following general results were obtained:
Tensile strength is ~educed by ~n orthogonal com­

pressive stress and vice'versa. Very roughly, when

timate stress. At this point macro cracking com­

either stress is at' SO per cent of the ultimate for

mences and in this condition the concrete is that stress alone, the resistance to the stress of op­

susceptible to failure under loads of prolonged posite sense is reduced by about 50 per cent. The

duration. The time dependence of the fracture principal stress at failure appears to be independent

limit under these conditions is shown in Fig. of the sequence in which the stresses are applied.

4.05. It is of interest to note that the long-term

strength is approximately equal to the stress at 4.33 Triaxial Loading
which volumetric strain decreases.
This is a warning that the strength of concrete The behaviour of concretelJ under triaxial
in a dam subjected to long-term loading may,in loading is illustrated in Fig. 4.06.
Ifh is zero then the loading is biaxial; if1, is a
~
~
~
;;

tensile stress equal to 0.05 Ie then it can be seen
~

;;
c

'E
~
~
that the ratio h to I. is 0.8. If, on the other hand,
both J, and I, are tensile equal to 0.0510, tlien the
E 0
0 '0
E
~
N !2 ...
0
ratio 11 to 10 may be of the order of 0.6.
"'e
c
0;
~ ~ ~
Since stress conditions vary throughout 11 dam
it would appear that the actual strength of the
~ concrete will vary accordingly. With double cur­
1:
~
0 vature arch dams and other dams of speciar
~

~
shapes tensile stresses may occur during the con­
0
!i! struction period due to structural overhang or in­
~
~ ,~ duced temperature gradients. The seriousness of
·-1 0.
I
~
0
orthogonal stresses both during construction' and
!
• ,~
1;
at various stages of the filling of the reservoir
0: 0 must be realized. In many cases construction
51 rain under constant load stresses will be counteracted by subsequent
I loading such as joint grouting, but analyses are
I, Fig. 4.05 Indicative stress-strain
necessary to ensure safety and structural in­
curves for concrete under constant
J load for various periods of time tegrity of the dam at aU stages.
.,.

j
 'n if •. E 2 BF
62 r~
.,
;j
, I

strength for a weak concrete (170 kg of cement

per cubic metre) and for stronger concretes (280,
340, 400 kg/m'). It is interesting to note that the
stronger concretes suffered a greater propor­
tional reduction in strength with increased
size--i.e. exhibited a characteristic of brittle
materials.
The comparison of change in concrete ~l,
strength with cylinder size for the case of max­ U
imum aggregate size, and for the case of max­
imum aggregate size a fIXed proportion of the
cylinder size are given in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3. Effect of Cylinder Size on Strength of

Concrete
Strength compared with 150 mm X
300 mm cylinder (per cent) n
!..J ~,
Maximum Maximum
fc ::: Ultimate compressive strength
under mono~axialloading
Fig.4.06 Chailge in compressive strength on triaxial
Cylinder size
(mm xmm)
(1)
t
aggregate size
x cyt dia., or less
(2)
aggregate size
constant
(3)
'n.
,
t.
.
~

loading (Mler 11th [COLD, Vol. 4, p. 666. R.s.12­

French Committee) 150 X 300 100% 100%
200 x 400 96.5 86.2
300 x 600 91.2
4.34 Test Cylinder Size 4S0x 900 86.5 82.7
600 x 1200 84.4 80.3
The apparent reduction in strength of con­ 900 X 1800 82.2
crete test cylinders with increase in size has been
known for years and confirmed in many Source Ref. 14 Ref. IS ,
countries. The investigations were mainly 'J
directed towards determining the strength of
mass concrete with large-size aggregates as in Although the strengths of 150 mm x 300 mm
"
mass-c.oncrete dams. cylinders may be used to control the quality of
A number of tests on concrete cylinders in the concrete in a dam, it must be realized that
diameter range 150 mm to 600 mm, with. a wide strengths indicated by such tests do not represent
range of mix proportions, was undertaken by the the strength of concrete in the dam.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,14 Fig. 4.07 from
that paper shows the effect of cylinder size on 4.4 Load-carrying Capacity of Dams
E 100 Cement It has been usual, for many years, to analyse a
E 170 kg 1m3 unit width of a dam and from this determine the
o
-
!!!
o
factor of safety against sliding and overturning. q
Although informative, such simplicity fails to U
represent correctly the true state of affairs. The
dam, whether of concrete or rockrlll, is a three­
Cemen1 - average of dimensional structure through which both
26.0,340,400 kg 1m3
80~ primary and secondary stresses are transmitted
to the ground. Gravity dams have been curved in
150 300 450 600 plan, their contraction joints have been rebated
Diameter (mm)
and grouted 'under pressure. Earth-rockfill dams
Fig. 4.01 Effect of cylinder size on strength of con­ have been curved in plan in the hope that more
crete (Mter Higginson") positive contact pressures will be developed lJ

0'

.' I
between the core material and the abutment.
These have been intentional moves to develop
three-dimensional benefits and provide what is
sometimes referred to as a factor of safety against
ultimate failure. None of these can be justified as
being necessary--but if such actions can increase
confidence at little extra cost they should not be
overlooked.
Resistance to sliding is not a simple
mathematical figure; it is dependent upon the
materials that comprise the dam and the proper­
ties of the foundation upon which it is built. The
rock in itself may be adequate, but whether infill­
ing in joints is dry, saturated or under pressure
and whether it is of clay mineral, clay size par­
ticles or brecciated material will govern the
overall sliding characteristics of the foundation.
Equally important-for stability of the dam and
of the abutments downstream from the
dam-are the orientations and inclinations of
faults, joints and bedding planes relative to the
direction of thrusts from the dam. It is often ap­
parent as excavation proceeds, that the coef­
ficient of defonnability of the foundation varies
along the axis of the dam. If variations are abrupt
the unequal reactions may cause unacceptable
stress concentrations in the base of the dam.
Abrupt changes in proflle along the excavation
can have a similar effect initiating cracks in the
dam.
The growth in strength of concrete with age
has been a characteristic that provided additional
confidence in the load-carrying capacity of con­
crete dams. Unfortunately the current trend is
for cement manufacturers to produce cement
that will provide early strength in the concrete;
this is suitable as ready-mix concrete for
buildings, but the sacrifice of long~tenn strength
increase is a. matter of serious concern to dam
builders.
i· In Section 4.3 it has been indicated that the
I strength of concrete in a dam subjected to long­
,i term loading may be considerably less than the
; strength of concrete tested in 150 mm x 300 mm
!
i cylinders under. laboratory conditions.
iI Endersbee 16 has suggested that extrapolation of
I I proven scale· effects combined with long-tenn
loading may result in an in situ strength as low.as
I 60 per cent of the above cylinder strength. If, due
+
1 i
to external loading and internal stresses, the con­
crete can be subjected to adverse triaxial stresses
I J
t,i
'",:' . s. "-!Ii
63
(tensions of the order of 0.05 Ie) then a further
factor of 80 per cent could be introduced.
Although the author does not suggest that
these effects can be compounded in the conven­
tional dam, it remains as a distinct possibility in a
dam of bold design--especiaUy those that inco~
porate pre-stressing. The factor of safety­
thought to be 4--may in fact be nearer 2.
Janas and Sawczuk17 have presented the quite
different modes of failure in arch dams of simple
conical and cylindrical shapes. These studies
emphasize the difficulty of visualizing the actu:al
mode of failure of a double curvature dam in an
unsymmetrical and irregular valley, see Chapter
1~ .
Swaminathan and Rajaraman 18 have published
an interesting method of calculating the ultimate
load-carrying capacity of arch dams. By
mathematical analysis they have reached con­
elusions that agree reasonably with the results of
model tests,l?-21 that is, that an arch dam will
not be fully ruptured until the applied loading is
five to seven times the design loading.
Microcracking of structural models will occur at
a fraction of the load required for ultimate rup­
ture of a model,22 but microcracking of the
upstream face of an actual dam would permit the
entry of pressure water with a consequent and
serious change in the loading pattern on the dam.
Although excellent work is being done to cor­
relate mathematical analyses· and' model tests
with prototype behaviour, it is essential for the
Engineer to confirm that both primary and
secondary conditions that will occur in the
prototype are faithfully. ineluded in such
analyses. .
4.5 Model Representation
The subject of models is dealt with in Chapter
19, but it is appropriate here to refer to the deter­
mination of factor of safety by model testing, An
arch dam is undoubtedly a safe structure.
Modern methods of analysis can take account of
quite complex loadings, determine their dis­
tribution, and indicate the resulting stresses,
strains and defonnations within· both the dam
and the foundations. In the past there has been
some. difficulty in simulating boundary con­
ditions in small-scale models. This has led to in­
 '~=~
::: ~:
n:;:
:

I
I

64

accuracies in stress determination. However, convinced of the adequacy of the structure. That
with present-day geomechanical models is the art of dam engineering.
endeavours are made to reproduce actual founda­
tion conditions in the model, resulting in more
accurate assessment of stresses at the concrete 4.6 Factor of Safety
rock interface.
Many models have been tested to destruction 4.61 Gravity Dams (see Chapter 10)
by applying loads in excess of those cor­ A gravity dam must be designed to be safe
responding to working conditions. Quite fre­ against overturning and sliding. For the former it
quently the loading at rupture will be six to ten is usual to dimension the dam so that the resul­
times the load for which the dam was designed. tant of all forces intersects the base within its
This 'factor ofsafety' of 6 to 10 is therefore very middle third. This will provide a factor in excess
different from the factor of safety calculated as of 2.
the ratio of strength of concrete to the maximum The ratio of the sum of the horizontal forces
n
working stress in the concrete. to the sum of the vertical forces is referred to as
d
Model tests--scale 1 to 50--were made at the the sliding factor. This is usually about
I.S.M.E.S., Italy, for the 38m high Moogerah 0.65-but must not exceed 0.75. These fignres aiJ'
Dam, Australia,22 Fig. 4.08. This dam is of represent the range of the coefficient of static
double curvature with considerable overhang. friction normally encountered at the site of a
The ratio crest length to height is 4.2, the crest gravity dam.
thickness 2 m, base thickness 4.9 m and max­ The strength of concrete in shear is approx­
imum thickness 6.8 m. Calculations indicated a imately one-fifth of its strength on compression.
factor of safety of 4 against buckling for the crest Due to the non-linear distribution of shear stress
arch--but rather large areas of the dome to be through the section,. the maximum shear may
under appreciable tensile stresses. It was reported equal twice the average shear. It is desirable,
that: therefore, to limit the average shearing stress to
about one-twentieth of the compressive strength
Several cycles of loading, with peak values two to of the concrete.
seven times the hydrostatic load, were applied to At or in the foundations the horizontal loading
the model which was unloaded at loads of three and
five times the normal load to permit measurement will be resisted by cohesion and friction. The
of permanent deflections. Residual deflection was ratio of the total resistance by cohesion and fric­
detectable at three times normal load, and became tion to the total horizontal load is termed the
decidedly more marked at five times normal load, at shear friction factor. Most countries accept 4 as a
which load a crack fullowed the perimetral joint at minimum value. In practice the foundation is
the upstream face and a horizontal crack occurred at
16 m below crest level across most of the usually prepared in steps or is sloped upward in a
downstream face. The whole base course appeared downstream direction to provide resistance to
fractured and crushed at five times normal load but failure far in excess of the above figure.
final collapse did not occur until seven times nor- . It must, of course, be understood that these
mal load, with failure of the thrust blocks and calculations refer to planar sections through the
crushing of the abutment.
dam. A large dam will resist overturning and
sliding in a three-dimensional manner; it may act
The design of the dam was based on a maximum
as a thick beam spanning the valley or inclined
compressive stress of 6.9 MPa and the concrete
arches may be activated within the dam to trans­
mix was designed for five or six times that ,
strength.
mit part of the load to the abutments. The fmite
n
a
To nominate definite figure for the factor of
element method may be used to determine the
stress distribution through a gravity dam aod
U,
safety of this dam would be quite unreal. Up-to­
this should be done for dams exceeding 60 m in
date methods were used by a leading Consultant
height.
to check the design, model tests were conducted
by experts; the Engineer then assessed all the in­
formation available-bearing in mind the
significance of any assumptions made-and was Fig. 4.0£ Moogerah Dam, Australia

\]1
,..
I
I'

4.08

~:
 - --
- _.
66
4.62 Concrete-Arch Dams (see Chapter 11)
As mentioned earlier the commonly used
definition of factor of safety-for an arch
dam-is the ratio of the compressive strength of
concrete to the maximum calculated compressive
stress in the dam. The compressive strength
referred to is usually the strength of concrete
at the age of 91 days when tested in 150 mm x
300 mm cylinders, all material in excess of
37.5 mm having been wet screened from the mix.
It seems reasonable to consider a figure below the
average of the measured strengths--having due
regard to the coefficient of variation of the
testing. Previous discussion has raised doubts as
to whether this indicated strength is in fact
representative of the strength of concrete in the
dam under the existing stress conditions.
The design criterion adopted by the U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation is for a faCtor of safety of
4 based on the strength of concrete at 1 year. Ex­
cept for extreme loading combinations the max­
imum compressive stress is usually limited to
6.9 MPa.
The Japanese Code requires that the factor of
safety-defined as above and related to the 91­
day strength--should be 4 for the dam under
normal maximum static loading. However, under
the rapid loading imposed by an earthquake, this
factor may be reduced to 3.
Using the Mossyrock Dam, U.S.A.-ISS m
high-for the purpose, an interesting study was
madei3 to estimate what savings would result
from a decrease in the factor of safety of a large
arch dam. The two methods of doing this would
be to:
Maintain the same volume of concrete--but use
less cement-i.e. operate with a lower strength
but with the advantage of lower heat genera­
tion and lower secondary stresses, or
De,;rease the volume of concrete, thereby in­
creasing stresses in the dam.
Table 4.4
Factor of safety 4 3 2
Saving in cost by reducing cement 0
4%
content
Saving in cost by redudng volume 0 12% 22%
of concrete with ultimate
strength of concrete limited to
33MPa
, -
. "------~--- - - ._-­ --
The calculated savings are shown in Table 4.4.
From these studies it was concluded that 'if the
factor of safety is to be reduced it is definitely
more advantageous to keep the concrete strength
constant and reduce the volume of concrete than
to keep the volume constant and reduce the
strength'. This should be qualified from the prac­
tical viewpoint since it is most unlikely that
working stresses of 11 and 16.5 MPa would be
acceptable with factors of safety of 3 and 2
respectively. "
If the factor of safety was retained at 4 but the
working stress allowed to rise from 6.9 to
11 MPa then a saving of 4 per cent would result.
The consequent increase in cement content
would, however, introduce greater secondary
stresses due to extra heat generation.
4.63 Embankment Dams (see Chapter 13)
Although concrete-arch dams are often
designed with a factor of safety of 4, embank­
ment dams are acceptable with a factor of safety fl
against sliding of less than 2--often less than
U
1.5. One must ask how two such dams compare
for overall safety. ,. .,
'~l
tJ
If in the latter case cohesion had been assutued
as zero and a coefficient of friction had been ,
derived from a great number of tests (and an '1
~ ,
Engineer usually adopts a figure conservatively U
below the average of such test results), then it is
almost inconceivable that the same material in
the dam could have a coefficient of friction of 'fJ"
t""
two-thirds or half of the (conservatively)
measured figure. The factor of safety for a fIll
dam, therefore, appears to be more realistic. The
most important thing with an embankment dam
is that all parts of the dam should be at the same
'distance' from failure. This calls for good con­
trol during construction of the dam, as well as
foresight by the designer in providing for par­
ticular conditions at the site.
Examples of minimum factors of safety for
embankment dams would be:
Upstream Slope
8%
Immediately after completion with
full constru~on pore pressure 1.3-1.5
r'.1
Following rapid drawdown (slip
circles between high and low
water levels 1.2-1.3
U
,- , 1
Downstream Slope
Earthquake and Reservoir full 1.2
.,
Reservoir full-steady seepage 1.5
In an area subiect to earthquakes the following
factors are indicative of acceptable values:
Seismic coefficient 0.1 F of S 1.8
Seismic coefficient 0.3 F of S 1.15
However, . each site must receive special con­
sideration bearing in mind the materials available
for construction, i.e. would the filter material act
as a self-seal if a crack occurred in the core?
I failure. The full complexity of such an approach
4.64 Abutments and Foundations
J
i It is essential that the rock mass supporting
the dam be thoroughly investigated for any
possible mechanism by which it may fail. This
11 usually involves the identification of all joints,
faults and seams and tests of any infilling
material. Rocha has suggested24 a reasonable
definition of factor of safety as applied to
abutments as:
The ratio of the shearing resistance available to the
maximum shearing stress predicted, the lowest
i
i References
1. Harrison, Trans. A.S.C.E., 75, 1912, p. 142.
2. Symposium, 'Ice Pressure against Dams', Tram.
A.S.C.E., 119, 1954, pp. 1-42.
3. George C. Rouse, 'Response of Concrete and
Earth Dams to Ground Vibrations', A.E.C.
Technical Symposium on Safety, 7th Nov. 1968,
Washington, U.S.A.
><.4. H. M. Westergaard, 'Water Pressure on Dams
During Earthquakes', Tram. A.S.C.E., 98,1933,
p. <!l8.
S. C. N. Zanger, 'Hydrodynamic Pressure on Dams
II '
due to Horizontal Earthquakes', Proe. Exptl.
Stress Analysis, 1953, 10, pp.93-102; Also
Engng: Monograph No. 11, U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.
I,
I'
I
6. S. Okamoto, K. Kato and M. Hakuno, <a) 'A New
Method of Dynamic Model Test of Arch Dams',
Tram. Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 75; (b) 'A
Method of Dynamic Testing on ArCh Dams', 4th
Conference on Earthquake Engineering.
7. T. Hatano, 'Dynamical Compressive Deformation
,
and Failure under Earthquake Load', Central 13. Report of FrenCh National Committee, 11th
L Research Institute, Electric Power Industry,
Japan, Tech. Report <5409, 1950).
67
value of this ratio found for any point in the foun­
dation being the Factor of Safety of the foundation.
This can be visualized as the weakening which
the material of the foundation must undergo for
failure to take place under the action of the
design loads applied to the dam and foundation.
4.65 Probability Approach to Safety
In recent years many papers have· been
published2>-29 recommending that the concept of
safety be based on the probability of incidence of
various loads and the probable resistance of the
whole structure to carry such loads. Into this
system can be woven the effects of catastrophic
has not as yet been covered by research workers;
for that reason the Engineer responsible for a
dam must remain conscious of the fact that he is
dealing with something· the failure of whiCh
would probably be a national disaster rather than
an accident.
Before any serious decrease can be made in the
factor of safety, for the sake of economy
Engineers must have a very clear concept of the
overall stability of the three-dimensional struc­
ture and its foundation.
8. T. Hatano, 'Dynamical Behaviours of Concrete
Under Impulsive Tensile Loads', C.R.l.E.P.I.
Tech. Report (6002, 1960).
9. N. Kumakawa, 'Analysis and Experiment of
Hydrodynamic Pressure acting on a Dam having
a Parabolic Sloped Upstream Face During Earth­
quake', 10th ICOLD Congress, Montreal, 1970,
Communication Paper No. C5, V, pp.481-510.
10. J. R. Rydzewski (Ed.), Theory of Arch Dams,
Pergamon, Oxford, 1965, Paper 'Structure and
Engineering Properties of Concrete' by K. New-
man, pp.683-712. .
11. J. R. Rydzewski (Ed.), Theory of Arch Dams,
Pergamon, Oxford, 1965, Paper 'The Influence of
Microcracking and State of Stress on the Elastic
Behaviour and Discontinuity of Concrete' by
G. S. Robinson, pp.713-721.
12. D. McHenry and J. Karni, 'Strength of Concrete
under Combined Tensile and Compressive
Stress', Journal A.C.I., 29, No. 10, April 1958,
pp.829-839; Proc. A.C.I., 54.
ICOLD Congress, Madrid, 1973, R.S.12, IV,
p.666.
--,--------------
""---­
t
68
14. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Concrete Manual,
7th edn., 1966, pp. 581-582, Washington D.C.,
U.S.A.
15. E. C. Higginson, G. B. Wallace and E. L. Ore,
'Effect of Maximum Size Aggregate on
Compressive Strength of Mass Concrete', Paper
No. 11, Symposium on Mass Concrete, Denver,
Colorado, 14-15 March, 1963; A.C.I. Special
Publication, S.P.G., pp. 219-256.
16. L. A. Enderbee, 'Brittle Fracture in Concrete and
RocKs', I.E. Awt. Symposium on Concrete Struc­
tures', 22-23 May 1967, Paper No. 2260.
17. J. R. Rydzewski (Ed.), Theory 0/ Arch Dams,
Pergamon, Oxford, 1965; M. Janas and A. Sawc­
zuk, 'Some Aspects of the Load-carrying
Capacities of Arch Dams', pp. 627-640.
18. K. V. Swaminathan and A. Rajaraman, 'A
Method of Estimating the Ultimate Load
Capacity of Arch Dams', Water Power, Feb. 1970,
pp.54-62.
19. G. Oberti and L. Auletta, 'Evaluation Criteria for
Factors of Safety: Model Test Results', Symp.
CMt. Dam Models; Paper No.3, Oct. 1963.
20. M. Rocha and L. Serafun, 'Rupture Studies of
Mh Dams by Means of Models', Water Power,
pp.92-95, Feb.; pp. 145-152, March 1959.
21. E. Rosenbleuth and J. Bustamente, 'Ultimate
,
, ""
- ,-­
~
Load Capacity of Arch Dams', Proc. A.S.C.E.,
EM4, p.21, Aug. 1966.
22. A. M. Fraser and A. E. Wickham, 'Moogerah Arch
Dam Design', I.E. Aust. Queensland Di'Visio"
Tech. Paper, Vol. 4, No.7, Aug. 1963.
23. R. P. Wengler, 'Effect of Safety Factor on Cost of
Arch Dams', Proe. of Engineering Foundation
Research Conference, 1970, A.S.C.E. Publication
Rapid Construction 0/ Concrete Dams, pp. 249-261.
24. M. Rocha, 'Mechanical Behaviour of Rock Foun­
dations in Concrete Dams" 8th ICOLD Congress,
Edinburgh, 196.4, Report R.44.
25. A. C. Cornell, 'A Probability-based Structural
Code', (A.C.I. Committee 348, Structural Safety)
Table No. 66-68, Journal A.C.I., Dec. 1969.
26. A. M. Fredenthal, 'Safety and the Probability of
Structural Failure', Trans. A.S. C.E., 121, 1956,
p.1337.
27. P. D. Cady, 'Statistical Evaluation of Concrete
Strength Test', Journal of Construction Division
A.S.C.E., PrIX. No. J45J, March 1963.
28. K. O. Kemp, 'Concepts of Structural Safety',
Civil Engineering and Public Works Refliew, Feb.
1973, p. 132.
29. H. L. Kreuzer, 'A Probability-based Safety
Approach for Arch Dams', Warer Power, Dec.
1973, pp.458-463.
u
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CHAPTER 5

Investigations
-. j -An untouched, often grandiose sit~ a truly monumental scale, an OP"'
tion which. by the very nature of things, one cannot help but assert.
Here, more tban anywhere, truth is arbiter and unless: one humbly
accepts to go along with Nature, with her laws, her sometimes secret
preferences and even her moods, in Ii word, if one wiU not understand
and love her, the immediate aim, the purely technical objective ;s
doomed to failure.'
Andre Coyne. 1953
!
~ J Most of the failures described in Chapter 3 were the various dillciplines--it must remain the
due to Ii!.,,~ of appreciation of how the particular Engineer's responsibility to know what to look
damsite woullreaci:' lothe superposition of the for and to ,ensure that he receives data adequate,
dam and reservoir. In other words, the overall for the decisions that he must ultimately make.
engineering investigations were inadequate. Fre­ In the planning stage possible damsites for
quently extensive field investigations have been development of the whole river basin will have
undertaken but, due to lack of)iais(jJ! with the been selected from contour maps or following
designers, they have been misdirected and have re£on.!!.aissance on the ground or from the air.
failed to reveal the basic weakness that led to These selections will be based primarily on
failure. - - , topography. Ideally one ~e.~s a narrow
It is therefore emphasized that all phases of in­ gorge-hoping for minimum quantities in iIi~
vestigation must be carefully planned, and be dam-and a valley opening out upstream from
, .!
specifically orientated towards confirmation of the dam to provide the required storage. On this
the--safety offhe'aam and correct functioning of preliminary basis-with at least approximate
the reservoir. They must not become self-centred levels along the river-it is possible to divide the
academic exercises for the particiE-il:!lts. Since the river basin into regions for development.
Engineer is the one who understands the loads However, there may be alternative sites along
that will be applied by the structure and what a length of river within a region-the further
will be required of the reservoir, it is for him to downstream the greater will be the cl!.!shment
plan and direct the work to best advantage. area and hence the flow. The value of this ad­
Although it is recognized that each phase of ditional water and the greater head for the same
investigation has now become a highly full supply level must be balanced against the in­
specialised subject-best handled by experts in creased ,cost for a higher dam, Fig. 5.01.
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Fig. 5.01 Alternative damsites

69
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70

Investigations must be undertaken at each site to veyors, geologists, geophysicists, hydrologists

the extent necessary to permit a fair comparison and engineers into areas difficult of access. One
being made of the likely costs of different types small- and one medium-sized helicopter form an
of dam on the alternative sites. economical team, Fig. 5.02. It is most important
that professional men spend as much time as
S.l Preliminary Investigation and Recon­ -possible on their professional work rather than in
naissance walking through difficult country, Fig. 5.03.
Even small helicopters can transport
In these days topographical and geological
prefabricated buildings, Fig. 5.04, diamond drills
regional maps are usually available and these
and other equipment as may be necessary for the
form the first data upon which the Engineer will
construction of such items of access as a
work. Photographs from the Earth Resources
haulageway or suspension bridge, Fig. 5.05.
Technology Satellite launched in July, 1972,
Transport by helicopters and boats will cause
have added another dimension to photo­
minimum disturbance to the environment.
interpretation, especially when the photographs I
Features that should be sought during early
are printed with colour differentiation. The ex­
reconnaissance include old and potential
tent of major geological lineaments revealed in
landslides, geological faults and major joints
the vast coverage of these photographs can often
parallel with the valley; these are often the result
improve on interpretations made from the ex­
of stress relief during erosion of the valley, Figs.
amination of geological exposures or from nor­
5.05 and 5.06. Such joints may be open or in­
mal aerial photography. Of special significance is
filled with products of decomposition. They may
the assistance that this new facility can provide
present construction hazards or if intercepted by
in identifying major fault systems and landslides
other joint systems may provide leakage paths
on a regional scale. Where maps are not available around the dam.
it is expeditious to employ specialists in
Examination along the beds of the river and
photogrammetry to produce them in reasonable .. 1
tributary streams will indicate the strike and dip
time. However, there are still many locations
of rock formations-features particularly rele­ -!
; l
where the Engineer must rely on the resources
vant to the stability of both the dam and the
available to him. The old fashioned plane
abutments. Any springs or underground water
table---assisted by modern electronic measuring
should receive close attention in case they could
equipment-,-can still be most efficient. Basic
provide paths for leakage from the reservoir. The
maps can be produced quickly-the surveyor
depth of alluvium or soil should be determined as
and geologist continually adding their informa­
early as possible to indicate the excavation re­
tion as it becomes available.
quired and probable quantity of materials in the
Aerial reconnaissance is of prime importance.
dam. It is recommended that models be con­
The Engineer can appreciate the topography and
structed as early as possible in the in­
form an opinion of the probable hydrological
vestigation-see Chapter 19. These will be
characteristics of the catchment; with the
topographical for the location of access roads and
assistance of the geologist he can select alter­
native damsites, and with the construction
engineer he can study access to sites and possible
sources of materials. An interesting example was
the ability of the Engineer for the Geehi Em­
Fig. 5.02 Helicopters-Light and medium
bankment Dam, Australia, to select from aerial
photographs those areas which appeared to be Fig. 5.03 Gordon Gorge, Australia
topographically suitable and which from his
knowledge of the weathering patterns of granite Fig. 5.04 Prefabricated camp transported by heli-
;-_" were likely to provide material of the required copter
eli ,,'quality. Each site so selected was then visited
Fig. 5.05 Haulageway and suspension bridge-­
until satisfactory materials were located. Components transported by helicopter
If available, helicopters will great! y expedite
the..,-work of investigation by transporting sur­ Fig. 5.06 Major geological faults
5.02

5.03

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dam building facilities and geological for the un­ Ultimate safety of the present or future in­
derstanding in three dimensions of what' is habitants of the valley;
revealed by field investigations, core drilling, etc. Finance-its availability and constraints;
Such models must be regularly updated, so that Environmental impact-lacustrine, riverine, es­
the accuracy of information depicted is con­ tuarine, socio-economic;
tinually improved. The field investigations can Quality of water, chemical and biological;
thereby be concentrated in areas of special Physical factors such as hydrology, geology,
significance. topography;
Availability of resources, both materials and
skills.
5.2 Time and Money for Investigations
In order to avoid premature unilateral
Two problems usually confront the
decisions, it is essential that all phases of in­
Engineer--the availability of time and money
vestigation proceed concurrently-the ac­
for investigations. It is essential that each be ex­
cumulating information being made available
pended to best advantage. To quote from the
progressively to all parties.
Aberfan report: 1 'Responsibility begins with
If the location of the dam is changed due to
Management', but Management cannot be ex­
circumstances revealed by the detailed in­
pected to understand what is necessary unless it
vestigations-even to just beyond the limits of
is well advised. The Engineer must therefore
those investigations--the new site must be
possess knowledge and experience in dam
studied in the same depth as the site vacated. It is
engineering. If he fmds that insufficient time is
unwise to extrapolate into the unknown, when it
available to conduct the necessary investigations
was probably unforeseen conditions that made
or"that unreasonable restraints on finance might
the move necessary. The additional work will add
influence him to omit certain studies, then he
to the cost and may delay the project, but it is too
must have the courage to say 'not enough in­
great a risk to assume that the additional in­
vestigations'.
vestigations are unnecessary.
The amount of money required to investigate
It cannot be overemphasized that adequate
a damsite will depend upon the site and the type
time and money must be available so that all dis­
of dam. A department, with past experience and
ciplines involved are given the opportunity to in­
with its own staff of hydrologists, geologists, sur­
vestigate and report.
veyors and engineers, may produce sufficient in­
formation-related to its own territory-for an
outlay of 2 or 3 per cent of the cost of the dam. 5.3 Basic Concepts
On the other hand, the figure of 6 per cent could
A dam must be stable against overturning and
apply in remote locations where basic data are
sliding, either on or within the foundations; the
not available.
rock must be competent to withstand the
It is by no means unusual to spend 3 years on
superimposed loads without crushing or undue
site investigations. This will, of course, depend
yielding and the reservoir basin must be water­
upon the location and size of the dam, but time
tight. For each type of dam considered the
must not be underestimated. To meet stringent
Engineer must visualize all possible modes of
requirements for environmental studies and
failure and then assess the factor of safety against
public opinion polls could easily add 2 years to
such failures.
the time and several per cent to the cost. "
It should be his aim to keep open as many
Investigations will normally include considera­
alternatives as possible for as long as is
tion of the following:
acceptable. Bias towards a type of dam with
National or International policies,; even the type which one is experienced is natural and
of dam may be influenced by' such policies sometimes justifiable. More often than not, it is
rather than by minimum cost; an error of omission that leads to an ac­
The purpose of the dam and how it fits into ex­ cident-and one can easily omit something when
isting or future plans for water conservation working in a particular field where experience is
and utilization in the region; minimal.
 75

The concept of hydraulic gradient must be
always to the forefront, i.e. what hydrostatic
pressure can act over what length of path from
the reservoir to atmosphere? There may be long
paths through karstic or pervious zones or
relatively short paths through, under or around
the dam, Fig. 5.07. The hydraulic gradient
through the core of a rockfill dam will be much
steeper-maybe 2 on I-than that through a
homogeneous embankment, maybe 1 on 3.
Similarly that under the plinth of a decked
rockfl1l dam--or cut-off trench of a buttress
dam-usually between 7 and 20 on I-will be
many times steeper than that under a gravity
dam-maybe 1.3 on 1.
then very detailed studies will be justified. Some
formations are cavernous and can lead to serious
losses, others may be sealed by folding of the
rock series and therefore be of no consequence.
Chemical analyses of water from the river" below
the damsite and in streams tributary to the
storage may give an indication of the presence of
limestone in the reservoir area. Careful explora­
tion along the beds of creeks and streams shouid
therefore be one of the earliest stages of
geological in vestigation.
5.4 Basic Data
For the preparation of a feasibility report basic
data must be available, relating to:

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d}Gt(l'llIY
. • !MdluinsJ

A0 B
Topography;

Meteorology and hydrology;

II io) Homogeneous eqrlhfill ' Gmul--L('

el.lriaID A
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Geology and seismicity;

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Finance;

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Grou,-t!~ Preliminary environmental assessment (Chapter

2.4).
1 (b) Ceolrol cure rockfill curl(lin r

"-ff A,,"
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Although each subject should be handled by
(I)

experts, the Engineer must be sufficieritly

Grou!.-1'
A
G"""-V knowledgeable to understand the processes in­
curlOIn A' curloin A' volved and the information submitted. In the
te} De.cked rockfiU past two decades tremendous technological ad­
Fig. 5.07 Hydraulic gradients vances have been tuade in all fields, but the
Dams involving steep hydraulic gradients, degree of sophistication to be applied must be
such as decked rockfill or buttress dams, are related to the size and importance of the dam.
often built on sound rock where grouting can en­
sure an adequate cut-off. However, these dams
5.41 Topography
are also suitable for poorer foundations and great
care is then needed to avoid seepage or piping. Surveys will be required in three maln ar~as,
The acceptable hydraulic gradient can only be and should be organized with these in. mind:
decided having regard to the geological for­
The storage basin to determine the volume
,: mations and the properties of the materials
available below various" levels, and the ex­
thereof after saturation.
istence of any low saddles around . the
It is equally important that the hydraulic
perimeter;
i gradient through the abutment, either around or
The damsite to determine quantities of excava­
1 under the dam, be acceptable. The actual quan­
tion and material in the dam, for layout of
I" tity of water lost by seepage may be of little con­
sequence but the pressure that it can exert within
plant and access roads, and for the setting out
of the dam; and
the rock mass is of vital concern. It can induce
On to the completed dam to verify that it behaves
piping and erosion or even dislodgement of abut­
in accordance with design.
ment rock.
Watertightness of the reservoir basin is a Although an isolated dam can be built entirely
fundamental requirement. Research should to a local datum, it is most desirable to consider it
therefore be made of regional geology. If there is as part of a total development of the "river; levels
any possibility of the occurrence of limestone should therefore be related to mean sea level, and
 - - -- .
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76 ~J :

planimetric surveys to the National Survey assembled by orientating each print along the
,grid. This latter will necessitate secondary azimuth line on the mosaic board and matching
triangulation, which in the past has involved detail between successive prints. To reduce
precise angle measurements, but is now usually further the effects of the various distortions, only
done by distance measurement with electronic in­ the area ofeach point that is immediately adjacent
struments-,-the work often being 'expedited by to its principal point is used. In this area, the dis­
the use of helicopters for rapid movement of tortions are a minimum.
observers and assistants. A new presentation of topographic features is
Advances in electronic distance measurement now available in the form of an orthophotograph
have been rapid in the past 15 years and are still which is the equivalent of the orthographic
continuing. Accuracy has been improved and the photograph taken from above. It is made by
weight of equipment has been reduced in some removing the effects of tilt, relief and many of
cases by 90 per cent. Many instruments are the lens aberrations of standard perspective , '1:,
, !

available to operate over a range of 2 to 3 km photographs. This can be accomplished in special .~j :
:
with an accuracy of ±1 cm. Greater accuracy is devices designed for the purpose--the important I
available with such instruments as the property being that features that are straight
Mekometer, Fig. 5.08, where resolution has been Jines appear as straight lines on the
improved to 0.1 mm and under favourable con­ orthophotograph. This can be particularly im­
'T
ditions accuracy of 0.2 mm ± 1 part per million portant in the extrapolation of fault lines
has been attained. The Geodometer 8, using a revealed only interrnittendy on the aerial
neon-helium light source, can be used in daytime photographs. The orthophotograph is in fact a
:T
or at night up to 50 km with an accuracy in stan­ photo-map, from which distances can be scaled
dard operation of 5 mm ± 1 p.p.m. of the range. and angles calculated accurately. ," 'I' ;
Using precise methods-that require 30 min for The major break-through for geological mapp­
an observation compared with 3 min for the stan­ ing of damsites came with the introduction of the "J'
dard observation-an accuracy of! mm + 1 p.p.m. phototheodolite. Photographs are taken from ,J
is attainable. Such instruments are therefore ad­ each end of a short base line with a camera built
mirably suitable for both major triangulation and into the theodolite. The resulting photographs
the, direct measurement of deformation of dams. form a stereoscopic pair that can be processed
Field investigations are greatly facilitated if through an autograph in the same manner as for
the Engineer can be supplied with aerial vertical aerial photographs. The spatial ~·l :
photographs--preferably arranged as mosaics. relationship of geological features can be es­ iij'
The uncontrolled mosaic is usually quite ade­ tablished, whilst the features themselves can be
quate. For this, the photographs are brought to a identified on the photographs.
When dealing with near vertical rock faces,
common scale, and any existing control or map
containing large areas of overhang, Fig. 5.09,
,.data may be used to maintain a reasonably ac­
such as the Gordon Damsite, Australia, Fig.
curate picture of the terrain. The effects of tilt
5.03, the conventional contour plan becomes
and topographic relief tend to pull a mosaic in
cluttered with crossing contours and it is almost
one direction or another when control or map
impossible to interpolate information essential to
data are not available. To counteract this tend­
the design engineer. In such instances it has been
ency, an approximate azimuth method of compila­
found advantageous to draw lines, referred to
_tion may be used. The photographs are laid out
within the Hydro Electric Commission as
by strips in their proper order by matching image
isometrons, 2 passing through points on the
details. A straightedge is placed so as to pass as
natural surface an equal distance away from a
close as possible to all the principal points in the
predetermined vertical datum plane.
flight strip, and a straight line is drawn across
the assembled photographs. A sirnilarline is
drawn on the mosaic board. The line on the
This type of topographic presentation was
used extensively in the design of the Gordon J
photographs is extended across each print and is
transferred to any prints in the flight not in­
cluded in the original laydown. Thec'llllYsaic,·;s'''''lfig. 5.08 The Mekometer

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Dam. The photographs must be taken with the
camera axis normal to the predetermined datum
plane and the plotting is performed in either the
Wild A40 or A7 Autographs, depending on the
photographic equipment used. On the map sheet,
at a selected interval, lines normal to the datum
plane and lines indicating elevation, preferably at
the same interval, are drawn. With the aid of this
grid the isometrons can be easily related to the
horizontal reference plane, i.e. Mean Sea Level.
Another example of unorthodox approach was
that adopted for production ofcontour plans ofthe
Franklin River Gorge, Australia.' This valley is
SOO m deep, the sides being densely timbered,
Fig. S.lO. Maps at a scale of 1 to 1200 Were re­
quested including contour intervals of 3.1 m. In
order to complete the work in one season it was
necessary to use helicopters for access-and then
landings were only possible outside the gorge. To
supply the necessary contour information for the
dam location a strip of some 6 km would have to
be plotted at the above-mentioned scale. The dam
location could not be pin-pointed any closer
because suitable maps were not avallable. Due to
the nature of the terrain and timber coverage,
the plotting would have had to be done from nor­
mal angle photography and at a flying altitude of
1370 m above ground level, some 15 models
being required. The effort and cost involved to
provide photo-control for the strip did not make
this a practical proposition and, on the other
hand, triangulation at that altitude with normal
angle photography could present problems in
relative orientation, particularly when critical
surfaces are considered.
A strip of photogrllphs was flown over, the
general area at 3100 m above ground with the
Wild RCS Camera ;using a wide-angle lens,
together with two strips flown at an altitude of
1370 m above ground with the normal-angle
lens. These two strips were placed in position to
cover the areas required to be mapped. Four
I models from the high flight were enough to cover
the area involved and these were rigldly con­
trolled. This did not present a serious problem
because outside the gorge the timber tends to
Fig. 5.09 Overhanging quartzite cliff
Fig. 5.10 Franklin River, Australia
tr
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79
become scattered and suitable landing places
could be selected for the helicopter.
The photo-points, at which several detail
points were surveyed, were fIxed by tellurometer.
In the gorge, height control was provided along
the river by spirit levelling for the model centre
points.
Commencing at the southern ,end of the run,
the first of the high-flight models was set up and
a plan was drawn at the 1 to 1200 scale with
16 m contours. At this stage the Engineer con­
cerned with the project was called in to select
likely damsite locations in this area. Details iden­
tifIable on both runs were then selected in .their
appropriate positions to serve as control on the
low flight and their machine coordinates were
recorded.
Proceeding in this manner, some . SO per cent
of the models on the low run were eliminated and
did not receive any further consideration.
Finally, the requested 1 to 1200 plans with
3.1 m contours were produced from the low­
flight photography using control obtained from
the higher flight.
When contours are derived by photogram­
metric means, their accuracy will be influenced
by the vegetation-its density and height. It
is most difficult to assess the ground position
for 5 m contours if there is a dense forest
cover of trees 70 to 100 m high along the banks i
of the gorge. This may not be serious in the com­ I
putation of the storage of the fInal reservoir. It I
has, however, been the author's experience that
serious overestimation of volume usually occurS I',:
when the volume of the bottom of the valley is so I
determined to ascertain the storage behind a I'
"
cofferdam.
The essential thing in all topographic survey­
ing is to determine in advance the' accuracy re­
quired in the various measurements and to use "
"
instruments and procedures that will provide
that accuracy at minimum cost. 1.1. must not be
overlooked that sophisticated instruments re­
quire sophisticated operators. If maintenance or
repairs require that an instrument be returned to
its maker, then such an instrument would be
most inappropriate in remote parts of the world.
5.42 Meteorology and Hydrology
At any particular site the Engineer will be in­
 &
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80

terested in the flow characteristics of the river: farmer recollect that his father had moved the
barn uphill after the flood.
The average quantity of water available;
.It is essential that all hydrological data be to
The minimum flow, both as the absolute
the best possible accuracy-whether it be in
minimum and the minimum average over a rainfall recording (preferably by· pluviometer),
period of a month or a year; river level recording (preferably by continuous
The maximum flow that has been recorded and recorder), stream gauging, estimation of missing
estimates of what might occur in the future. records and data processing.
Variations in flow will determine the storage
Such information is basic for the dimensioning of necessary and hence the height of the dam to full
the dam, but it is also of vital concern during supply level; flood flows will determine the
construction of the dam. spillway arrangement and freeboard required for
When records are of short duration or are of flood routing through the reservoir; and wind
doubtful accuracy, correlation should be velocities will determine the behaviour of the
attempted with rainfalls and flows that have been body of reservoir and the additional freeboard re­
recorded· in surrounding catchments. Hydro­ quired to prevent overtopping of the dam by set­
meteorologists can advise on what might happen up, seiche or wave effects. Each of the
in the future, i.e: from a study of known hydrological factors has some influence on the
occurrences . and a knowledge of possible height of dam and hence the cost of the project.
meteorolbgical conditions they can estimate the It is therefore most desirable that meteorological
maximum rainfall that could probably occur on and hydrological stations be installed near the q
the particular catchmeilt. The Engineer' should, site at the earliest possible date.
however, consider other factors-even if they are
of remote possibility-i.e. the precipitation of
, ']
"

maximum probable rainfall on snow cover--or 5.43 Geology and Seismicity

the rapid succession of two' major floods. He may
,consider it to be economic a'nd expedient to 'build The stability of the dam on its foundation and
~aller' and accept some damage to ancillary the watertightness of the reservoir are the items
works on rare occasions. If he so chooses, he of vital concern to the Engineer. An experienced , I
must assess the damage that would occur, and be Engineering Geologist should therefore be ap­ j
convinced that it could not lead to a catastrophe pointed to the investigation team at the earliest
by secondary effects. possible time.
During field reconnaissance some irrefutable After making himself conversant with what in­
evidence of past high floods is often found. All formation is available on regional geology and
field staff should therefore be alerted to report seismicity, he should accompany the Engineer on
such evidence to the Engineer. preliminary reconnaissance, preferably using a
In the Franklin River, Tasmania, a sawn pine slow aircraft or helicopter. Any evidence of an­
log 0.7 m diameter and 5 m long was sighted in cient or incipient landslides can be impor­
the branches of a eucalyptus tree that was grow­ tant--one does not relish a repetition of the
ing on the bank of the river. The pine log was Vaiont disaster (Chapter 3)! On the other hand, if
13 m above the river-and in this wilderness it remote from the dam and reservoir, and if it can
could only have been put there by the river. be excavated safely, the material in the landslide
Many years ago a train driver read the gauge is often suitable for an earth-rockfill dam.
on the Pieman River, Tasmania, as his train Any indication of limestone will justify
crossed the bridge each morning. One day debris detailed investigation, since a dam that holds no
was sighted in the steel truss--some 25 m above water is an expensive exercise (Chapter 8)! The
the river. Apparently a flash flood had caused the pattern of jointing in the rock mass and the
river to rise 25 m and fall again within the 24 depth of weathering in the joints is particularly
hours. ' relevant to the stability of an arch dam. The ex­
The importance of checking all evidence is in­ istence of major faults may indicate seismic ac­
stancedby an unbelievably high flood mark on a tivity but their significance, can only be deter~
barn door. Only under close examination did the mined from a study of movements that have oc- u
:Jl
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 n,

81
curred. At the earliest possible date a model must exercise greater ingenuity and then give
should be constructed so that geological informa­ closer attention to detail if novelties are in­
tion can be superimposed progressively. This will troduced. A dam that can be raised at a later date
permit the concentration of effort-particularly may be politically "expedient, even though not
drilling-in difficult and important areas. It will economic in the ftrst stage. If future raising is a
save cost and expedite interpretation, as well as possibility it could influ"mce both the location
supplying readily understandable information to and the type of dam; for a cockfill dam it would
Management. involve selection, location and dimensions of the
It is most important' that geologiCal in­ sealing membrane; for a concrete'dam provision
vestigations should continue, not only through would be necessary to ensure future monolithic
the design stage but also into the construction action of the two parts of the fil:tal dam.
stage of the project. Careful logging of all ex­ The rate at which money can be expended will
posures is essential, whether they be in road cut­
also influence the design, i.e. one involving high
ting, trenches, shafts, adits or drill holes. Colour
early capital expenditure for construction plant
photography of cores (in their boxes) is may be less attractive than one with a· high
recommended for a permanent record. This labour content. In the overall economy' of a
should also be employed to record all excavated country there will be a multiplying effect (as high
surfaces that will later be covered by the dam. as three times) of money paid out as wages; 'on
Photographs should be taken before and after the other hand, money spent to import heavy
any treatment of the foundations. plant will have little effect on the internal.
Although the region may be regarded as free economy. Local conditions will also effect the
from earthquakes, the possibility of seismic dis­
choice of type of dam, i.e. high cost of cement on
turbances should not be overlooked. Of the 2000 the site, a shortage of skilled artisans, or the un- .
tremors reported in Tasmanian newspapers availability of adequate supervision at all levels.
(Chapter 4.2), none exceeded magnitude 4, but There is thus the possibility of political or
the fact that they had occurred could be of economic expediency overruling a decision made
significance and an extensive network of on an engineering comparison of costs.
seismographs was installed.
In the preparation of comparative estimates'
Since modern theories relate microseisms to
the Engineer must be aware of the significance of
possible seismic activity, it is advisable to install
contingencies that he may feel obliged to include.
seismographs near a proposed damsite some years
If eXperienced in concrete construction he 'should
before construction of the dam. Arrangements
be equipped to derive reasonably accurate costs
must be made for the reporting of all man-made
events, i.e. quarry blasting, within say 100 km;for the components of a concrete dam-the
biggest unknowns being the foundation excava­
once correlated, such events are easily recognized
on the charts. If possible, the site seismographtion and any treatment such as grouting: On the
should form an integral part of a national other hand, his lack of experience in quarry prac­
network so that the epicentres of disturbances tice, haulage and rock placing may influence him
i.'
to include a high contingency factor in the es­
can be determined. It is most important to record
and report any seismic activity, a recurrence oftimiltes for a rockfill dam; tills would be to cover
which might necessitate modification of the dam,the unknown effects of weather conditions as
well as his own inexperience. When dealing with
or might induce landslides following the filling of
the reservoir. Such records would provide a large quantities, a small percentage added to unit
valuable background should seismicity occur rates can result in a big increase in total cost, es­
after filling of the reservoir. pecially if overhead charges are added as a
II percentage on prime cost. To prepare truly com~
parative estimates is a difficult operation-best
handled by a designer with broad experience
5.44 Economics assisted by a construction Engineer;
The method of financing a project and the When it is necessary to provide reports on en­
money available may influence the selection' of vironmeIltal impact, ihe dam designer may be re­
type of dam. Ifmoney is limited the Engineer quired to compare the cost of his dam project

II

82
with a quite different alternative, i.e. if a dam is
proposed for hydroelectric development, it may
be obligatory for the proposer to submit the cost
of a comparative thermal station. For such com­
parisons it is necessary to go beyond simple
capital outlay and annual charges to more com­
plex studies of cash flow during the different
lives of the alternatives, as well outlined in An
Introduction to Engineering Economics, published
in 1969 by the Institution of Civil Engineers.
5.5 Height of Dam
. Although dealt with in greater detail in
Chapter 6.4, the various factors that detehnine
the height of the dam must be considered in the
feasibility studies.
The structural height of a dam has been
defined by the International Commission on
Large Dams' as 'the overall distance between the
lowest point of the foundation surface to the top
of the dam. (The top of the dam excludes kerbs,
parapet walls, camber for settlement, guardrails,
penthouses or roadways that are raised to clear
navigation locks.)'. The lowest point of the foun­
dation is controlled, both by the quality of the
foundation and the type of dam to be built on the
site (erosion channels, faults, soft seams, etc.,
being considered as dental treatment).
Construction of the dam will decrease the fre­
quency and normally the intensity of floods
downstream. However, creation of the reservoir
will raise the upstream water level permanently
with a further increment of inundation during
floods. The height and duration of this increment
can seriously affect the value of neighbouring
land. Both factors will therefore have an in­
fluence on the permissible height of the dam---or
more correctly on the full supply level.
Full Supply Level (or Normal Top ·Water
Level) is defined by ICOLD as 'the maximum
storage retention level when the reservoir is full,
corresponding to the level of the spillway crest
for an ungated spillway, or to the water level for
which the dam IS designed taking into considera­
tion the necessary freeboard for a gated spillway'.
Full supply level can be determined soon after
the survey information becomes available. It is
the level required to provide the live storage
necessary for the chosen degree of regulation of
the river. ICOLD provides alternative definitions
- - - .
for freeboard, namely 'the vertical distance
between the top of the dam and the water level
for the condition for which the freeboard is
stated such as "freeboard above maximum water ; :!
surface" (in flood) or "freeboard above normal
reservoir level".' I have elected to use the latter
definition, but employing the term 'full supply
level' instead of 'normal reservoir level',
Fig. 5.11.
- - - ' - ' - - r L - n - - - T o p of Dam
--L-~~.J~Spi1lwoy crest
\ (full supply level)
:r: \
(0) Ungated spillway
H = Structural height
F = Freeboard
Flood -,----'--- . . - - - - . . - - - Top of Dam
level - - Full supply level
:r:
(b) Gated spillway
Fig.5.11 ICOLD definitions offreeboard
(Asadopted by the Author)
If a dam is not to be overtopped, then provi­
sion must be made above full supply level for the
effects of
Ponding during the passage of the design flood; :r-.
Seiche effects in the reservoir;
Wind set-up of the water in the reservoir;
Waves induced by wind;
Waves induced by earthquakes or their after­
effects such as landslides.
Estimation of each of these can only be inexact
both as regards magnitude and frequency of
occurrence. Considerable judgment is therefore
necessary for their assessment bearing. in mind
that each metre added to the height of the dam is
really added at the base of the dam. For a·damlike
Thapanzeik in Burma, with a length of 6 km,
this can be particularly important. At the
 83

feasibility stage-and unless there is a very large
expanse of water in front of the dam-it is often
sufficient to adopt an allowance above flood level
such as is suggested in Japanese standards, Table
5.1.
(v) Availability of materials. For Sirinumu
Dam in New Guinea the cost of transport
of materials to site was very high. A rockfill
dam with a thin steel plate on the upstream
face was adopted. '"

(vi) Unavailability of skill. At many sites

Table 5.1. Allowance Above Flood Level
neither skilled contractors nor artisans are
Minimum Allowance (m) available. This can preclude the adoption of
Height of dam dams that require intricate formwork or
(m) Concrete dam Embankment
very high-quality concrete. The embank­
Less than 50 1 2 ment type of dam or a masonry gravity
50 to 100 2 3 dam may then prove most suitable.
Greater than 100 2.5 3.5
(vii) Seismicity. Finite element. methods now
make possible the analysis of the behaviour
Such figures can serve for comparing alternative
of dams under dynamic loading. A rockfill
i dams, but for the fmal design more detailed ex­
dam provided with filters, material from
amination will be necessary as discussed in
which could move into and seal cracks in
Chapter 6.
I:, the core material, appears to be one of the
safest types in earthquake regions.
i However, for the 215 m high Tocktugal
5.6 Selection of Type of Dam
1 Dam on the Narin River, U.S.S.R.,> a uni­
The Engineer should proceed on the premise que· design was adopted. With earthquake
r) that every damsite is unique. Many factors may
affect the selection of type of dam.
intensities measured at 9 on a 12-point
scale, and with weak laminated limestone
.I 1 abutments, it was considered necessary to
(i) Environment and public opinion. One

I; large dam was proposed as a central core

rockfill dam. Core material was available
only in thin beds and to obtain sufficient
would have despoiled a very large area of
carry as much of the load as possible into
the lower foundations. The river section of
the gravity-type dam is a very large
monolith, constructed on units 32 x 60 m
with layers 0.5 m to 1 m thick. Joints
11 beautiful land. Public opinion was a maior
factor in the adoption of a thin arch
between the three monoliths on each bank
were fanned out downstream and the dam
r:1 dam--despite difficulties with the foun­
dations. axis was curved slightly towards the
downstream.
(il) The fundamental function of the dam. A In Italy two gravity dams have been built
r tailings dam is built to dispose of waste
materials from the mine. Although a
rockfill starter dam maybe used, the dam
as an assembly of large concrete blocks
separated from one another laterally by
gravel filling in the joints; this should per­

I: itself must be built of the tailings.

(iii) Early conservation of water may be essen­
mit relative movements of parts of the dam
(Chapter 10).

Ii tial. This influenced the adoption of a con­

crete dam for Manicouagan 5, Fig. 5.12,
(viii) Geology-The existence of joint patterns in
an abutment (their orientation, inclination
where it was deemed impracticable to place
I 30 million m3 of material when time for
and infilling) may indicatethe possibility of
instability under loading from an arch dam
placing was limited by the cold 'season.
and reservoir water. Such a site would

;1 (iv) Time and money may be unavailable for

sophisticated investigation and design, as
apparently caused the abandonment of an
arch dam for the Blue Mesa site, U.S.A.
probably be satisfactory for an embank­
ment or even an adequately dimensioned
gravity dam.
Where the possibility exists of differen­
n
U

1
c·, '
85

I
Fig. 5.12 Daniel Johnson Dam. (Manicouagan 5),
Canada
tial deformation of the foundations along
the axis of a dam, a gravity or arch dam
would require very detailed attention but a
buttress or embankment dam would
probably be satisfactory (see Chapter 12).
(ix) Hydrology--The possibility of inundation
by floods during construction may favour a
concrete dam. Although means are now
proven whereby the downstream face of
rockfill dams can be stabilized against over­
topping (Chapter 15), such practice has, as
yet, been limited to dams about 30 m in
height, Le. to cofferdams and to the lowest
part of the main dam sufficient to protect it
during construction to such a height that
head is provided for, flood waters to be
forced through the diversion tunnel
without further overtopping. Where 'wet
season' high flows occur, an embankment
dam will require special and, detailed
protection (Chapter 18), whereas a concrete
dam could be overtopped with little
damage. For the Julius Dam, Australia, this
factor-and hence cost-,influenced the
adoption of a multiple-arch dam rather
than the rockfill dam originally proposed.
(x) Cost-Site conditions naturally influence
the cost of various types of dam. For the

I: Eorth fil! Noturol $U(

I

ROCk toe

\ ,,­! "
'!l"

" :OO--Firm in silu soi I CQnCfCle grout cop

Rock level Excavated
surface
PLAN
'.

~r1 ¢. Spillway chute

,
I
I
1~i\---\-'rTop of embankment

~ ~~dius 457.2 m -Y--j\--.4_...LI

Access bridge·
"I ~-.-
!

= =
Fig. 5.13 Typical homogeneous embankment-South Dandalup Dam,
Australia

86
·106 m high Crystal Dam, U.S.A.,· the
tenders for a rockfill dam were considered
to be too high and the design was changed
to a free overfall double-curvature arch.
5.61 Definitions
The various types ofdam have been defmed by
ICOLD.4
Embankment Dam. Any dam constructed of
natural excavated materials placed without addi­
tio.n of binding materials other than those in­
herent in the natural material. Embankment
dams.. are usually referred to by type such as
Earthfill, Rocklill, Hydraulic Fill. The term em­
bankment dam is used to indicate a zoned fill
dam involving selected areas of rock, gravel,
earth and impervious zones, or a homogeneous
earthfill dam which is not necessarily zoned.
Earthflll Dam. An embankment dam con­
structed primarily of compacted earth in either
homogeneous or zoned areas containing more
than 50 per cent of earth, Fig. 5.13.
Hydraulic Fill Dam. An embankment dam
constructed of earth, sand, gravel or rock
generally from dredge material conveyed to the
site of placement by suspension in flowing water.
[Mine tailings dams come under this Fig. 5.14 Eucembene Dam, Australia~Central core
. rockfill 116 m high
category-Author.]
Rockidl Dam. An embankment type of dam
dependent for its stability primarily on rock. As
rockfill dams must contain an impervious zone,
usually of selected earth with filter zones com­
prising a substantial volume of the dam, the term
Rockfill dam usually represents dams that con­
tain more than SOper cent of compacted or
dumped pervious rockfill. Fig. 5.14. Rockfill, the
interstices of which are hydraulically sluiced full
with. earth or sand or silt, are generally classed as
earthfdl dams. [Decked dam is a term now being
used for a rocklill dam, the impervious zone for
which is on the upstream face; it may be of
cement concrete, Fig. 5.15, bituminous concrete,
Fig. 5.16; or other impermeable material, i.e.
plastics-Author.]
.J Gravity Dam. A type of dam constructed of
mass concrete or stone masonry, or both, which
Ii
relies on its weight for stability, Fig. 5.17. The
dam is usually roughly triangular in cross-section
with its base width so related to its height as to
ensure stability against overturning, sliding or
foundation crushing.
Curved Gravity Dam. Will be used by the
author to describe a gravity dam that is curved in
plan but does not rely upon arch action for its
stability, Fig. 5.18.
ArCh Dam. A dam with upstream curvature
which transmits the major portion of the load or
pressure to the abutments rather than to the bot­
tom foundation, Fig. 5.19. In general, an arch
dam has abase thickness less than 60 per cent of
its height. Dams of greater thickness are con­
sidered as arch-gravity or gravity dams.
Arch-gravity. Will be used by the author to
describe a dam where the load or pressure is
transmitted to both the abutments and the
bottom foundation, Fig. 5.20.
Buttress Dam. A dam consisting of a water­
tight upstream face supported at intervals on the
.
Fig. 5.15 Risdon Brook Dam, Australia-Concrete
decked rockfill (By courtesy G.H. & D.)
Fig. 5.16 Salta de Vitlarino, Spain~Asphaltic can­
crere face on rockftll-July 1968
Fig.5.17 Warragamba Dam, Austra1ia~137 mhigh
gravity dam .
Fig. 5.18 Avon Dam, Australia~Curved gravity
dam-1932
Fig. 5.19 Place Moulin arch-gravity dam, Italy~
Height 155 m
Fig. 5.20 Arch-gravity dam-Clark Dam, Australia
Fig. 5.21 Inglebum multiple-arch dam, Australia
Fig. 5.22 Lednock Dam, Scotland-Massive buttress
Fig. 5.23 Allr-na-Lairige prestressed dam, Scotland
(Reproduced by permission of North Scotland Hydro­
Electric Board)
 5.14

5.15
 f]
, ,1
'1­

5.17

h
;' '3
U

'.,.j.
~

;1
d

~J

u
fl,','
U
b)
1

1
:

J
n
,
92

downstream side by a series of intermittent sup­
ports termed buttresses. Buttress dams take many
forms; multiple arch, Fig. 5.21, multiple dome,
plank, flat slab, deck, hollow gravity, cellular
gravity, solid head, Fig. 5.22, or bulb head'dams
are all essentially buttress dams.
Prestressed Dam. Will be used by the author
1.5---only slightly less than the angle of repose of
rock.
Since very few valleys are triangular, Sarkaria6
has proposed a valley shape factor to take ac­
count of the width of the valley floor, Fig. 5.24,
b + H (Sec ¢. + Sec ¢2)
K=-------­
H

to describe a dam wherein external forces are

applied to the dam before the reservoir is fIlled, IfK=4and
b = the base width = HI2
in order to counter undesirable stresses that
would develop in the absence of the prestressing then the slope of the abutments will be approx­
forces--or to increase the stability of the dam, imately equal to the angle of repose ofloose rock.
Fig. 5.23. ' A simple factor of 3.5 or the Sarkaria factor of
4 will indicate a gorge topographically suited to
an arch dam.
5.62 Valley Shape
The Kariba Arch Dam, Rhodesia, is in a valley
Perhaps the simplest definition of vaney shape where K = 6. As the factor increases beyond 6
is the ratio of the width of the valIey at erest level the proportion of load carried by arch action
of dam (W) to the depth of the valIey below crest diminishes rapidly. For relation of valley shape to
level (If). Thus the following definitions are in arch dams see Chapter 11.
use: .
5.63 Rock Quality
A gorge when W/H is less than 3;
A narrow valley when W/H is from 3 to 6; At a possible dam site r<;>ck quality may dictate
A wide valley when W!H exceeds 6. the type of dam; it is not unreasonable to remove '"1
10m of decomposed material for the founding of . ~

Thus in a symmetrical triangular valIey where ; l'

a concrete dam; for a dam 100 m high the foun­
W/H = 3.0, the abutment slopes would be 1 on
dation should be capable of withstanding the
following stresses with an adequate factor of
",>"

ij"t
1>,
safety:
Gravity dam ­
Buttress dam ­
Arch dam ­
3 to 4 MPa

5 to 7 MPa

7 to 10 MPa.

~
b<H
.p,<35" .p, >35' Most hard massive rocks will have crushing
"2<35" 1>~ > 35'
¢r <15'" strengths well in excess of these values. It is
4>2< 15" V-Shope:
therefore the existence of joints, bedding planes,
U-Shope NOHOW Wide
and faults that will control the load-carrying
capacity of the foundation, i.e. if the infilling rJ
material in joints is readily compressible then the
effective deformation modulus of the rock mass
may be too low. It is usual for rock quality to im­
'],
"
prove with depth and this may be assumed for a
gravity dam; for an arch dam this may not apply
since it is the joint pattern that is vital-not only
b <2H b > 2H
as regards compressibility but also for sliding
'" > IS' ¢l > 35* along the joints.
</>2> 15" 4>2 > 35' ,"J.
Composite U- V shope Wide volley
5.64 Rock Joint Pattern
Fig. 5.24 Valley shape factor (After Sarkaria) The sluicing of debris from a proposed damsite

d
 93

will reveal bedding planes and joint systems. It is with prominent bedding plane shears which is
I essential to check the stability of the dam against above a massive lower quartzite. Near-vertical
..J sliding on joints or bedding planes. Meadowbank jointing subdivided the abutment rock; calcula­
buttress dam was built on sedimentary rocks don and in situ testing then revealed the probable
, (Chapter 12); in situ and laboratory testing was instability of this block under loading from the
'j therefore done on the infilling material on sub­ arch and uplift pressures, Fig. 5.25. The
horizontal faults and the dam and foundations proposed arch dam was abandoned. Since the
were stabilized with inclined pre-stressing cables. diversion tunnel was already completed it was
An arch dam was proposed for the 106 m desirable to fit a dam between the tunnel inlet
Cethana Dam, Australia. The topography and and outlet. A rockfill dam with a concrete deck
C;'I general surface rock condition (exposed by was selected and constructed, Fig. 5.27.
sluicing), Fig. 7.08, appeared very favourable for I am obliged to the Engineer-in-Chief of the
an arch dam, but detailed sub-surface in­ Engineering and Water Supply Department of
vestigations' revealed weak and planar bedding, South Australia for the following explicit
plane shears and joint systems in the foundation description of the change in type of dam for the
rock. This i~ composed of hard metasediments, Kangaroo Creek Site,s Fig. 14.69:
quartzites and quartzite conglomerates on the
'(1) In 1960 the dam site was explored geologicaliy

upstream limb of an anticline which strikes obli­ to determine whether the site was suitable for a

quely across the river so that the beds under the 43 m arch dam. The investigation utilized COnven­

, , dam dip upstream. Among the many facets of in­ tional diamond drill methods, that is with standard

! vestigation which emphasized the need for double-tube core barrels where the core is subject to

thorough underground exploration and in situ the washing action of the drilling water. The con~

elusions drawn were that the site was suitable for a

testing were: concrete arch dam and that very little excavation

(i) The deceptive appearance of the almost con­ would be required to found the dam on sound rock.

tinuous outcrop in the quartzite on the sur­ (2) In 1964-65 the decision was made to raise the

face. This was due to small downward dam to 61 mhigh. As experience with hydraulic­

rotations of blocks of rock that closed the feed drilling equipment and triple-tube core barrels

had been obtained in the interim, it was appreciated

surface expressions of the bedding plane that the results of the original drlliing programme

shears to a fraction of their thickness as may have been misleading and it was decided to un­

revealed in the adits. dertake a new programme of foundation in­

(ii) The large differences in shear strengths in vestigations making use of the new techniques.

the remoulded and undisturbed bedding Briefly this consisted of:

plane shear material exposed in the adits. PHASE 1

The left abutment, Fig. 5.26, is composed of con­ (al detailed geological mapping
(b) seismic refraction traverses
glomerate overlying an upper quartzite band (cl drilling and water testing using a machine with

an hydraulic feed and incol1'orating triple-tube

Core barrels, and

(d) laboratory testing.

PHASE 2
(aJ exploratory adits , !
(b) large in situ rock testing.
(3) During the Phase 1 stage a double-curvature

arch dam was designed, the excavation limits being

Secfion xx
based on a reassessment of the 1960 drlli core

T - Thrust from dam

W Weight 01 rock
restilts.

Pw - Hydrosta~ic pressure on rock

U - Uplitt on rock
(4) At the conclusion of the Phase 1 stage it was evi­

N ­ Resultant normal to plane dent that the foundation limits would have to be ex­

R­ Resultant along plane tended on the left abutment and also there was

evidence of large block slides in the same area. A

Fig. 5.25 Cethana Dam (proposed}-Instability of core hole drilled just upstream from the site on the

abutment left abutment confirmed this evidence. The arch

u
o,.

,
'I'

',;
 n
,I
dam was redesigned and a structural model test was
carried out at I.S.M.E.S.
, ,i
'.'J
(5) At this time the decision was made to drive the
diversion tunnel as it was possible to obtain a cheap
price for the work as the Department held other
tunnel contracts at the same time. The length of the
tunnel was based on the arch dam layout.
-j (6) The Phase 2 investigation conf1In1ed the
presence of thick clay seams (up to 5 em) and these
persisted up to 50 m' into the abutment.
(7) The conclusions reached as a result of the Phase
2 investigations concerned with the left abutment
were:
(a) The soft clay seams could deform plastically
under load..
(b) The weak foliation planes had combined with
joints perpendicular to the schistosity to form a
series of triangular wedges which dipped steeply
,
downslope towards the River. This situation
had resulted in tension relief by slight opening
up of the joints. This had permitted mechanical
weathering to penetrate into the seams up to
>. I 30 m from the surface.
(8) Because of the excessive excavation re­
i] quirements and also the doubt as to whether the
rock mass in the left abutment could safely support
the thrust from an arch dam, it was decided to
abandon the concrete dam in favour of a decked
I
rockfill dam which could still be constructed within
-j the portal limits of the diversion tunnel.'
i 5.65 Comparison of Type of Dam
The important thing is to have time available
.• I
for comparison of acceptable alternatives. At cer­
1 tain sites it may be expedient to select a simple
type of dam--either simple to design or simple to
[2--::) construct. This, however, may· not be the safest
j dam for the particular site.
A very high dam-..such as the Auburn Dam,
U.S.A., can justify the expenditure of a great
amount on detailed investigations, whereas for a
dam one-third the height there may be very
limited funds. However, if both were arch dams
they could each have the same problems since
maximum stresses may be much the same.
It is often found that the first estimates for an
arch dam and an embankmen~ dam are the
Fig. 5.26 Unstable abutment at the site of a proposed
stitute an extreme emergency which, in itself,
arch dam
Fig. 5.27 Cethana Dam, Australia'--Concrete deck
costly operating installation could not be justified i ~
,I rockfill
!J
',Xl,s q.z
95
same--within the accuracy of the estimates. In
general, foundation treatment for an arch dam
can lead to unforeseen expenditure that may
not be required for an embankment dam. The
cost of foundation treatment cannot be assessed
accurately before the job is done. Besi.des ad"
ditional direct cost, any delay to the job· will in­
volve further charges.
At one site, after comparisons were made of
the probable cost of a gravity dam incorporating
an overfall spillway with a rockfill dam plus side
channel spillway, the gravity dam appeared to be
cheaper and the contract was let. Later surveys
located a peripheral saddle that would have
provided a very low cost· spillway and hence
would have made the rockfill dam much the
cheaper project.
At another site an overfall arch dam was
selected. When the river foundations were ex­
cavated they proved to be unacceptable for the
overfall spillway; it was then necessary to provide
a spillway through the steep abutment, a facto~..:
that raised the cost well above that of a rockfill
dam and similar spillway.
It can be quite misleading to draw over­
simplified conclusions from restricted explora­
tion and ins ufficient testing.
5.7 Deep Outlets and Controlled Filling
In the past it was quite usual to install outlet
works in the base of a dam, either to make full
use of the storage or to pass silt-or, hopefully,
to prevent silt deposition in front of the dam. For
the latter purpose many installations failed; the
silt was deposited,. an inverted cone was scoured
through it whilst the valve was open, but this
rapidly filled when the valve was closed. In some
cases consolidation was so rapid that further
operation of the valves was nullified.
As dams increased in height the cost of bottom
outlet works increased rapidly; besides this, '. :
higher dams usually resulted. in bigger reservoirs
and the question was therefore raised as to
whether circumstances would ever arise to
necessitate emptying such large reservoirs. One
Authority adopted the view that it would con­
would necessitate rapid emptying, but that a
for such an unlikely event. Its solution was to in­
""

96

stall a steel bulkhead in the plug in the diversion
tunnel, the connecting bolts being specially
designed for easy' demolition with small explosive
charges, Fig. 5.28. In the 'extreme emergency'
the bulkhead would be blown off, the size of the
outlet having been deteinrined -as a balance
between the rate of lowering the reservoir and
Dam they were installed primarily as spillway
outlets, but to control the filling if required,
Fig. 19.13.
Whether bottom outlets are to be provided is a
subject for decision in the investigation stage
since it is allied to -river control, safety, and
possibly environmental requirements.

Explodoble bolts

\ -
Steel bulkhead

Stee! lini.ng

Fig. 5.28 Emergency outlet-Explodable bulkhead

the safe flood capacity of the river downstream.
A drain pipe was provided through the plug for
regnlarly sampling of the water and for injection
of corrosion inhibitor as required.
High-pressure operating outlets can be very
expensive since it is necessary to ensure long lifeinvestigation stage. Much more expensive works
and reliable operation when the inlets are below
practicable diving depth at the site. However,
with modern corrosion-resistant - materials and
greater confidence in valves and their
mechanisms, there is a trend back to the incor­
poration oflow-Ievel outlets in high dams. These
would be justified as multi-purpose units:
For use during river diversion;
5.8 River Diversion (See Chapter 16)
The cost of river diversion can be a very
significant item in the cost of a project; it must
therefore receive adequate consideration in the
are required-based on _a large construction
flood-to provide proper protection for an
earthfill dam under construction than would nor­
mally be necessary for a concrete dam.
Unless the valley is narrow and steep-sided, a
concrete dam can usually be built between two
cofferdams, the river being carried across the
area in an excavated channel, flume or other con­

duit. The channel would be dimensioned to

To control the fate of filling;

protect the area of river excavation and base con­

As part or the whole of the permanent spillway

creting-for the time required and in the season

,.,discharge; or
available. Thereafter, floods would be permitted
To release bottom water from a stratified lake.
to pass over sections of the dam intentionally left
(This action may be desirable to remove foul
low until the permanent outlets were installed.
water from the bottom of the reservoir after
In the past it has been axiomatic to provide a
initial filling-but it can be temporarily nox­ diversion tunnel around the site of an embank­
ious to people and lethal to fish for a few
ment dam. The tunnel size can be minimized if
kilometres below the dam.)
the downstream face of the cofferdams and the
In some cases, large outlets have been provided lower portions of the dam are reinforced to
at an intermediate level in the dam; at the withstand the passage of occasional floods over
Gordon Dam, Tasmania, such outlets were in­ or through them-.,.-Chapter 15. With greater ex­
stalled as a temporary installation to control -perience and hence more confidence in this
reservoir filling, Fig. 16.22. At Cabora Bassa technique it may, in the future, be possible to dis-
11i·
d
I
j i
~~J,
I ­

)'
__----'~~L

pense with the diversion tunnel for some em­
bankment dams-with a very large. saving in
cost.
The length of the tunnel will depend upon the
type of dam and the nature of the rock in the
valley. A decked rockfill dam will require a diver­
sion tunnel oflength say four times the height of
the dam. An homogeneous embankment
dam""'-due to its flatter face slopes-would re­
quire a tunnel maybe eight times the height of
the dam. On the other hand, an arch dam can be
built with quite a short diversion tunnel--{)r
with an in-river diversion. The tunnel-generally
parallel with the river--must be located suf­
ficiently far under the surface to provide ade­
quate cover, firstly for safe working conditions
and minimum support and secondly for water­
tightness, having due regard to the necessity for
and cost of concrete lining.
Determination of the diversion capacity dur­
ing construction may be likened to the insurance
References
1. Reporl of lite Tribunal Appoinled 10 Enquire in 10
rhe Disasler 0., Aberfo.n on 21st OClober, 1966,
H.M.S.O., London, 1966, p. 81.
2. O. C. Gibbins, 'Searching for Hydro Electric
Power Schemes in Tasmania', Cartography, 7,
No.2, Dec. 1970, pp. 59-68, The Australian In-'
stitute of Cartographers, Canberra.
3. J. W. S. Linton, D. M. Jenkins and A. Apsenieks,
Mapping Control for Hydro Eleclric Development in
Tasmania, April 1967, Colloquium held at
University of New South Wales, Australia, May
1967.
4. 'Dam Terminology, 1970', ICOLD, 22 and 30
Avenue de Wagram 75, Paris 8, France.
Bibliography
Frederick J. Doyle, 'Photogrammetry and the Future',
XIIth Congress of lite Im,rnarional Sotieiy of
Photogrammetry, Ottawa, Canada, July-Aug. 1972.
P. Berthon Jones, 'Review of Recent Developments in
Electronic Distance Measuring Apparatus', Paper
'No. 10, Conference on Electronic Distance
Measurement, 1968, University of New South
Wales, Australia.
97
that one is willing to purchase for the risk that is
involved. A high premium is justified if the dam
is to be built above a centre of population. One
can assess the damage likely to be caused by the
overtopping of the, cofferdam and the partly con­
structed dam by floods of various magnitudes
(intensity and duration). The probability of oc­
currence of such floods during the critical stages
of construction can be derived statistically. One
must then decide the premium that is justified
for a certain degree of protection at the par­
ticular site. In general, it is cheaper to build a
higher cofferdam than a larger tunnel, but there
is always a limit to this. Failure of a large coffer­
dam under an unprecedented flood may, in itself,
involve an unjustified risk. The type of dam
should therefore be decided before the diversion
works are authorized, but the cost of diversion at
a particular site may well influence the Choice of
type. The two must therefore be considered
together at the investigation stage.
I
5. K. K. Kouzmin et aI., 'Construction of High· Ii
Concrete Dam in Narrow Deep Gorge', 10th
ICOLD Congress, Madrid, 1973, Q.43, R.I0, 111,
pp. 1113-1126.
6. I. D. Kim and G. S. Sarkari., 'Influence of
Canyon Shape on the Design of Concrete Dams',
Civil Enginaring and Public Works Review, SO,
No. 585, March 1955, pp.281-284.
7. N. O. Broughton and G. E. A. Hale, 'Foundation
Studies for Geth.na Arch Dam'; 91h ICOLD
Congress, Istanbul, 1967, Q.32, R.10,
pp. 143-163.
8. 'Kangaroo Creek Dam, South Australia',
AUJlralian Civil Engineering, 8, No. 10, Oct. 1967,
pp.17-18.
H. Edvardsso, 'The Model S Laser Geodimeter', Paper
No. 12, Conference Olt Eleclrt»lic Distance Measure­
ment, 1968, University of New South Wales,
Australia.
G. W. McQuistan, 'An Airborne Laser ProfIle
RecOrder', Paper No. 19, Conference on Electronic
Distance Measurement, 1968, University· of New
South Wales, Australia.
98
James C. Owens, 'Geodetic Application of Lasers',
Paper No.8, Conference on Electronic Distance
Measurement, 1968, University of New South
Wales, Australia.
O. Visentini, 'Varying Conditions Affecting Dam
Design--Some Experiences', Dams Today, 1970,
Japan Dam Association.
:.­
F. B. Slichter, 'Influences on Selection of the Type of
Dam" Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Division, Paper 5224, Proc. A.S.C.E., 93, No. SM3,
May 1967, pp. 1-8.
O. Dallaire, 'Electronic Distance-11leasuring Revolu­
tion Well under Way', A.S.C.E. Civil Engineering,
44, No•. lO, Oct. 1974, pp.66-71.
 ,,
Ii

CHAPTER 6

Hydrology

An understanding of the basic principles of precipitation; Mathematicians can provide means

hydrology is essential for the dam engineer. For of correlation and statistical analysis but Nature

his purposes it is a science of prediction-the has only to add one bigger event and the whole

likelihood of recurrence of natural events-an probability will be altered.

:.1 inexact science that must be exploited to the full The average yield from a catchment must be

by whatever techniques are available. At the one evaluated, based on past history of the particular

r"l. extreme our land is parched by drought-at the area and of surrounding areas. The low flow

.. other it is ravished by floods. In between are the characteristics of the river will control the

average conditions that provide the resources storage required and hence the normal full

that we are to develop. Hydrology may be a new supply level of the reservoir. High flow records

science but Man in all ages has been conscious of and flood furecasting techniques provide the

his need for water. Along the River Nile may be basis for design of the spillway, and hence the

seen marked stones that were undoubtedly used flood storage required above normal full supply

in the centuries B,C. to record the history of the level. Meteorological records will assist in the

Nile. From ancient times philosophers have prediction of reservoir behaviour (wind set-up,

speculated on clouds, rainfall and evaporation; seiche effects, waves, etc.) and hence the ad­

I
.' basic observations were made in the 15th and ditional freeboard required above flood level in

16th Centuries by men like Leonardo da Vinci the reservoir. Whilst acknowledging that

but it was not until the 17th Century that the hydrology is a specialized science, the author has

first scientific measurements were made, i.e. prepared this chapter to introduce the dam

Perrault in France measured the flow in the Engineer to some of the basic facets of the dis­

River Seine and estimated that it represented cipline. This is necessary so that he will know

'I only one-sixth of the precipitation. The next cen­ what data he requires, where it should be sought,

tury saw an expansion of measurements and the and then be able to assess the order of accuracy

beginning of hydrological studies on a quan­ of the information that will be supplied to him. :1

titative basis. Such experiments were modernized He will be faced with conflicting conditions;
:r
through the 19th Century and the foundations safety of the dam musf be paramount, but i
were laid for the science of hydrology. finances are never unlimited. Whatever dimen­ "
I
The early 19008 produced hundreds of em­ sions he may select for the dam and spillway

pirical formulae, whilst around 1930 the concept there will always be some risk. Assessment of the

of the unit hydrograph was suggested, inflltra" acceptable risk is the art of dam engineering.

J tion was evaluated and a statistical approach was

developed. In the past 20 years sophistication has

6.1 Hydrology and Meteorology ,
appeared in measuring equipment and in our
I '] ability to solve mathematical complexities with 6.11 The Hydrological Cycle .i ,r;
the computer. Each hydrological event is,

however, an occurrence of Nature and is un­ The hydrological cycle can be illustrated in

predictable either as to magnitude or time many ways, but that published by the National

of occurrence. Whilst scientists are assiduously Resources Committee, U.S.A., provides a very

studying weather patterns of the past, physicists clear picture, Fig. 6.01. It involves precipitation.

are demonstrating their ability to modify rainfall . as snow, rain or hail, movement of water on or

99

:'.
-- -' ----- - -- ,

100

Fig. 6.01 The hydrologic cycle (Adapted from National Resources Committee)
\']­ '
....

through the earth-and evaporation back to the the life of the dam. In order to extend the
1
douds. It is a continuing operation but not one of period of records scientists have explored many
regular predictable pattern. channels beyond meteorology; for instance,
t
•. 1

The dam Engineer is interested primarily in studies have been made of the ring growth in cer­
the flow in the river and the accuracy with which tain trees; the annual record of growth can be
it can be measured and predicted. However, precisely dated whilst the ring width and texture
there will be many sites where flow records are might be calibrated against climatic conditions at
not available or are oflimited duration. It is theneach site o~er recent years. Research upon
that records of precipitation are important._ Eucalyptus delicatensis in the Snowy Mountains
Similarly, a knowledge of infiltration and evapo­ of Australia_ and upon the softwoods of North
transpiration will- assist the Engineer in es­ America has, however, indicated that the growth
timating losses and hence the base flow in the rings are more affected by temperature and soil
river. moisture stress than by direct rainfall.
Weather [orecasting.is important to the dam
builder and close cooperation -with the weather­
6.12 The Weather Pattern
men is recommended. If future seasonal weather
Much scientific attention is being directed to could be accurately predicted it might _well in­
climatic research and to modelling of the weather fluence the decision as to type of dam, i.e. too
pattern in order to forecast both natural and in­ short a dry season may preclude the economical
advertent weather change. The Global At­ construction of an earthfill dam. Even forecasts
mosphere Research Programme (GARP), an of short duration can be of direct benefit, par­
International organization, is one such effort. ticularly in planning the details of river diver­
An important limitation to present modelling sion. It is now common practice for
attempts is that they are dependent upon meteorologists _to compare satellite photographs
relatively short historical records of climate. of cloud patterns-with past records in order to
Considerable evidence has accumulated that the. predict what might occur in the near future. A
climate of the' historical period is significandy weather station should therefore be.established at
different from that of. the I'ast. A lengthened a proposed damsite at the earliest possible date.
record 0[, say, 200 to 3QO years would probably _ .Records of temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind
permit modelling that would be appropriate over and air. pressures can materially assist the
 !

I
\ 1 101

'1, :I meteorologists in synthesizing storm patterns­

one step in the process of maximum flood
gauge. It is essential, therefore, to adopt the stan­

dard gauge of the country if correlation with

estimation. other records is to be attempted.

J' 6.13 Precipitation

Whilst on the matter of accuracy it should also

be realized that even the standard gauge may not

'\ truly record the precipitation-at best it is only a

Precipitation includes all forms of moisture spot reading.

I emanating from the clouds and falling to earth. Considerable experimentation is in hand on
II Besides the presence of condensation nuclei there radar assessment of rainfall and monitoring

I;
, ,I
must be a cooling of water vapour. Cyclonic
precipitation results from the lifting of air con­
verging into a low-pressure area, or cyclone.
Most general storms in plains regions are of this
techniques, but until these are developed to an
acceptable accuracy and are introduced to
provide extensive coverage, all estimates of areal
11
r: type. Convective precipitation is caused by the
natural rising of warmer, lighter air in colder,
precipitation must rely on extrapolation from
spot readings. Gross inaccuracies can occur due
i
i,
I
i [ to varying topography of the catchment. Ad­
denser surroundings. The difference in
1~1
ditional rain gauges will improve accuracy but
temperature may result from unequal heating at there is an economic limit to the number of such
the sufface, unequal coolhlg at the top of the air installations that can be justified. The visually

r layer, or mechanical lifting when the air is forced

to pass over a denser, colder air mass or over a
mountain barrier. Convective precipitation is
read rain gauge provides information on total
precipitation--whether for a day or a longer
period. It does not, however, provide information
rl spotty, and its intensity may range from light
showers to cloudbursts. Orographic precipitation
on the intensity of precipitation. Pluviograph
records are therefore of far greater value .10 the
:] results from mechanical lifting over mountain
barriers. In rugged terrain the orographic in­
Engineer. 'Continuous records from such, In­
struments can be computerized, anal yseo. and the
"
I
fluence is so marked that storm precipitation information stored for use 9n demand. It is I'
II.
patterns tend to resemble that of mean annual
precipitation. In Nature, the effects of these
strongly recommended that pluyiographs, rather ii;
than rain gauges, be installed-their detailed

various types of cooling are often interrelated,

, location being decided in cooperation'Yith, the

I and the resulting precipitation cannot be iden­

"\ Meteorological Services. Although the estimation

tified as being of anyone type.

I' Instruments for measuring precipitation have
been standardized in various countries. In
of probable maximum precipitati<!n is a matter

for expert hydrometeorologists, the Engineer

:. J Australia the '8-inch' raingauge is being retained; should study all the available records of rainfall

on or near the relevant catchment. He will be

it consists of a bevelled brass ring 203.2 mm

11 diameter mounted on a cylinder, the top of the concerned with the rate of precipitation (and

hence run-oft) as well as the total run-off du.ring

I ring being 304.8 mm above the ground. The

plane of the ring must be horizontal and the any storm. Depending upon the size of reservoir,

gauge must be so located that it is not exposed to his greatest interest may be in tbe flash precipita­

I high winds or air eddy currents; its distance from tion of, say, 3 to 6 hours, or in the continuing

r the nearest obstruction should exceed twice the

height of the obstruction. A 50 krn/hour cross­
wind can cause a deficiency of 40 per cent in rain
rainfall over a period of days or even months.

The second factor. of concern is the total, rain

that will fall on the 'catchment during a par­

IJ catch ,'and 60 per cent in snow catch. ticular storm; usually the larger the area of.the

Experiments in many countries have , catchment the lower the average precipitation

I) emphasized the need for standard installations.I,' per unit of area. As an example these factors are

At Lake St. Clair, Tasmania, tests were con­ plotted in Fig. 6.02 for a catchment in Tasmania.

I ducted some years' ago. Gauges of different The indicated depths of rainfall are, of course,

diameters were set up at different heights above much lower than wouId occur in tropical regions:,

rl the ground-but all within a rectangle 10m by

20 m. The precipitations recorded varied ±15
It'is scarcely meaningful to quote maximum

rainfall intensities since these vary across the

,! per cent from that recorded in the standard world; advice should be sought from the nearest

r!
1 II

,::,'1,"'.1
", ,!
102

10000 Subsequent precipitation as snow accumulates to

j­ form the snow pack progressively through the
.. \ \\ , ,
winter. The Spring thaw commences with the in­
1---­ ,
\ \\\ \ crease of solar radiation, higher air temperature
\ \\\ \ \ i
and precipitation in the form of warm rain.
:
\ \ \ \ I \ Most snow falls as fine flakes with a water con­
\
\ tent between 0.7 and 1.55 rnm per em of depth.
However, this undergoes rapid compression and

,
,
\ \\ .. \
:
density increases to about 25 per cent soon after
the storm. Within 3 or 4 days it reaches 35 per
cent and gradually thereafter increases to 45 per
cent or even to 65 per cent under certain con­
\ \ ditions.
• I I ... \ \ Measurements of the depth of the snow pack
\ \\ \ \ \ will reveal the total water held in 'storage', but
- ' " 1­
"c
;z;
" ~.. ,~.. ..:~.-.~ estimation of the water equivalent or how it will
be available is not simple. In Australia snow pack '1,
~UI\
0 0
o '" '" '"
<l ~ ~ ~ <II <I' <II \II conditions rarely occur below elevation 1400 m. : j
Snow cover below this elevation appears more as
I, \\ i a discrete event and should be considered
10 o. 200 300 separate from the snow pack. The presence of
100
Maximum overage depth of rainfall (mm) snow can have the following effects:
Fig. 6.02 Maximum depth-Area curves, Tasmania, To retain precipitation as snow or free water in a
August 1970 snow pack;
To delay time of concentration of run-off;
Meteorological Services. However, a few samples To melt rapidly (by heat or rain) and add to the
are given in Table 6.1. volume of ruIKlff.

. Table 6.1 The energy required for snow melt is derived

from:
Rainfall
Duration (mm) Location Solar radiation;
Conduction and convection transfer of sensible
1 minute 1
31 Unionville, U.S.A., 1956 heat from the overlying air; . j
8 minutes 126 Burma, 1920 Condensation of water vapour from the overly­
15 minutes 198 Jamaica, 1916 ing air;
42 minutes 305 Holt, U.S.A., 1947
2h 10m 480 Rockport, U.S.A., 1889 Conduction from the underlying soil;
2h30m 880 Smethport, U.S.A., 1842 Heat supplied by incident rainfall.
6h 567 Mt. Pelion, Queensland
I day lt70 Philippines, 1911 It is the last that represents particular danger fur
I day 780 Queensland, Australia the dam. It is unwise to accept that rainfall and
I day 760 Western Australia
2 days 1300 Queensland, Australia snow are discrete events. At least one example is
4 days 1800 Queensland, Australia known where the maximum probable precipita­
5 days 2850 India tion (calculated from meteorological conditions
that were thought to preclude the occurrence of v;'Ili
l
snow) actually fell on a light snow cover, Fig.
6.03. The rapid run-off caused the design flood
Jj
6.14 Snow to occur before construction of the project was
In many countries the snow pack follows a completed.
similar history each year but varies in magnitude
and time distribution. Initially the ground is Fig. 6.03 Rainfall on light snow cover may cause
cooled by Autumn frosts and the first snowfalls. the design flood

J
 .' .

...........,,"'.".:...
. ~

~..•..
'"
~ .
• ..
. 1 ' • ..:
... ....... '

...~ '-:-. ~..

·1

..•... . .. ;:

,. ....'
I
6.03

·1

 -- ~---- ~----
,
------ -------- - -- "
,

104

At New Bullards Dam, U,S.A., the computed the earth and from plant transpiration, will be
Probable Maximum Flood has a volume of
920 Mm3 inflow over a period of 120 hours. Its
balancing factors.
Only a small proportion of the water absorbed
!
.:,...

peak flow is 6400 m'/s and is estimated to occur
40 hours after commencement of the flood. Com­
pared with the maximum flood on record
(December, 1964) at the site, the peak flow and
volume of the Probable Maximum Flood are 145
and 43 per cent higher, respectively. In other
words, the Probable Maximum Flood assumes a
faster build-up to the peak flows than the historic
floods. This is justified on the assumption that an
intense warm rainfall can occur following heavy
snowfall in the Sierra Nevada, resulting in
massive snowmelt contribution to the run-off on
the North Yuba River.
6.15 Yield
The diagram of the hydrological cyde in­
dicates that a proportion of the precipitation will
be intercepted by foliage. Another portion falls
on to the ground or ocean and is returned to the
clouds by evaporation. A further portion passes
into the ground. The flow in a strearu will
therefore result from overland flow of water not
absorbed into the ground or lost by evaporation
plus a proportion of ground water that finds its
way to the stream.
The dam Engineer requires an understanding
of the laws and principles governing precipita­
tion and yield as well as the factors controlling
the magnitude of and fluctuations in flow in
streams. For this purpose he must comprehend
the principles governing surface and sub-surface
movement of water before it reaches the strearu.
by foliage and the root systems of vegetation
remains in the plant tissues--most is discharged
to atmosphere as water vapour-the process
known as evapo-transpiration. Infiltration is the
flow into or movement of water through the soil
surface. It will depend upon the nature of the
surface, whether it is sandy, rocky, grassed or
paved-together with the actual porosity of the
soil. Sometimes a small change in losses may
mean a large change in yield. From the Uganda
catchment of the Owen Falls basin the run-off is
only 6.1 per cent of the total rainfall. If the losses
changed from about 93 to 90 per cent, through
afforestation or other activities, then the run-off
would become 10 per cent-an increase in yield
of 50 per cent.
Run-off is that part of precipitation that
appears in surface streams; it will be composed of
surface run-off, sub-surface run-off and ground­
water flow. Base flow in a stream is defined as the
sustained or fai, weather flow; it is composed of
groundwater flow and delayed sub-surface run­
off.
30r------------------,
o
a
."
Q 20

Evaporation will, of course, depend upon "'

temperature, altitude and exposure. From a large

~
•6
lake in Tasmania, latitude 42°S, altitude w
c
o
1000 m, the annual loss is almost I m. This is
due in part to the constant prevailing winds. On "~
o
10
the other hand, annual evaporation can amount
to 2500 mm in the arid zones of the world. The
estimated average loss from the Hendrik
Verwoerd Reservoir, South Mrica, is 2000 mm t,
Averoge flow 176 m~/s
and the loss from the lake surface during drought
2240 mm. Evaporation loss from shallow reser­ I
voirs can be serious. However, when a new reser­
voir has flooded moorland country there is often
0.1 0.2 0.5 I 2 5 10 20 50 JOO 200 300
Average time in days per yeor tor which flow is equalled
or exceeded
..

no discernible change in totallosses--'direCt rain­ Fig. 6:04 Ord River, Australia-Flow duration
fall into the lake, together with lower losses into curve
t.
 105
The curve that illustrates the variation in flow in a year or it can be reduced to the average
in a stream is called the flow' duration volume of water from unit area of the catchment.
curve--normally it shows the percentage, of time As examples of the former:
that a particular flow is exceeded. It does not (i) The Orange River, South Africa, has an
i.
show the manner in which the variations occur, average yield of 7180 million m 3 per year. I

The flow duration curve can be drawn to show The maximum recorded yield in a year (Oc­

the number of days per year that a certain flow is tober, 1924-September, 1925) was 19431 I
exceeded, as in Fig, 6.04. In order to facilitate million m 3, whilst the river has stopJl!;d ii."
!
i~
10

'"
1

t
--:
9
I
r
Showing comparison of 1971 flows to 1957- 1970 period
1--:
,j "
1957-1970-----Averoge 26·6 m3 /s

----j

i
1971 Averoge 51 ml Is
8 r-­ Maximum recorded flow' (May 1969) 270
L
I

I-
Maximum flaw 1911' 5270 m3 /s I
0
7

I_ Ii
,

'I
'
""2!
•
""on
I

-,
I I

,
I:

2! 6
I
i
:
~

~
~
>
0
I

I I
5

I
~

•
~

'= i
';;
~
n

I;
,
E
4

z \
\
\
~. . ,j

\ \
\ \
\
2
\

,I
\. "-
"
"- '-.,
'-, .........
_.. r-.
.I

"' .1

0
- .....

20
"

40
--60
-:-
-- -- ~
80 100

Percentage of time

Fig. 6.05 South Esk River, Australia--Flow duration curves

comparison with other rivers the ordinate may flowing six times in 60 years. The maximum

peak discharge recorded is 15 300 m~/s.

I denote the relationship to the average flow, as in
Fig. 6,05. (ii) The Ord River, Western Australia, has an

'

The yield of a catchment can be expre~sed as average yield of 4230 million m 3 per year

the total volume of water that floWs past a point from a catchment area of 45 600 km'.

I
ri

~ -------~
106
(iii) The Burdekin River, Queensland, Australia,
has an annual yield of 9000 million m 3• The
maximum recorded yield was 28 700 million
m3 in 1958 and the minimum 190 million m 3
in 1935. The maximum instantaneous flow
recorded is 40000 m3/s and the minimum
zero.
To accept the present-day behaviour of the
catchment as an unalterable pattern for the
future may lead to serious consequences. Much
research is being done on the effects on catch­
ment yield of forest cover, crops and increased
paving. The Engineer should examine the catch­
ment closely to assess future changes that might
occur, i.e. encroachment by suburbia, conversion
from forest to pasture, destruction of vegetation
by fire, etc. He may decide that the present-day
yield could be subject to considerable variation,
up (lr down. The Melbourne and Metropolitan
Board of Works, Australia, has conducted
,,'research on a catchment that was denuded by
forest fires. Before the fires the forest consisted
ofabout 100 mature trees per hectare; after the
fire, re-growth of Mountain Ash provided 1000
trees per hectare. The yield from the catchment
decreased by 30 per cent. However, there will be
a period following a severe forest fire when run­
off will be rapid, Fig. 2.22, and erosion will oc­
cur, accompanied by silt deposition in the reser­
voir. If vegetation does not recover quickly the
catchment can gradually deteriorate, resulting in
much higher peak floods.
Experiments have been conducted in Australia
to measure the difference in yield from similar
catchments afforested with different trees­
namely Radiata Pine and Eucalyptus.' It
appears that interception was higher and run-off
lower, from the pine-covered catchment.
Similar type of work was reported to the Inter­
national Symposium on Forest Hydrology,
1967"
6.16 Wealher Modification
It is now prayen that under suitable conditions
Man can modify the weather pattern. Disposal of
fog over airports, prevention of hail damage to
crops, amelioration of the effects of cyclones and
losses from drought, have provided the incentive
and finance for the necessary research. Tne
economic and social importance of artificial
stimulation of the rain-making process were
reflected by the fact that the first Technical Note
of the World Meteorological Organisation was on
this subject--culminating in Technical Note No.
13, Artificial Control of Clouds and Hydrometers,
1955. ;J
Although still a matter for scientific experts
the possible benefits are so great that Engineers
should be aware of the state of the art. It is un­
doubtedly possible to increase precipitation when
suitable climatological patterns occur. This
means that the natural pattern of rainfall can be
changed, resulting in a changed regime of river
flow-not necessarily proportional to the rain­
fall. The shape of the mass curve-Section
6.21--<:ould be altered with consequent
:1
modification of storage requirements for river '1
regulation. This might lead to smaller dams, i.e. ,1
lower cost and less impact on the environment.
The Engineer must therefore keep himself in­
formed on the science of weather modification or
'cloud seeding' as it is commonly described. As
explained by Dr. E. J. Smith of the Com­
monwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation, Australia:
'Clouds fonn as a result of condensation of water
vapour upon tiny hygroscopic particles which are
always present in the Earth's atmosphere in con­
centrations which vary from place to place and time • 1
to time. The cloud droplets are initially small and
must increase in mass some millions of times if they
are to be large enough to faU to the Earth's surface
J
as rain. Their growth may result from the collision
and coalescence of many single droplets or it may
be accelerated when an ice crystal fonns hIgh up in
;]
a cloud where it grows gradually before falling and
collecting other ice crystals or water droplets in its
path.'
Prior to 1930 laboratory attempts were made
in Europe to stimulate precipitation. In 1933
Bergeron presented his conclusion that the
simultaneous presence of ice crystals and super­
cooled water drQPs were essential for the forma­ , '1
;I
tion of rain. In 1946 Schaefer discovered that U
solid carbon dioxide produced ice crystals in
great numbers in clouds of supercooled water
drops. Later that year Vonnegut found that
silver and lead iodides could do the same. In 1947
WEATHER MoomCATlON
Fig, 6.06(A) Cumulus cloud above Wagga Wagga,
10th February, 1956
'J
Fig. 6.06(B) Heavy rain 40 minutes after cloud
seeding
[.1
,I
J_"",
_.lL
<!

, :

6.06(A)

!
II

II

')
 before $,'cdiHl.:!

i minutt's

38 minuh's
,

nncl' ~ct'din~
U
'iL;'j
,

": .
.~.

L
79 minutt-s
after seeding
:]
"

;~

," ;.;
;.,~

n
u
42 minutes. q
r'l
after s.eeding
cloud) .
6.07 Q
"

il

i~
,

the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
lResearch Organisation initiated research in
'Australia. Early trials were with dry ice and in
February, 1947, what is believed to be the first
',man-made rainstorm in the world fell to the
) ground near Bathurst.
Research has progressed in many countries
I with rather confusing claims of success. Efforts
: have been made using pyrotechnics from the
ground; solid carbon dioxide proved to be too ex­
t pensive and silver iodide smoke injected into
[ suitable clouds from aircraft is now most com­
monly used.
i On lath February, 1956, a large cumulus
: cloud near Wagga Wagga, Australia, Fig.
6.06(A), was seeded with silver iodide. Rain
i started 20 min later. The heavy rain after 40 min
! is seen in Fig. 6.06(B). Cloud seeding on an
operational basis began in New South Wales in
i 1965. The Rainmaking Control Ace, 1966 came
, into operation in the State of Victoria in 1968.
, Quite wisely this work is only carried out by
i Australian Government agencies.
i On 7th February, 1969, silver iodide was shot
into a cumulus cloud near Char/eville,
Queensland. The top of the cloud before seeding
was at 6000 m, but it rose rapidly to 12000 m a
few minutes afterwards. The change in cloud for­
mation leading to heavy rain after 42 min is
shown in Fig. 6.07.
Strictly controlled experiments were con­
ducted in Tasmania between 1964 and 1971. To
,I suit the prevailing westerly winds a suitable
I target area was selected. Three control areas
, i were also chosen, Fig. 6.08. Seeding was carried
' i out on selected clouds during 1 year-with no
seeding the following year. By random selection,
seeding periods of 10 days and non-seeding
'",f periods were chosen. Rainfall records were
, collected and analysed by the C.S.I.R.O. which
submitted the following conclusions: 5
(a) Cloud seeding caused an increase in rainfall
of 15 to 20 per cent in autumn and winter;
(b) The increase in the eastern half of the target
area appeared to have occurred in autumn
whilst that in the western half probably
occurred in both autumn and winter;
Fig.6.07 Cloud seeding 7th February, 1969, Charlo­
ville, Australia
.'
f,'
109
" I
.i!
A - Target area (seeded)
B, C~ 0 - Control areas {unseeded)
Fig. 6.08 Cloud seeding areas, Tasmania,
1964-1970
(cl It is possible that seeding caused, a rainfall
reduction in the eastern half of the target
area in summer but the evidence does not
justify a conclusion to that effect.
The Engineer is, of course, primarily in­
terested in the run-off following precipitation
and the Hydro-Electric Commission, Tasmania, '
undertook a study of resultant stream flows from
the areas. 6 Bearing in mind the naturally chang­
ing weather patterns over the period of the tests,
the only conclusion was that the results tended to
show an increase in yield in the western part of
the target area during the wetter-than-average
years when seeding took place. Although not con­
clusive it tends to support the results of the rain­
fall analyses.
The evaluation of the effectiveness of cloud
seeding is complicated by the many variables in­
volved and the results of one experiment could
certainly not be applied to a different site under
different conditions. This is very evident from a
study of the articles in the bibliography.
However, it has been proven in many countries
that Man can modify the weather pattern and it
is a subject that may become of vital importance
to dam Engineers in the future.
6.17 Streamflow Measurement and Recording
,-,
So that he may be able to assess the order of
accuracy of information supplied to him, the dam
 : "1

110 ; ~

Construction and installation af

recording and measuring equipmenl

Application of roting curve to ~_.-J

water levels 10 give dischorqes

:1
U .'I
q
Fig. 6.09 Measurement and recording of river discharge )j
Engineer should understand and preferably have
(iii) Gauge readers are often unreliable and are
some experience in the process of measurement
usually unavailable in times of flood.
of stream flow. To measure the volumetric dis­

The usual instrument is a graphic recorder

Ll
charge of a stream would rarely be practicable

producing a continuous graph of the river level. 1

and always expensive. It is therefore determined
I
by inference-i.e. the level of the water surface is
400.---------------,
I
recorded and sufficien t measurements are made,
,
. with the stream at various levels, to derive the
, },
,..'
relationship between river level and discharge. 300 .j
This can be presented as a Rating Table or
Rating Curve and Equation. The sequence of ; -.:~
: '1
,
1 •
.
events .is depicted in Fig. 6.09. ~,-J
The relationship between the level of the sur- .
face of a stre&m and the discharge is controlled 'DO n'1
either by the physical characteristics of the ~J
stream in the vicinity of the gauge or by some
,
artificial structure, such as a weir, built
downstream from the recording site. If the
'control' changes then the relationship will
1200
18"
2400
FebruQry
IZOO
191h
2400 hours
U
change. It is essential, therefore, to maintain a
Fig. 6.10 Wilmot River, Australia, 18th-19th
;.1
I
U ,I
February, 1956
check con . the relationship by a. continuing
programme of flow measurements. The siting of
a recording station is important. It should be
Derivation of instantaneous flows from the chart i
i
located to fulfil the primary requirements of
may be done manually, but much time is saved !
; 1
by automation. Discharge integrators were La!
stabiliry and sensitiviry of the control rather than developed but were displaced by digital conver­
to minimize cost of installation or difficulties of sion units that produced a punched tape suitable q
access. The automatic continuous recording of for direct treatment by a computer, Fig. 6.11.
;: i
OJ
water level is essential for good records since Some modern level recorders produce a
(i) A gauge read once each day may fail to punched tape that can be fed directly to the com­
record a flash flood-Fig. 6.10; puter. The disadvantage of this type is that the
(ii) The gauging station can be located at the person servicing the instrument cannot readily
desired site without regard to availability of
. a reader; Fig. 6.11 Digital conversion unit
.,;
112

Woter level
recording instrument

,
Flood peok ,•./ "
Floot-
~----~~~...~~~----~~'
~U - I
Flood level Level dolum
------------------------
Gaug& boords
F!ootwell_

Top~~~~:_ -----~----------

Bottom
intake

Fig. 6.12 Float-operated recorder well type gauging station

Recorder house
Double cobfeway for spans exceeding 70m
'7.6 mm eire)

~ '1

IOmm 0.0 x 5.5 t.O polythel'1e tube : ~

i '
!. ~
,
.. -1
; '1
l4
I

pressure sensing unit outlet

"1

[~

Fig. 6.13(A) Gas purge type operated gauging station

sight the behaviour of the stream and check zero reliable results, it is simple to understand and
settings. A current trend is to provide two in­ maintain and gives an open scale of record. The
il

struments at each site--<lne to produce the cost of the float-well may, however, be high.
graphic recoro, the other to produce the punched Attempts have been made with mechanical floats
tape for computer input. The cost of the extra and electrical contactors in sloping pipes but for
unit is only incremental to the cost of the whole many reasons these have not been satisfactory. .. I
-: ~
~
I

installation; it can easily be justified on the The pressure type is operated by a pressure cell L..:
grounds that it will usually eliminate the located in the stream, the varying pressure due to
necessity for estimating 'missing records'--a the rise and fall in the stream being conveyed by ,i
procedure. that must be followed to complete tube to the recorder where a pressure diaphragm : !
l ~
tapes before computer processing. operates the recording arm. The cost of the in-
There are three general methods of recording rl
water levels in graphical form--the float-wire,
Fig.6.B(R) Leupold-Stevens A.35 recorder coupled
;
.

the pressure and the gas back-pressure in­ to Hydrological Services D.P.30 gas purge unit
stallations. The float-type instrument is probably
the most popular, Fig. 6.12. It gives accurate and Fig. 6.14 WrecJ,ed recorder house
114

stallation is lower and it can be located at any Water velocities are measured in vertical sec­
convenient position on the stream bank. Its dis­ tions at regular intervals across a stream, Fig.
advantages are its limited gauge height scale and 6.16; the number of sections and the number of
its inherent inaccuracy due to the necessary measurements at each section will depend upon
amplification through levers of the small move­ conditions. When these are steady a large
ment due to pressure change. . number of sections is justified. When the river
The back-pressure type relies for its operation level is changing during the gauging it is
on the pressure exerted by the head of water in necessary to decide whether the changing level or
the stream on gas bubbling at a uniform rate the number of measurements will have the
from a small nozzle located in the stream, Fig.
6.13(A). This pressure is transferred back to the
instrument through a small supply tUbe, and by
using either a pressure cell or a manometer, the
variations in pressure can be converted to river
levels on the chart, Fig. 6.13(B). Maintenance is
important since gas leaks nullify its operation.
It is not so reliable as the float-type installation.
The level recording station will generally be
installed many years before the construction of
the darn, i.e. when very little is known of the
characteristics of the river. Care is therefore
Fig. 6.16 Subdivision of a stream--Cross-section
necessary in locating the station. One effect of
underestimation of flood level is illustrated in greater effect on accuracy. Reference to Fig. 6.17
Fig. 6.14. Replacement of the station costs will show that whatever procedure is adopted for
money, but nothing can replace the vital lost measuring and computation there will be inac­ , 1
: 1
records. In another river basin sophisticated curacies, i.e. neither the stream bed nor the water : j
, J
recorders were installed on tributary streams velocity varies linearly between sections. Repeti­
with automatic radio transmission of the levels to tion of observations will, however, gradually im­
the flood-control office: Unfortunately, within a prove the average figures and confirm the Rating
year of their installation, almost all of them were Curve.
destroyed by a major flood. The Hydrographic
Engineer should therefore study the valley for --I l- Mean q

I"~'

signs of past floods, and provide some factor of d

safety above these--even though the cost of the
installation may be high. It is the detailed
behaviour of the river during floods that is of
particular value to the hydrologist.
River cross-sec.tion Velocity distribution
The calculation of discharge in a stream relies
on the measurement of water velocity at a point Fig. 6.17 Discharge measurement
and the application of that velocity to some area.
Velocities in a streain are affected by the vaHey Velocity measurements can be made by several
shape both in plan and cross-section--even in a methods:
concrete-lined canal the distribution of velocity is
Wading is possible in shallow streams, it being
rarely uniform, Fig. 6.15.
remembered that it is usually unsafe if the
product of water velocity (m/s) and depth (m)
exceeds unity;

Fig. 6.18(A) Cableway and recorder house

Fig. 6.15 Unsymmetrical flow-Velocity contoul'll in
canal Fig. 6.18(B) Double-wire cableway

s.J
Ell
.""'------...:~j
116

From cableways of single- or double-wire suspen­ stalled, preferably fitted with a V-notch to en­

sion, Fig. 6.18. The operator usually travels in sure sensitivity at low flows.);

the cage, the meter being held in position in Frequent measurement of flows to confIrm the·

the measured section by use of a stay cable Rating Curve--plus every effort to measure

upstream. Under certain conditions it is ex­ flood flows; and

pedient to suspend the meter from a pulley Meticulous attention to equipment by operators

that travels on the main cable; in this case the who should be men of high integrity and in­

operator remains on the bank, traversing and itiative.

lowering the meter as required. This

procedure cannot be as accurate but is 6.18 The Double Mass Curve
justified for very wide rivers or under high As applied to hydrology, the double mass curve
flood conditions; consists basically of the plot of two hydrological
By the use of floats. This is an approximate elements in such a way that the summation value
method that depends upon the relationship on one ordinate of one element for a particular
between velocity of the float--either on the period of time is related to the summation of the
surface or below the surface--and the mean other element on the other ordinate over the
velocity. It can be useful in early in­ same period of time.
vestigations and in floods. It has been It is used to confirm the .basic quality of obser­

developed along many lines, the latest being vations or to indicate the necessity for investiga­

the application of photogrammetric methods tion of the records for a change in conditions;

for locating the floats at any particular time. this could be a change in river regime, movement

Such work in the U.S.S.R. was reported to of a rain gauge or other indeterminable factors

.the International Symposium on Floods, . relating to persistent instrumental or obser­

Leningrad, 1967. Measurements by this means vational errors. It is a very useful tool of war­ r],­
in the Tumut River, Australia, 7 when the flow ning, but care must be exercised as incorrect con­

was 422 m'ls, indicated that the technique clusions may easily be drawn without adequate

might give results within 5 per cent if the river investigation.

characteristics were measurable; If accumulated seasonal rainfall for one sta­

Slope measurements of the river surface can also tion is plotted against the accumulated seasonal

be used for approximate determinations of the average rainfall for several stations surrounding

.' discharge. It is necessary to know the the first, the relationship will be near linear. If at

characteristics of the section of the a certain date there is a change in the slope of the

river-such as the hydraulic radius and the graph, then there is cause for investigation of

discharge coefficient. The latter will probably what might have happened at that time. A simple

vary with depth of flow so that extrapolation conclusion would be that the rain gauge had been

from low flows will introduce errors. moved or that obstacles had been placed or had

grown too close to the gauge.

The accuraey of measurement of stream flow

Accumulated discharge from a river may be
will affect the determination of the storage re­
plotted against accumulated rainfall at a nearby
quired and hence the heigh t of the dam. It will
station, Fig. 6.19. From this it is apparent that
also be of importance to hydrologists in their cor­
something happened around 1933. This would
relations and extrapolations. The prime re­
necessitate a careful analysis of the Burnie rain­
quirements are therefore:
fall figures as well as a study of the history of the
Continuous records extending over as long a gauging station, i.e. the occurrence of floods that
period as possible; may have changed the control or the movement
Location of the recording station near the dam­ of the gauge boards. (A simple example of the last
site, but clear of any future construction ac­ is the rebuilding of a bridge where a daily-read
tivities; gauge---of no great significance at the time--was
A recording site so selected that the control is on a pier of the bridge and was moved without
both stal:>le and sensitive. (If natural con­ reference to the Water Authority. The reader of l, 1,
ditions are not satisfactory a weir should be in­ the gauge' was semi-literate and saw no . 1
.J
 n

J
117

40
'"Q
•
E

E
30
,~

"
J
OJ
Q
20 -

J:!
1940

-R
"1'!
0 10
"5
E
~
0

'" o 10 20 50 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 rio 120 150 1~6i50~16!-;:0--:1::!:70::-:::18!-;:0--:19:!:0C-::::2oo

Accumulated discharge of Emu river m:3/s years

Fig. 6.19 Typical double mass curve

,f I
! ' significance in the movement of the gauge board,
hence it was not reported.)
Once reasonably satisfied as to the cause of the
change, modifications can be made to the records
before or after the relevant date. It must,
however, be emphasized that to change records is
a serious matter and should never be permitted
without independent checking. This is especially
I
true if the records are to be filed within a com­
puter.
i raooo
.1'
6.2 Storage Requirements
-;; 15000
The storage required in a reservoir may be ,:
flow of 375 m3fs, Fig. 6.21. The storage required
is then represented by the intercept between the
highest and lowest peak. If regulation of'the
river is to be, say, 80 per cent of the average floW
then a depressed line can be drawn from the
highest peak to represent this flow of 300 ml Is.
The greatest intercept below this Ilne will be the
storage then required.
17000
16000
,,'
If·

I
e
determined in a variety of ways. In tropical 0E, 14000
regions it may be decided to store the whole run­ ~ l3000
!L

off from precipitation for one season. Whether '"! 12000

this would ensure continuity of flow would de­ "
~ 11000
pend upon the season selected and the seasons oc­ ""
,~ 10000
curring later. It may be decided to provide suf­
"
ficient storage to ensure continuity through a :E"­ 9000
,
,
,. ! repetition of past history. For this purpose a mass E0 aooo
curve must be produced. This is a cumulative
"~

'" 7000
plot of river discharge against time, Table 6.2, 2~ 6000
0
Fig. 6.20. A straight line can be drawn to repre­ "x" = Required slorag.a
5000
sent the average discharge, in this case 375 ml/s. 2725 m3/s~monlhs
, 6 3
I'" At any time the vertical intercept above or below 4000 ~ 7063 '10 m

this line represents the excess or deficiency of

i]
water. To determine the storage necessary to
5000
2000
maintain the average flow from the reservoir
I
throughou t this period it is necessary to measure
the vertical intercept between the limits of the a Z 3 4
Period (years)
mass curve---the value X in Fig. 6.20.
For convenIence the mass curve may be Fig. 6.20 Typical mass curve--Colurnn 3 v. Column
.. 1 plotted as a cumulative difference from the mean 1 of Table 6.2
 n

~~ 119
4i~
~ ...4Jl~... , 'I' .5ooot
For this hypothetical river the storage capacity period. He may therefore decide to adopt a more
required to provide 100 per cent regulation severe critical period. This is sometimes done by
would be 2725 m3/s-months or 7063 million adding to the recorded critical period the driest
m3• This would be 60 per cent of the mean dis­ complete year' on record. One hydroelectric
charge. For 80 per 'cent regulation the required Authority has adopted a much more severe
capacity would be 2415 m 3/s-months or 6250 criterion by assembling the twelve driest months
million cubic metres, this being 54 per cent of on record into a synthetic year which was then
the mean discharge. It is interesting to quote the added to the natural critical period. This would
regulation requirements of a few large rivers, viz, be a very severe extension that could rarely be
the Indus in Pakistan needs storage of 40 per justified economically.
cent of the mean discharge for 80 per cent Whether it be for water supply, irrigation or
regulation, whereas the Vaal River in South the generation of electricity, the owner will be in­
Mrica requires 200 per cent. The White Nile and terested in the unit cost of water delivered. If too
the Blue Nile vary between 20 per cent and 60 severe a critical period is adopted, the cost of the
per cent whilst the Euphrates requires 100 per dam will be unduly high and the whole project
cent. Many Australian rivers require storage could be uneconomic. If, on the other hand, the
1 capacity in excess of the mean annual discharge principle of rationing on rare occasions is accept­
1'
for 100 per cent regulation. able then the cost of the project can be reduced
I appreciably. It is for this reason that some water
supply authorities now use a 'reliability'
,1 '"" c
0 Critical period approach, 8 i.e. an assessment of the percentage of
,
­
",'

5
E
1800
1600
time that a certain level of demand could be met
without restrictions. The reliability of the system
m
E' is calculated from a simulation study of the
\ c 1400
Storage required
2725 m3/s montll5 operation of the system using a digital computer.
­
~
u
; 7063)( [0 6 m3
I,,
II. '
,
,
'0
c
c
1200 This technique is more useful than the dry
I
m
E
1000 period concept in that it permits an analysis of
E
800 the relationships between factors that may vary
g
m 600
the demand-the percentage reliability at
~

~ 'different levels of supply and the financial

m 400
>
0 resources required to meet different degrees of
~
:c 200 reliability.
I[I C

'0 -200
c
0
E a
Mean Flow 375 m3/s
Simulation of system operation on the com­
puter is essential in an electricity supply system;
.2 whether an hydro station or a thermal station is
'I; ;'-
i
C
"

'0
m

-400
the next development will change the storage re­
-600

• quired on the system. The reliability approach

..,
~
-800 may therefore offer a reasonable means of assess­
0
,
E -1000
2 3 4 ing the risk incurred by economizing on storage
u
Period (years) provision for the period until the next power sta­
Fig. 6.21 Alternative mass curve-Column 5 v. tion becomes operative.
II Column 1 of Table 6.2

6.3 Floods
In Fig. 6.21, the 'Critical period' is the time
between the highest and lowest points on the 6.31 Approximate Formulae
graph; this frequently extends'over more than 1
The simplest formula for expressing run-off is
year. By adopting the storage required to ensure Q = C An, which has been used extensively as the
continuity of the desired flow through this Jarvis-Myer formula:' '
critical period the Engineer would provide no
margin for the future occurrence of a drier Q=CyA

"

:'

. ;.~:.} -4b 52
 ...,
120 i

This was developed to provide an envelope for parison of discharges from various catchments.
flood discharge of The 'Creager coefficient' of 30 is a little above
Q = 10000 v' A the envelope of floods recorded in Tasmania up
to 1970. McIlwraith (1954) has suggested a curve
where Q is the run-off in cubic reet per second, near the Creager 100 coefficient for the design of
A is the catchment area in square miles. spillways in Australia. This appears to agree with
Creager rearranged the formula. to modern estimations of probable maximum floods
in Australia; however, a new edition of
Q = lOOp v' A
Aumaiian Rainfall and Runoff to be published in
so that a family of curves could be drawn with
1976 will update such conclusions.
different values of p. These values have been
Some design floods are listed in Table 6.3 and
accepted in many countries to assist in the com-
shown on Fig. 6.22.

Table 6.3
Basi. of Catchment area Peak flood
No. Site determination (km') (m'/s)

Australia
1
Upper Yarra Prob.Max. 325 4360
2 Wyangala Prob. Max. 8200 16800
3 Warragamba 1/500 8650 14 000
4 Jindabyne Prnh. Max. 1170 6050
5 • Ord Prob. Max. 46000 71000
6 Wolfgang Ck. (1916) Actuajlo 810 11 000
7 Googong
Prob.Max. 875 4530
8 New Bullard, Bar, U.S.A.
Prob.Max. 1270 6400
9 Mica, Canada
Prob. Max. 21300 7000
10 Oroville, U.S.A.
Prob. Max. 9260 20 200
(1/10 000)
11 Brisbane, Australia
Aetual1974 13 500 9500

5
r ·i
,.

~l"

....' 20

0 10:
0
2
x
~
"-
'"E
•
~
'"
'0
u
~

'ii

'"
0
0

'"
...
Effective cafchment area (square kilometres)
Fig. 6.22 'Creager' discharge--Area curves i.

, ..... , .... --_.- .

 121

It will be noticed that many of these are near the
Creager 100 curve--i!xcept for the outstanding
Ord River.
Although the Creager coefficients are not
applicable to formulae in S.l. units, they have
been shown on the curves in Fig. 6.22 for con­
venience of those Engineers conversant with
, them.
The rational formula for run-off introduces
the intensity of rainfall to become
:, I Q = C i VA
whereiis the intensity of rainfall. This is applied
1 as an average intensity of rainfall over the
:! catchment, although it is obvious that point in­
French mission originally deduced a 3-monthly
run-off of 68 x 10' m' as the flood of probability
once in 1000 years. It accepted, however, the
Irrigation Department's suggestion of 65 x
109 m'. The first flood during construction-in"
March, 1957-approached this figure and the
Consulting Engineers recommended an increase
to 75 x 10' m'. In 1958 a flood discharged 28 x
109 m' in the month of March and 62 x 10' m'
in 3 months--Fig. 6.23. A further revision in the
light of the floods of 1957 and 1958 raised the es­
timated 3-monthly, 10 OOO-year discharge to 86
x 10 m • A design flood of 150 x 109 m'/s was
9 3
therefore adopted. The 1963 flood was the
largest recorded to 1965 and carried 93 x 10 m
9 3

tensities may greatly differ from the average.
In some countries specific run-off is defined
for various regions, but rigid adherence to such
factors can prove dangerous. In Japan the
"
in 3 months. If-by virtue of future 'ex­
periences--it is deemed advisable to increase, the
design flood again, arrangements will be mad.e to
draw down the reservoir before each flood

: suggested probable run-off for various regions ' season.

,l,.'j varies from 6 to 20 (or more) m'/s per km!. It is,
however, usual to assess what damage might
occur for a flood 20 per cent in excess of the
figure adopted.
At Zerbino Dam, Italy, during a cloudburst on
13th August, 1935, the rainfall exceeded any
f] previous intensity recorded in Italy and the run­
off was equivalent to 398 rom with a peak of
30 m 3/s per km'.
'1 The Kaddam Dam was built in India in 1951,
13 m high. The spillway was originaIly designed 6.32 Estimation of Design Flood
for a peak discharge of 3560 m'ls, but when the
dam was three-quarters built a flood slightly in
excess of this occurred. The hydrology was (i) The statistical analysis of past floods with ex­
reviewed and the flood peak was estimated at
7150 m'/s. The dam was just completed when a
flood occurred of 15 400 mlls; this overtopped
. These examples are quoted to warn the
Engineer that flood prediction is not an exact
science. Having decided upon the magnitude of ,
If,
the flood to be used in design, the Engineer
should investigate what would happen if that
flood were exceeded by, say, 20 per cent. So long
as no disaster would result he should sleep
soundly.
There are two methods now commonly used:
trapolation to estimate the magnitude and
probability of occurrence of future floods,
and ,
I'

the parapet by 0.5 m and scoured the

(ii) The estimation of probable maximum
downstream face. The embankment was
precipitation on to the particular catchment
breached in three locations.
under the worst meteorological conditions
At Kariba Dam on the Zambesi River,
i j likely to occur over the catchment, followed
Rhodesia, II the catchment area is 656 000 km'.
by an estimation of the run-off that would
For estimation of the design flood empirical for­ result from such a storm. l !
" mUlae could not be applied to such a large .1
: ,i
catchment; similarly extension of the unit If statistical analysis of past events indicates that
hydrograph was difficult to apply due to the there"is a 1 in 1000 chance that a flood of certain
problem of subdividing such a large catchment magnitude may occur in a particular year, then
with such variable climatic and meteorological this can usually be understood by administrators.
conditions, coupled with the paucity of (They should, of course, be warned that this does
meteorological statistics; extrapolation of records not mean that such a flood will only occur once
was influenced by their extent anct"accuracy. The in any 1000 years.) On the other hand, they
.- ~

may have reservations about the ability of
meteorologists to synthesize probable maximum
precipitation and of hydrologists to convert that
to peak run-off--especially from a large or a
topographically varying catchment.
The determination of the probable maximum
[ .. 1
precipitation (P.M.P.) for a particular drainage
basin is a job for experts and req uires a com­
prehensive study of major storms on record in
Ii, :I the region along the following lines:
(i) Analyse precipitation data and synoptic
situations of major storms on record in a
region surrounding the basin under study,
in order to determine characteristic com­
binations of meteorological conditions that
result in various rainfall patterns and
duration-depth-area relations.
(li) On: the basis of an analysis of air-mass
properties and synoptic situations prevailing
during the record storms, estimate the
amount of increase in rainfall quantities that
would have resulted if conditions during the
actual storm had been as critical as those
considered possible of occurrence in the
region.
(iii) Estimate the modifications in meteorological
conditions that would have been required
for each of the record storms to have oc­
curred over the drainage basin under study,
considering topographical features and
t,' "1 locations of the respective areas involved.
::-'!
'.
(iv) Taking into account the increase in rainfall
'quantities that might have resulted from
m().re severe meteorological conditions dur­
ing the record storms, and the adjustments
necessary to transpose the respective storms
to;, the basins under study, select the es­
timates that would represent critical :rainfall
duration--depth-area relations for the par­
I ticular drainage area during the various
seasons of the year.
The end-product of such a comprehensive study
is the histogram of average catchment rainfall in­
tensity for the storm period.
Meteorological Services in most countries have
now endeavoured to forecast the maximum
Fig. 6.23 Zambesi River, March 1958
123
possible rain that can fall in certain areas over
varying lengths of time. The results of such
studies in Australia are shown in Fig. 6.24, which
relates to a time interval of 24 hours and a
medium catchment area. Fig. 6.25 refers to a
time interval of 1 hour and a much smaller catch­
ment area. Such maps, however, should only be
used as an introduction to the subject since
altitude, general topography and the direction of
prevailing winds must have some influence on
the precipitation of rain, i.e. the rainfall on the
western slopes of a mountain range may be quite
different from that on the eastern slopes.
The Clermont (Fig. 6.24) storm lO of
December, 1916, was one of the worst in the
history of Queensland, Australia. The peak dis­
charge of Wolfgang Creek exceeded the Creager
100 curve, Fig. 6.22.
Measured rainfall intensity-durations are com­
pared in Table 6.4 with probable maximum
values calculated for two catchment areas within
the region of the storm.
Table 6.4. Clennont Storm December, 1916
Clermont storm Maximum
rainfall thunderstorm
Catchment (mm) model(mm)
area
(km') 6h I2h 24 h 6h 12 h 24 h
512 328 515 635 426 525 635
1280 320 495 620 416 457 560
It is evident that the Clermont storm equalled
the predicted maximum for periods in e"c~ss of
12 hours.
Renard 13 describes peak run-offs from an ex­
perimental catchment in New Mexico from 1955
to 1968, and concludes that 'the current U.S.
Weather Bureau maximum point rainfall values
for 6-hour periods are too low and probably
represent no more than the 2-hour values'.
According to Gillman l4-the former Head of
the Hydrometeorological Section of the U.S.
Weather Bureau--estimates of probable max-"
imum precipitation represent 'the best judgement
of the meteorologist of the realistic upper limit of
the precipitation that can occur'. The experience
of scientists is therefore a major factor in the
applicability and accuracy of this approach.
In 1951 Jamieson J5 maximized all pertinent
124

140 '50

20

~til
,
~
560mm
.3
30

i
I
nj
~
!
!

AUSTRALIA 355mm
406mm'
I
['n'.
, I
120 13Q
Longilude - Eo,1
140 150
: I
Fig. 6.24 Ge!leralized estimates of maximum possible rainfall-Area 1300 km'; time 24 hours JI
1.1 I
~, I

.20 130 140 150

f] II
~

tJl
20 20

.c

~ I

~,

\
229mm ~
Brisbane -,'~
"'--------:, '! ;~
20. -,20 ;: •
203mm
"
j;
,
J
~]
"

"
. i" AUSTRALIA
I
I'J
130 140 150
IL
Longilude ~ East
('
Fig. 6.2.5 Generalized estimates of maximum possible rainfall-Area 26" krn'; time 1 hour Ii.!
!
 i 125
.1
I
factors, such as wind, snow, rainfall, infIltration cent of the probable maxIDlUm precipitation
and then added 25 per cent. In most cases such flood.
conservatism would increase the cost to such an The statistical approach is usually han­
extent that either the project would be aban­ dicapped by the short period ofrecords available, ..
doned or a probability factor would then be in­ i.e. the mathematician has difficulty in determin­ ! ;<

troduced to discount the simultaneous oc­ ing a definite distribution function that fits the

currence of all adverse factors. events and which would permit forecasting of the

An outstanding sidelight on the complexity of 10 OOO-year flood from, say, 50 years of records.

'. ,i proper maximization was revealed in the studies
for the Hendrik Verwoerd Dam, South Africa. 16
The meteorological aspect of the problem was
carried out on behalf of the Consulting Engineer
by the Meteorological Office of the United
Kingdom. Table 6.5 gives the predicted max­
imum depth of rainfall over the catchment for a
series of time intervals.
Benson!' has suggested that 48 years of
records could only define the 100-year flood
within 25 per cent and that 115 years of records'·
would be necessary to approach 10 per cent ac­
curacy. Cole IS has suggested that regional
analysis overcomes the sampling error to improve !
the quality of the result. Thus he considered·that I
I i;
.'
'data from n stations, each covering the same period

of y years, are equivalent to n measurements orthe

same data, provided the stations are in a

Table 6.5. Hendrik Verwoerd Dam hydrologically homogeneous area';

Time interval (hours) 6 12 24 48 120

One. must, of course, ask whether any two
Maximum stations could in fact meet this condition. Due to
precipitation (mm) 90 50 150 200 350 concern regarding the accuracy of a
mathematical conclusion based on data, each
item of which is subject to error, there is some
It was noted that the crucial factor determin­ reluctance to accept extrapolations far beyond
ing the maximum possible precipitation was the the 1 in 200 year event.
sea temperature off Madagascar. It so happens However, the statistical approach has received
that for the meteorological conditions existing great attention over the past 50 years. Goodrich
L
'···1 over South Africa it is in this area that the in 1927 19 devised the pertinent probability dis­
L moisture is taken up into the atmosphere and tribution and related probability paper with its
subsequently deposited inland. The source of log scale for the variate and a log-log scale for
Orange River is at altitude 3048 m. probability. This provided a simple method for
It has, however, been suggested by many extrapolation of floOd frequency data. Alex­
Engineers that the probable maximum precipita­ ander'· (1973) has discussed various distribution
tion method is too conservative and has resulted functions with strong support for the frequency
in the progressive increase in estimated design approach. It is appropriate to note that he states
floods. For this reason there is now a tendency to 'A reliable estimate of a 10 000 year rainfall
compare such estimates with values derived by provides an upper limit to the 10 OOO-year flood,
1
I statistical studies-with a leaning to the adop­ the error in the estimate of the loss being small
tion as the design flood of an event equal to or compared with the rainfall'.
less than one that has a probability of occurrence Thus the analysis of rainfall events appears to
in any year of 1 in 10000. offer more scope than that of flow records,par­
The term Standard Project Flood has been in­ ticularly as rainfall has usually been recorded
troduced to recognize, in part, the degree of im­ over a much longer period...For this reason,
probability of the probable maximum precipita­ methods of correlation have been developed, i.e.
tion flood ever occurring and that a lower value statistical methods are utilized to extend a short
might well be applied to less critical appurtenants period of records at the site by comparing con­
to the dam. The rainfall adopted to calculate the current records at another station that has been
Standard Project Flood is often taken as 60 per operating over a longer period. It is often ex­ .; .
cent of the Probable Maximum Precipitation, pedient to include other factors in order to im­
and results in a discharge a little less than 60 per prove the accuracy of the relationship.

'I

-_. ----~ ~ - - -- -- ---- _.. ---- - . . :;

126

Coefficients must be determined in the general is made complex by insufficiency and inherent
equation inaccuracy of data. Whilst hydrometeorologists Ll '
. and mathematicians are doing brilliant work to
Y = aX, + bX2 + ... xX. + e
present a picture of what might happen in the 1
where Y is the variable to be predicted, future, the Engineer is faced with the conflicting 1
X are the variables' to be included, Le. requirements of safety and economy. He is
rainfall, river flow, etc. therefore obliged to use to best advantage the
e is the regression constant. data and procedures that are available, i.e.
From the occurrence of simultaneous events Statistical analysis of past flow records at the
the coefficients are determined and the . sitec-and extrapolation;
equation-frequently in logarithmic form-is As above, but with. extension of the flow records
:1
: .~ ,

then used for extrapolation. by correlation with flows from adjacent

Whether rainfall can be accepted as a com­ catchments;
pletely random collection of discrete events must Statistical analysis of site rainfall records and ex­ [1
be queried. At both professional and amateur trapolation;
level we hear much of the changing seasons. The As preceding, but with extension of data by cor­
effect of sun-spot activity on rainfall on the relation with other stations;
Earth has claimed the attention of many scien­ Correlation stodies including both rainfall and
tists. Sancha21 has .drawn attention to the great flow records;
sun-spot activity in 1957-59 when some of the Estimation of 'maximum possible' rainfall by
greatest floods in history occurred in various Meteorological Services and application of
parts of the world-Table 6.6. such data to the estimation of 'probable max­ . \.,
~ ., '

imum flood' from the catchment;

Table 6.6 Comparison with known events and other
Esti­
designs adopted for the region by the use of
Catch-
ment Average mated such means as the Creager coefficients.
area flow flood
Date River (km') (m'/s) (m'/s)
1000

Aug. 1957 Caroni 25000 5300 17000

Venezuela
900

Feb/Mar•.

1958 Zambesi . 640000 1200 16000

sao

April
1959 . Rio Negro 40000 525 16000 700

April Rio
.1959· Uriquay 240000 4600 37500 600

.!(!.
~
E
.500 Inflow
0

The French NationiII Committee of ICOLD G:

has recently reviewed" the various methods of 400

determining design floods with different types of
usable data, i.e. direct knowledge of discharges or 300
indirect methods of estimation based on
200

pluviometrical and climatic data, the regional

hydrological syntheses and methods: of
geographical transposition. It came to no' fum 100

conclusions, but indicated the possible conser­

vatism of'some calculations of probable max­ 24 . 25 26 27
imum flood .. -Time days

,/ At this time, therefore, we have a subject that Fig. 6.26 Flood routing'-Lake' Barrington
 127

120r-------------------------------------------------,

ii Top of embonkmen1 ~--------­

Top flood level - - - - - - - - - - ­

I
Crest of auxiliary spillway, - - - ­ I
•
I
I .
I
II,
100~

,:'0

<!
E
c 90 - - I - - Crest of main spillway
IL07

I1
1500
I

1.05 1.25 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 5000

Recurrence intervol (years j
i,l.,
i Fig. 6.27 Ord River Dam, Australia
, ,! , \,

Assisted by all the above, the Engineer will ul­ based on a 3000-years sequence of monthly'
timately make his decision on experience and his stream flows from a monthly rainfall sequence
judgement of the risks involved. developed by Monte Carlo Methods. As 'seen
from Fig. 6.27, it is anticipated that the aux~
mary spillway will only operate once in 265
Ll 6.33 Flood Routing years.23
Operational studies based on routing flows'for
When a flood enters a reservoir it will cause
the water level to rise, with consequent discharge the period 1904 to 1966 through the reservoir,
over the spillway. The reservoir level will con­ assuming an irrigation usage of 0.74 x 10' mJ
per year indicated that .
tinue to rise until the free discharge over the
spillway equals the inflow at time 'X' on Fig. Only for about 1 year in 10 did the water fail to
6.26. Spillway discharge will then exceed inflow pass over the spillway;
until the reservoir level falls to spillway crest Within the period there was a 25-year sequence
level. of continuous spillway flow;
This basic operation can, of course, be For 60 per cent of the time the spillway flOW was
modified when spillway gates are installed. equal to or greater than the discharge rate of
Provided' an adequate warning system is ,0.74 x 10' m3 per year.
available, the spillway gates may be opened in ad­
vance of the peak of the flood. The rate at which The concept of sequential storms was adopted
they can be opened and the extent to which they for Gordon Dam, Australia. The probable max­
can be opened will usually be governed by per­ imum 5-day storm ws estimated and, using unit­
graph methods, the' corresponding maximum ': :
missible river rise conditions downstream. There
probable inflow was determined. It was also con­
is, of course, the danger that the flood inflow will
sidered that flood studies should make provision
not reach the volume anticipated; in that case
for possible high inflows foUowingthe probable
water will have been wasted from the reservoir,
maximum 5-day storm. To provide for thisi'the
or a flood of unjustifiable size may have been ar­
30-day inflow having a probability of exceedance
tificially created in the river downstream from
once in 2000 was determined. The final inflow
the dam.
i As mentioned in Chapter 14, the Ord River hydrograph was then synthesized as follows:.
! Reservoir, Australia, has remarkable character­ (a) the storage inflow resulting from the 5-day,
istics. The 62 years of records were used as the probable maximum storm was assnmed to
I
J
basis for probability stqdies; the. anaJ.ysis being occur at the beginning of a 30-day period;

",
I
Ii
I

" , .. 1'
• t il!!
Ii
II
'I'
), :
 .§.
128
(b) The storage inflow during the remainder of
the 30-day period was adjusted so that the
total inflow oyer the 30-day period was equal·
to the 1 in 2000 event. The distribution of
inflow following the initial probable maxi­
m)lm inflow was assumed to he similar to that
experienced during a wet period on record;
(c) the flood inflow was tapered off over the
following 10 days making a total 40-day
design period.
The final dimensioning was therefore based on
Storage Volume at FuJI
Supply Level -11.6 X 109 m 3
Flood Storage Volume -0.7 x 109 m3
Power station diversion
capacity - 270 m'/s
Total inflow for 39 days 1.15 x 109 m'
Inflow from extreme flood - 0.43 x 109 m'
hIlt with the power station inoperative for 10.
days.
Ea.ch reservoir will possess different
characteristics; it becomes a matter of economics
to compare the cost of extra height on the dam to
store some or all of the flood waters or a lower
dam with adequate spillway capacity to pass a
flood that will be acceptable in the valley below
the dam.
6.4 Freeboard
The following ICOLD definition of freeboard
will be used:
The vertical distance between the top of the dam
and the full supply level on the reservoir.
The top of the dam is the level of watertightness
:..1
of the 'structure and may be the top of a parapet
that is watertight throughout its length. Full
supply level is the level adopted in design for the
maximum Oper'ation of the reservoir. To deter­
mine a value for freeboard the following must be
considered:
Rise in the reservoir surface due to routing of the
design flood through the reservoir;
Seiche effects;
Wind set-up of the. water surface;
Wave action;
Run-up of waves on the dam.
'L
< _i ~-'
It must be emphasized that none of these is sub­
ject to precise mathematical determination. The
best methods available should be used for their
evaluation but in most cases the results obtained
will be based on past experience extrapolated by
various mathematical processes. With this in
mind further allowances are often added:
To cover lack or inaccuracy of data;
For a dam of special height or importance, i.e. if
located above a large centre of population;
The type of dam, concrete or embankment.
Some Authorities introduce a further allowance
to cover the possibility of malfunctioning of
spillway gates.
Other events may occur that could cause a
surge in the reservoir, i.e. an earthquake or a
landslide into the reservoir. The possibility of oc­
currence and the possible effects of these should
be investigated for the particular site.
It is therefore evident that no precise value can
be determined for freeboard. It will usually he
some statistical combination of the values
estimated for each of the above factors,
appropriately weighted after assessment of
damage that would result from overtopping of
the dam. Undue conservatism will involve un­
. reasonable expenditure; on the other hand, any
serious underestimation may prejudice the safety
of the dam and even lead to its destruction.
6.41 Flood Surcharge
The Design Flood hydrograph, Fig. 6.26,
delineates the peak inflow and the total volume of
water expected to enter the reservoir over a par­
ticular period of time. The routing of this water
n· ,
through the reservoir will cause a rise in the · ,
reservoir level which will depend upon the lake
area at the time and the discharge characteristics
of the spillway. The hydrograph will have been
determined from past events-both as regards
height and shape-and consideration of the
probable maximum precipitation. A variation in
either the height or the width of the graph will
affect the calculated peak discharge over the
spillway. It is therefore advisable to examine the ·· ,j
effects of changes in the hydrograph, i.e. main­
tain the same peak but change the volume of the Ii
.\
flood, or maintain the volume constant but
change the peak. This form of exercise will in- ~k
t.·.'..·.•
f
q
'U
{.
",

die ate the significance of vananons in these
values within the accuracy with which they have
been estimated.
!, 6.42 Seiche Effect
This effect refers to periodic und ulations in
the reservoir-believed to be related to or set in
motion by intermittent wind, varying at­
mospheric pressures,' earthquakes or even
irregular inflow and ouiflow of water. After the
generating influence is removed the oscillations
subside.
The existence of seiches has been recognized
for a long time. Hutchinson" records some of the
earliest references including those at Lake Con­
stance, Switzerland, in 1549 and those noted by
the Aztecs at Lake Taxcoco in 1519. As many as
15 a oscillations have occurred in 8 days in Lake
Geneva, Switzerland, where Schruntz" reports
amplitudes up to 2 m. At Kingsley Dam, U.S.A.,
the undulations have been between 0.2 and
0.5 m. At Great Lake, Tasmania, and Lake
Eucumbene, Australia,26 values of 0.1 m have
been recorded.
I
iJ 6.43 Wind Set-up
This is the shear displacement of water
towards one end of a reservoir by wind blowing
continuouslY--Qr in repeated regular
gusts-from one direction. Extreme recorded
values are Lake Geneva 2.1 m, Lake Erie 2.5 m,
whilst at the shallow Lake Okeechobee, Florida,
U.S.A., set-up of 3.1 m was measured during a
hurricane in 1949. However, the more usual
values are about one-tenth of the above.
The Z uider Zee formula can be used as a guide
for the estimation of set-up:
S= V'PcosA
i kD . To provide the basis for calculation. of
j where S ='wind set-upe-m
V = wind speed over water-kmlhour
P=fetch-km
D = average depth-m
A = angle of wirid to fetch
1 k = a constant-about 62 000.
i
Set-up of the reservoir will depend upon the
period of time over which the wind blows, i.e. at
least I hour for a fetch of 3 kmor 3 hours for a
129
fetch of 20 km. On an 80-km fetch a wind speed
of 80 km/hour must last for at least 4 hours,
whereas for a wind speed of 40 km/hour it must
last nearer 8 hours for maximum set-up.
The wind speed 10 m above the surface of a
new reservoir will be greater than that recorded
over the original topography and the following
factors usually apply:
Effective fetch (km) 1 2 4 8 12
Wind ratio
Over water
1.1 1.16 1.23 1.29 1.31
Over land
6.44 Wave Action
The transfer of energy from the wind to.the
surface of the water will create waves. The run­
up of water against the dam will depend upon the
height of the wave, the depth of water in front of
the dam and the geometry and material of the
upstream face of the dam. At Lake King.William,
Tasmania, the maximum fetch is normal to the
crown of the arch-gravity dam. As waves
propagate towards the abutments they increase
in height due to beaching, convergence of boun­
daries and reflections, Fig. 6.28; those shown
being approximately 2 m crest to trough. The .•
shape of a multiple-arch dam gravely accentuates'
the run-up of waves, Fig. 6.29. In this case the .
still water level was about 3 m below the top of
the dam, but run-up in the groins between arches
caused damage to the balustrades. With I'm
freeboard, as much as 12 m'ls has passed over
the twenty-eight arches of this dam. To avoid the.
cost of providing excessive freeboard the
Engineer should assess damage that might .occur
from some water passing over the dam.
probable wave heights an anemometer should. be
installed at the site at the earliest practicable ,,
!'i
date. For later correlation it should be located
10 m above the future full supply level of the
reservoir and exposed to the maximum fetch.
Short-term records at the site may then be cor­
related with longer records at other stations,
although orographic and exposure features of the
respective sites must influence one's acceptance
of such correlations.
. ,
 .1
,,~
-
r~'1 :
 131

Fig. 6.28 Clark Dam, Australia-Waves about 1.7 m For approximate detenninations of freeboard
it can be assumed that for wave heights from 0.3
Fig. 6.29 Miena Dam, Australia-Wave run-up on
multiple-arch dam to 2 m the velocity of approach will be given by
Gaillard's aPl>roximate formula"

The Stevenson fonnula" has been used for V = 1.5 + 2Hw !-.j
I many years. Transfonned to S.L units this is where V = the wave propagation velocity-mfs.
.r:- 1
Hw 0.34v'(F) + 0.76 - 0.26 {IF (i) Freeboard for wave action can then be taken as
whereHw height of wave, crest to trough-m approximately
F fetch-km
V'
When the fetch exceeds 20 km the above formula 0.75 Hw + 2g
can be approximated to i
I
This includes the assumption that the crest of the
Hw = 0.34v'F (ii)
wave is 0.75 Hw above the still-water level. This I
These two fonnulae are represented graphically is not a definite figure--values between 0.65 and I
in Fig. 6.30. Since the height of generated waves 0.75 being adopted by various writers.2,9
must be related to the wind velocity, fonnula (i) For large dams and extensive lakes more ..
has been modified to precise studies are necessary, giving attention to"
' ,. all factors affecting the wind-wave relation­
I
Hw = 0.032v'(VF) + 0.76 - 0.26 {I F (iii) ship,30-37 Fig. 6.31.
!' j where V = wind speed along the fetch-km/h Waves measured over a short period of time I
.,
will have been generated by wind that preceded 'j
,
Values from fonnula (iii) have been superim­ the time interval. Measurements of wind velocity
posed on Fig. 6.30 for wind speeds of 20, 40, 80 should therefore extend over an appropriate time
and 130 km/hour. in each case. It is generally adopted that wind
speed will be measured 10m above the water
50r-------------------~
surface. Regular gusts ofwind can produce higher
waves than constant wind of the same speed but
such waves settle down quickly as gusts change
40 to wind.
" Since no two crests in a train of waves

I
necessarily reach the same height it is necessary
E 30 to define wave height. Modern studies refer to
~

I S the 'Significant Wave Height'-H,--this being

I ";t" 20 the mean height of the highest third of the waves
I 0
'".. in a train. The following approximate
I, '. ,
I " \ H."0,34M+O.76-0.26
relationships apply:38
"IF
10 '" 2 HW If_O.34rF
Hm••• = 0.624 H,
3 H." O.032M)+O.76-0,27VF H lo = 1.29 H,
(mean of highest 10)
o 2 4 5
Wave height (H.,,) melres Maximum = 1.78 to 1.87 H, ~ i
Fig. 6.30 Wave height v. Fetch (depending upon the number of
waves during a steady-state period)
Stevenson's approximate formula (i) is
Wave heights in a train will confonn approx­
therefore applicable for wind speeds of about
imately to the following, i.e. .
100 km/hour, which is a. reasonable figure for
many locations. It would be conservative for low Not exceed for more than
I wind speeds but would underestimate waves for 20% of time-O.87 H,
i high wind speeds. 10% of time--1.07H,
 ------ ~~- -~- --

132

" .,

<'.J

;'1
I

1---8--­
I :"'1
'; Ii~
:: ,i ,
1­ Embankment slope 7 - Significant wave height, Hs
'2 - Still water level (full supply level) 8 - Wave length
3 ­ flood surcharge 9 - Run-up by Design Wave '1
4 - Wind set-up plus seiche effect
5 ­ Maximum wave height
10 ­ Run4Jp by Maximum Wave
11 Freeboard
J

,
6 - Design wave height
1.0 H s for rip rap design
1.25 Hs for freeboard

Fig. 6.31 Wave details

J

::1
. ~
~ . .}

5% of time--1.25 H, and 130 km/hour. The values are generally lower

3% of time--1.33 H,
1% of time--1.5 8 H,
It is therefore fairly common practice to adopt a
design wave height equal to 1.25 H,-accepting
that for 5 per cent of the time when there is full
flood in the reservoir some waves will overtop the
dam. The reservoir depth along the path of the
waves will affect the height of waves since
theoretically the height of a wave cannot exceed
0.7 times the water depth.
The theories of tangential and normal stress
transfer _from wind to water have been in­
vestigated actively over the past 50 years, chiefly
by Jeffreys,lO Sverdrup and Munk and
Bretschneider. lI .n The Technical Memo No. 132
by the U.S. Corps of Engineers, 196237 reviews
field measurements at several reservoirs and
provides graphs (in Imperial units) for the solu­
. 0 f SaVI'11 es equatIon
. 33
tlon ­
g~ = 0.0026 (~r4J
which is applicable for short fetches in enclosed
lakes. ­
In this case
H, = height of significant wave-m
than those by Bretschneider (1970), whose work , "1 i!
I'
applied to deep water in open- ocean waves. In the
absence of evidence to the contrary, the author
1 I!
has assumed that Stevenson's formulae apply to
"II­
the mean wave height. Stevenson values have 1I
therefore been multiplied by 1.6 for plotting on
Fig. 6.32.
I
For wind speeds around 80 km/hour there is I­
very good agreement between Falvey, Saville,
Bretschneider and the Stevenson Modified for­
mulae. For wind speeds around 40 km/hour there
I
1
I
)
is good agreement between the first three but at
figures considerably below the Stevenson values.
For high wind speeds-where Falvey's formula
does not apply-it seems reasonable to adopt
Saville's figures. Secondary effects at a particular
site 'will be introduced by the width of the wind
path (i.e. topographical irregularities along the
banks), divergence of wind direction from the
line of maximum fetch and variation of wind
speed along the_ fetch. It is unreasonable,
therefore, to expect an accuracy better than
0.25 m when calculating the height of the signifi­
cant wave.
A few examples will indicate that very large
waves can occur-generally supporting the
values by Saville and Bretschneider, Le. at Pearl

River Dam, U.S.A., in August, 1969, wind of

V = wind .speed-mls

96 km/hour gradually built up over a period of

F=fetch-m

12 hours, blowing directly against the face of the

and g= 9.81-mls'
dam. The fetch was about 18 km. The waves
The value of wave heights given by this formula were recorded as 'greater than 2 m'.
are plotted in Fig.- 6.32 for wind speeds of 40, 80 Bretschneider's 1970 curves indicate a significant
 133
i
I
50r-------------------------------------------------~
40 ken/hour kml hour 130 km/hour eo . ~.

~
1/ 4
3 ~
4 / ' /

I !II ,Ii /
40f­

I III /
i ':/ / /'
30
/ //1 / /' i
E
. ,I
'"
.c
£
",
"
.//
/,/ ,,/
/ /'
/
I ~ i ill ' I
20~ !
~ ~
I 'II' • ,//
I
" I!
1/'/ ./t ,;.1
Seville 1 ---­ 1
I i~11 ll.// 2----­
10
/'/./'/
I} Folvey
J
Slevenson modified 3 -----------­
1
Bretschneider (1970) 4 ------­
'I
ii'

t ,
n ,! ~
2 3 4 6 7 I ~

,~
Significant wove height H'So (m}

.
Hs'::: 1.6 x. meon wove heighl
ii'
Fig. 6.32 Significant wave height v. Fetch ,.,.
;,.. I
wave height of 2.2 m, whilst from Fig. 6.32 one be balanced against damage that may· occur I
might estimate 2.7 m. Incidentally, a reservoir should the dam be overtopped by waves or spray.· I Ii
set-up of 15 cm was recorded during the At Mica Dam, Canada, the possibility of a land ~1
48 kmlhour wind and 30 cm during the slip into the reservoir and consequent surge in .
96 km/hour wind of this storm. At Jindabyne the reservoir could not be overlooked. It would
Dam, Australia, on 7th May, 1973, the average have been economically impracticable to raise the
wind speed was about 90 km!hour. With a fetch 300 m high rocKfill dam to provide for such a
of 2.$ to 3 km, waves 1 m to 1.3 m were remote possibility. It was, however, feasible to
recorded. Bretschneider's curves would indicate a widen the crest of the dam and reinforce it to
significant wave height of 1.3 In. During this pass such a wave without undue damage. " ,
., storm wind gusts of up to nearly 200 km!hour ,
"
I,:
.,
were recorded. 'i
6.45 Probability Approach 10 Freeboard
At Kingsley Dam, U.S.A., on 1/2 May, 1972,
winds held at nearly 90 km!hour for about 4 It is not uncommon to calculate the freeboard
hours. The lake is 40 km long. The waves were as the superposition on full supply level of the ,,
estimated to be between 2.5 and 3 m. From Fig. maXimum flood rise, wind set-up and waves ,i

6.32 one might estimate about 3.5 m for the
significant wave.
It is obvious that the dam .Engineer must exer­
cise judgment, based upon the best information
I 100000 in anyone year, provided that ex­
,J he can obtain of wind speeds that may occur at
the site when the reservoir is full. To assume that
the wind will blow at maximum speed exactly on
the line of maximum fetch at a time when the
reservoir reaches its maximum level during flood
routing would certainly be conservative. All fac~
tors. should therefore be considered together and
produced by the '100-year' wind. The probability
of all those being concurrent is very small. It may
be deemed adequate to determine freeboard on
the probability of exceedance of, say, 1 .in
ceedance would do no serious damage to the dam.
If the reservoir is likely to reach its full supply
level once in L years, and if a certain flood rise is
likely to occur once in M years, and if the wind
of a certain speed and duration is likely It) blow
once in N years, then the probability th.at the.
134

Return intervals
Crest level af
(years)
opprQ(lc~ifl9 Hl wove
El.311

Woves 0.65 Hj

FS.L El.SOa.S Se1-ups ",; ,:' '"

Flood rises

ELSO? Imtiol levels

Minimum

Fig. 6.33 Combinations giving highest wave cre't levels, and frequencies of occurrence

three events will occur in anyone year is the highest levels contained the highest wind speeds.
product LMN, but the probability that they will A few of the combinations are shown in Fig.
coincide is much lower since it will depend upon 6.33, and serve to illustrate what must happen
the duration of each event. for the wave crests to reach E 1.311 m. Since a
If the lake will be at full supply level for 1/r of freeboard of 1.3 m exists above this level there
a year and the flood lasts 1/s of a year, then the should be very small risk of overtopping. Should
probability of coincidence of all factors will be 1 the maximum or the design winds occur it is
in L.r.M.s.N. It is to be noted that the duration most probable that the tops of the waves would
!]
of wind does not appear since it is considered be blown over the crest, possibly clear of the
that the relevant wind could blow at any time. dam, or to fall on to the large rockfill that com­
This line of reasoning was adopted at Scotts prises the downstream face of the dam.
'J I
Peak Dam, Tasmania. 39 The lake has a surface The approach at the Monduran Dam,
area of 250 km.' and will be operated in conjunc­ Australia, was along similar lines. The embank­
tion with another lake to furnish water to the ment level was chosen so that the freeboard on
Gordon power station. From computer studies of the probable maximum flood would be equal to
system operation it was possible to predict the the estimated wave run' up caused by a
probable recurrence interval at which the lake 40 kmlhour wind using Saville's equation. The
would be at certain levels. It was assumed that available freeboard on more frequent floods
the lake would remain within 0.3 m of the par­ would then be as in Table 6.7.
ticular level for 1/8 year. Floods with return in­
tervals of 1 and 1000 years were routed through Table 6.7
the storage for 'each of these initial levels. The
duration of the flood was assumed to be 1/11 Wind velocity to
year. The passage of wind acroSs the lake will cause wave run-up
Flood return Freeboard equal to freeboard
cause both reservoir set-up and waves; for both interval (m) (km/hour)
to occur simultaneously only winds that endured
for more than 1 hour were considered. A wave Probable Max. 0.6 40
height of 1.67 Hs was assumed, i.e. the height at­ 1000 years 1.4 100
500 years 1.8 130
tained by 1 per cent of the waves. It became ap­ 100 years 3.4 225
pan:nt that all combinations producing the

References
1. Snowy Mountains Hydro Electric Authority, Precipitation Gauges, Internal Report, March
Australia, Investigation oj Relatiw Catches oj 1962.

q
: ;~

U
 135j".'

2. L. Ponce!et, Comparison of Rain Gauges, World U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply, Paper No.

Meteorologica! Organisation, Ocr. 1959. 1543A, 1960.

3. M. K. Smith, K. K. Watson and D. H. Pilgrim, 'A 18. G. Cole, 'An Application of the Regional Analysis
Comparative Study of the Hydrology of Radiata to Flood Flows', Proc. Symposium I.C.E., 18th
Pine and Eucalypt Forests', I.E. /lust. Hydrology March 1965.
. ,
Symposium, Perth, 1973, pp.91-98. 19. R. D. Goodrich, 'Straight Line Plotting of Skew
4. C. L. Wicht, The Validity of Conclusions from Frequency Data', Trans. A.S.C.E., 91, 1927,
South African Multiple Watershed Experiments pp. 1-118.
(Eds. W. E. Sopper and H. W. Lull), Pergamon, 20. G. N. Alexander, 'Estimation of the 10000-year
Oxford, 1967, pp. 749-760. Flood', 11th ICOW Congress, Madrid 1973,
5. E. J. Smith, E. E. Adderley, L. Veitch aod E. Tur­ Q. 41, R.70, 11, pp. 1327-1350.
ton, 'A Cloud Seeding Experiment in Tasmania', 21. L. Sancha, 'Discussion on Dam Disasters', Proe.
Proc. Internalwnal Conference on Weather I.C.E., 27, Feb. 1964, p. 365.
Modification Canberra, Auslralia, Sept. 1971 (83 22. French National Committee, 'Determination des
Papers). Crees de Project', (Determination of Design
6. B. Watson, C. A. Denny, 'The Use of Streamflow Floods), 11th ICOLD Congress, Madrid, 1973,
Data for the Evaluation of C!oud Seeding Ex­ QA1, R.8, 11, pp.123-144. 1
periments in Tasmania') lac cit, p. 97. 23. B. S. Sadler, 'Hydrologic Investigations for the
7. 'Photogrammetric Technique for Measuring Sur­ Ord River Dam', ANCOLD Bulletin No. 32, Dec. I
face Velocity in Streams', Research Project 72/40, 1970, pp. 14-28. !
Interim Reporl 011 II", Development of Field and Of­
fice procedures and EquIpment, October, 1973,
24.. G. E. Hutchinson, 'A Treatise on Limnology'
Vol. 1. Geography, Physics alld Chemistry, John
I
i
. ~ i Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation, Wiley, New York, 1957. . .
!
Cooma, Australia. 25. C. C. Schruntz, Hydraulics Bulletin 1, Vol. 2, Feb. j:

8. A. G. Robertson, W. T. Burnett and J. H. Greer, 1939, U.S. Waterways Experimeni Station,

Vicksburg, U.S.A.
i:
'The Augmentation of Melbourne's Water Supply
System', 1974, I.E. Ausi. Conference held in New­ 26. J. A. H. Brown, Osel1/atiOn5 of Water Level 1
castle, Australia.
9. C. S. Jarvis, 'Flood Flow Characteristics', Trans.
EueumiJene, Report presented to' the I.E. Aust ..
Watet Resources Conference, Cooma, 1961.
I
A.S.C.E., 89, 1926, pp.985-1032.
10. B. Harman and H. E. Whittingham, A Documen­
lary and Investigation ofthe Clermont Siorm ofDec.
27. C. V. Davis and K. E. SorenSen, Handbook of
Applied Hydraulics, 3rd edn., McGraw-Hili, New
York, 1969.
I
1916, Irrigation and Water Supply Commission, 28. D. D. Gaillard, Wave Actwn (reprinted 1935),
Queensland, Nov, 1970. . The Engineer School, Fort Belvoir, Va., U.S.A.
11. N. T. N. Neeve and D. T. Edmonds, 'Zambesi 29. Wavts in Inland Reservoirs, Technical Memo. No.
River-Flood Hydrology and Its Effects on 132, 1962, U.S. Corps of Engineers, Wasnington
Design and Operation of Kariba Dam', Proc. D.C., U.S.A.
Symposium On Flood Hydrology I.C.E. 18th March 30. H. Jeffreys, 'On the Formation of Water Waves in
1965. Wind', Proe. Roy. Soc., London, Series A, 1924,
12. V. A. Myers, Melrological Estimate of Extreme pp.107-189. .

o'
, Precipitation of Spillway Design Floods, U.S. 31. M. A. Mason, 'The Problem of Wave Action on
Weather Bureau, 1967, Tech. Memo. Hydro 5. Earth Slopes', Trans. A.S.C.E., 116, 1951,
j
13. K. G. Renard, J. C. Drissel, H. B. Osborn, 'Flood pp.1398-1415.
Peaks from small Southwest Range W.tershed', 32. C. L. BretsChneider, 'Selection of the. Design
Journ.l of Hydraulics Division, Proc. A.S.C.E., Wave for Offshore Structures', Journal of
1
96, No. HY3, March 1970. Waterways and Harbors Division, Paper 1568,
.1 14. C. S. Gillman, Handbook of Applied Geology (Ed.
00

Proc. A.S.G.E., 84, No. WW2, March 1958,

Chow), Chap. 9, 'Rainfall', McGraw-Hili" New pp. 1~37.
York. 33. T. A. Saville, E. W. Clendon aod A. L. Cochran,
15. L N. Jamieson, 'Hydrologic Studies for 'Freeboard Allowance for Waves in Inland Reser­
Adaminaby Dam', Journ. I.E. Aust., 26, 1954, voirs', Trans. A.S.C.E., 128. Pt. IV, 1963,
pp.69-85. pp. 195-226.
16. (a) J. M. Jordaan, 'Some Aspects of the Hydro­ 34. R. C. Goodnight aod T. L. Russel, 'Investigation
logical Design Considerations of the Orange River of the Statistics of Wave Heights', Journal of
.. Development Project', 9th ICOLD Congress, Waterways and Harbors Division, Paper 3524,
Istanbul, 1967, Q.33, R.51, 11, p. 899; (b) Proe. A.S.C.E., 89, No. WW2, May 1963,
P. A. A. Back, 'Aspects of the Design of the Orange pp.29-54.
River Project-South Africa', B.N.C.O.L.D. News 35.. H. T. Falvey, 'Prediction of Wind Wave Heights',
and Views (I.C.E. London), May 1968. Journal of Waterways, Harbors and Coastal
17. M. A. Benson, 'Characteristics of Frequency Division, Paper 10324, Proc. A.S. C.E., 100, No.
Curves based on • Theoretical 1000-year Flood', WWl, Feb. 1974, pp. 1-12.

I'
136

36. Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology, 38. K. V. Taylor, 'Slope Protection of Earth and ~-1

Australia, Wave Heights v. Wind, Meteorological
Report No.40, 1970, Melbourne.
37. 'Waves in Inland Reservoir,', Technical Memo.
No. 132, 1962, U.S. Corps of Engineers,
Rockfill Dams" 11 Ih ICOLD Congress, Madrid, 1
1973, Q.42, R.13, 111, pp.215-235. . '.. J 1;
39. B. A. Cole and T. F. A. Bonniee, 'Scott's Peak
Dam-Wave Wan Design', ANCOLD Bulle/in
I,
~-~

! ~
Washington. No. 38, Aug, 1973, pp. 88-98. iJ
, 'l
Further Reading .
:-j
,
<

..~Hydrology Handbook" A.S.C.E. Manual of Engineer­ D. M. Gray, (Ed.), Handbook on ehe Principles of
ing Praceice No. 28, (1949), New York. Hydrology, National Research Council of Canada, I·i:
R. K. Linsley, M. A. Kohler and J. L. Paulhus, 1970.
Hydrowgy for EngIneers, McGraw-Hill, New York, J. Nemec, Engineering Hydromgy, McGraw-Hill, New ,-;}:
'f'l i
1958. York, 1972. .
V. T. Chow (Ed.), Handbook of Applied Hydrology, P.S. Welch, Limnology, McGraw-Hill, London, p. 38,
'1
McGraw-Hili, New York, 1964.
J. P. Bruce and R. H. Clark, Introduction to Hydro
Meteorowgy, Pergamon, Oxford, 1966.
1935. ~:j
I
~l
,.j
Bibliography
C. O. Clark, 'Storage and the Unit Hydrograph', G. N. Alexander, A. Karoly and A. B. Sum, :1
Trans. A.S.C.E., 110, 1948, Paper No. 2261,
pp.1419-1488.
Equivalent Distributions, with Application to
Rainfall as an Upper Bound to Flond Distributions',
U

N. B. Lovett, 'Estimation of Maximum Possible J. Hydrol., 9, 1969, pp. 322-373../

Precipitation', Journ. I.E. AUSI., 26, No. I(}-H, World Meteorological Organisation 1969, Estimalion
Oct.-Nov. 1954, Symposium on Engineering
Hydrology.
of Maximum Floods, Technical Note No.98.
I. Cordery, 'Antecedent Wetness for Desigu Flood
U
,
I
J. Walpole, Maximum Possible Rainfall over Australia, Estimation', Civil Engineering Trans. I.E. Aust., '~

Conference on Estimation of Extreme Rainfall, Oct. 1970. i

Australian Bureau of Meteorology, Dec. 1958,
Melbourne.
D. N. Body, Flood Estimation: Uniigraph Procedures
utilising a High Speed Digital Computer, Water
Research Foundation of Australia, Manly Vale,
N.S.W., Bulletin No.4, 1959.
C. E. Hounarn, 'Estimation of Extreme Precipitation,
Journ. I.E. AUSI., 32, No.6, June 1960,
pp. 113-116.
B. Watson, 'Unitgraph Derivation'; D. N. Body, Deter­
minatz'on of Rainfall Lesses, Bureau of Meteorology,
Australia, Working Paper 59/2858, June 1961.
L. Robinson, 'Floods Predicted from Rainfall Fre­ iJ
quencies', Journal of Hydraulics Division, Paper
No. 9294, Proc. A.S.C.E., 98, No. HYI0, Oct.
1972, pp.1773-1787.
i
d
T. A. McMahon, G. P. Codner, C. S. Joy, 'Reservoir i
nII,
Storage-Yield Estimates based on Historical and
Generated Streamflow," Civil Engineering Trans.
I.E. Ausl., CEI4, No.2, Oct. 1972, pp. 147-152. '.
R. .G. Quimpo, 'Link between Stochastic and
Parametric Hydrology', Journal of Hydraulics
Division, Proc. A.S.C.E., 99, No. HY3, March
1973, pp. 461-470 (with 21 references). ~
g I,

B. W. Gould, 'Statistical Methods for Estimating the
Design Capacity of Dams', Journ. I.E. Aust., 33,
No. 12, Dec. 1961, pp.405-416.
D. N. Body, 'Significance of Peak Run-<lff Intensity in
D. Tonini, 'The Unitgraph on the Forecasting and on
the Prediction of Normal and Exceptional
Discharges', 11th ICOW Congress, Madrid, 1973,
QA1, R.79, 11, pp.1509-1S17.
rJ

the Application of the Unitgraph Method to Flood
Estimations', Journ. I.E. AUSI., 34, No. 1-2,
Jan.-Feb. 1962.
B. J. Mason, Clouds, Rain and Rainmaking,
Cambridge University Press, 1962.
E. J. Smith, E. E. Adderley, D. T. Walsh, 'A Cloud L
:]

W. E. Boughton, 'A Mathematical Model for Relating Seeding Experiment in the Snowy Mountains,
Run-off to Rainfall with Daily Data', Civil Australia', J. Appl. Met., 2, No.3, June 1963, ~ '1 i
Engineering Trans. I.E. Aust., CBS, No. I, 1966,
pp.83-97.
A. T. Brunt, 'Space-Time Relations of Cyclonic Rain­
pp. 324-332.
E. J. Smith, Possibilities of Arlificial Modificalion of
Precipilalion--Water Resource Use and Management,
f I
L .. I

fall in N.E. Australia Region', Civil Engineering Melbourne University Press, 1964, pp. S(}-88.
Trans. I.E. Aust., CEI0, No.1, April 1968.
Symposium ofFlocd Hydrology, Sydney Division I.E.
M. C. Williams, 'Weather Modification', University of
Wyoming Journal of Hydraulics Division, Proc. iJ

Aust, held at University of N.S.W., August 1968. AS.C.E., Jan. 1965, pp.93-104.
t-')
A. P. Aitken, The Application of Runoff Routing in 'Artificial Modification of Clouds and Precipitation',
Flood Hydrology. World Meteorological Organisation, Tech. Note No. iJ
U,
uI

t :'

105 by M. Neiburger WMO No.249, TP137
(1969).
R. A. Schleusener and E. I. Boyd, 'Weather Modifica­
tion Program in South Dakota', Journal of
Hydraulics Division, Paper 9187, Proc. A.S. C.E.,
98, No. HY9, Sept. 1972, pp. 1515-1526 (witb 19
references).
'Cloud Seeding to boost Precipitation, Reduce Hail',
A.S.C.E. Civil Engineering, Jan. 1973, April 1973.
An Annotated Bihliography on Weather Modification,
1960-1969, Annie E. Grimes, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric, Administration, Environmental
Science Information Center (1972).
L. Rundgren, 'Design Floods and Accepted Risk of
Failure', 11th ICOLD Congress, Madrid, 1973,
Q.41, R.ll, 11, pp. 177-186.
J. R. Weggel, 'Maximum Breaker Height', Journal of
Waterways, Harbors and Coastal Engineering
137
Division, Paper 9384, Proc. A.S.C.E., 98, WW4,
Nov. 1972, pp. 529-548.
R. P. Savage, 'Wave Run up on Roughened and
Permeable Slopes', Trans. A.S.C.E., 124, 1959,
pp.852-870.
E. M. Wedderburn, 'Seiches', Quart. J. Roy: Met.
Soc., 68, 1922.
J. Darbyshire and M. Darbyshire, 'Seiches in Lough
Naigh', Quart. J. Roy. Met. Sci., 83, No. 355, Jan.
1957.
G. Chrystal, 'On the Hydrodynamical Theory of
Seiches', Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinh., XLI, Pt. 111, No.
25.
G. A. Bottomley, 'The Free Oscillations of Lake
Wakitipu, New Zealand', Trans. Am. Geophy,,'ca[
Union, 37, 1956, p.51.
January, 1974, Floods, Moreton Region, Queensland,
Australia, I.E. Aust. Symp. Pro,., April 1974.
Ii
IIIL
!
I
,':
 , ,

CHAPTER 7

Geology

For the engineering of a large dam, geological measured in the laboratory. The important func­
services are required in three main areas: tion of the Engineering Geologist is to map the
boundaries within which such values can be
The safety of the dam on its foundations;

applied for design and to advise the Engineer on

The watertightness of the reservoir basin; and

the relevance of what must necessarily be small

The availability of natural materials for its con­
samples.
struction.

Seismic action has destroyed some large dams

The Engineering Geologist is therefore a key and seriously damaged others, whilst the disaster
member of the team, the wider his experience on at Vaiont Dam, Italy,! highlighted the effects of a
engineering projects the greater will be his con­ major landslide into a reservoir (Chapter 3). [1
tribution. Very close liaison must be maintained Similar landslides are not uncommon, for in­ j
between the Engineering Geologist and the stance' on 22nd March, 1959, a slide involving 3
Engineers-wmmencing in the earliest days of million cubic meters of material fell into the Mae I
investigation to ensure the feasibility of the pro­ Reservoir-Pontesei Arch Dam, Italy;' a wave : .I

ject, continuing through the design stage to es­ several metres high passed over the crest but for­

tablish the significance of all geological exposures tunately did no significant damage to the dam.

(cores, shafts, trenches, adits) and terminating There are in the world today several large
only when construction has either proved that dams that retain no water; the reservoir sites
geological conditions revealed are in conformity overly cavernous limestone formations. In some ']
with the premises adopted in design, or has made cases remedial action has extended over many ,!
~1
possible proper evaluation of any conditions not years at costs far exceeding those of the dams; at
foreseen in the earlier stages. other sites the dams have been abandoned.
Since every large dam should be under some Availability of natural materials for construc­
form of regular surveillance for its entire life, it tion of the dam will affect its cost; where founda­
is essential that full geological records be tion conditions do not govern, the cost on site of
available. It is in the national interest that all such materials may, in fact, determine the type of '
geological information derived during the con­ dam to be built.
struction of a dam be incorporated in the records The safety, viability and cost of a dam are
of regional geology. therefore ,all dependent upon geology. Mutual
" In many instances Engineers have had ade-­ understanding between the Engineer and the
quate knowledge of rock properties but have Engineering Geologist is essential if a dam is to
failed to appreciate the significance of the rock be properly engineered. For this reason ter­
formations. Most rocks have adequate strength; minology is particularly important-they must
their weakness is in the orientation and dip of use the same technical language and records , '

discontinuities (joints, seams, fllults, folds, etc.), must be commonly understood. ~ l

relative to the loading from the dam, as well as' Unfortunately no two Sites are the same, nor
the infliling material in, and depth of, weather- have rocks the same propenies. Uniformity in
ing in such discontinuities. The strength of description is therefore a prerequisite to under­
rocks, soils and infliling material· can be . standing.
138
I 1

139

Rocks can be classified in accordance with weakness along which the rock tends to

their mechanical properties: break.

1. Uniaxial Compressive Strength Foliation. In rocks that have been subjected to

(a) Weak-less than 35 MPa heat and deforming pressures during regional
(b) Strong-35-115 MPa metamorphism, some new minerals such as
(c) Very Strong-greater than 115 MPa. muscovite and biotite mica, talc and chlorite
2. Prefailure Deformation may be formed by recrystallization. These new
(a) Elastic minerals are arranged in parallel layers of flat
(b) Viscous or elongated crystals-the property of
3. Failure Characteristics foliation. Because the rock was once deeply
(a) Brittle buried and has been uncovered, it tends to ex­
(b) Plastic pand and separate along the foliations, Fig.
4. Gross Homogeneity 7.01.
(a) Massive
(b) Layered Joints are fractures along which no movement
5. Continuity in Formation­ has occurred. All rocks are jointed to some ex­
tent and weathering occurs in these joints.
(a) Solid-joint spacing greater than, say, 2 m
They offer pathways for water, any clay infill­
(b) Blocky-joint spacing 1 to 2 m
ing offering little resistance to sliding.
i
(c) Broken-fragmented_
,I Faules are fractures along which movement -has ,"
It is also helpful to have some standard
occurred. They may range from rather incon­
description of weathering. The following
spicuous slip planes a few metres long to brec­
definitions appeared in the Quarterly Journal of
ciated zones hundreds of metres wide and
Engineering Geology, U.K., 1970, and appear to
many kilometres long. The movement may
be appropriate:
have formed a zone that is so crushed and
iI
Fresh Rock: No visible signs of weathering chemically altered as to be unable to support

Slightly Penetrative weathering devel­ any weight. The presence of faults may be ­
Weathered: oped in open discontinuity sur­ recognized from such physical features as

faces but only slight weathering Offset of beds, dykes or veins;

of rock material; Slickensides;

Moderately Weathering extends throughout Gouge;

,I

Weathered: the rock mass, but the rock is Brecciation or crushing;

not friable; Topographic features such as escarpments,
linear trenches or sag valleys, offset
,I

Highly Weathering extends throughout

Weathered: the rock mass, but the rock alignment of vegetation-Fig. 7.02. ,I
material is partly friable; .!
I
Completely Rock is wholly decomposed, and
7.1 Regional Geology
Weathered: in a friable _condition but rock i
texture and structure are To plan the detailed investigations of a dam­ I
preserved; site it is advantageous to have some knowledge of I
Soil: A soil material with the original both global and regional geology. The former
texture, structure and mineral­ will provide a picture of geomorphic and seismic
ogy of the rock completely history and possible crustal stresses, the latter
destroyed. will- identify the ages of formations-Table
7.l-the location of major faults, and possibly
the date of last movement thereon; it will also
Other terminology that should be understood
provide explanation of the erosion processes by
would refer to geological formations:'
which the existing topography was formed. It
Bedding Planes are the planes marking the ter­ should reveal any glacial preconsolidation, past
mination of one sedimentary deposit and the and potential landslides, the existence of karstic
beginning of another; they usually constitute a formations and the natural processes responsible
," 1
: I
iI

,-]
'.•.
.

,­

n
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,.-l

.,
i
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1 ,
: i
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 141

for weaknesses revealed in the local geology. Un­ presence of limestone, whilst inconsistencies
fortunately many regional maps have been corn­ between analyses or water quantities may reveal
piled from inadequate or insufficient information the presence of karstic furmations. The analyses
and care must therefore be exercised in their in­ will also warn the Engineer of possible
terpretation. characteristics that might affect his choice of
Colour and infra-red aerial photography is materials.
now possible in most countries, whilst for some,
satellite photographs with colour differentiation
are beginning to revolutionize the identification
of regional geology-espedally the extent, con­
tinuity and signifIcance of major geological struc­
tures that are not readily recognizable from
aerial or ground observations.
I

Table 7.1. Geological Time Scale Fig. 7.03 Possible leakage through lime­ I
Era Period Epoch Age (in years)
stone series I
.2
0
Quaternary Recent 0-15 000
Pleistocene 15 000-3 000 000
At most sites, geological interpretation is by
inference and its accuracy will be proponional to
I
Il Tertiary Pliocene 3-20 million the amount of work done. This will apply par­
"
.;;
U
Miocene
Oligocene
20-40
40-50
ticularly to complicated limestone areas where a
Eocene 50-70 wrong decision might well lead to an empty
reservoir. This is well illustrated by one site in
.2 Tasmania where the first exploration revealed
0
N
Cretaceous 70-135
0 Jurassic 135-190 limestone outcrops in the river both upstream
~
::E Triassic 190-220 and downstream from the damsite. As the whole
220-280 region was known to have suffered much folding,
Permean
u Carboniferous 280-345 a simple interpretation would be that shown in
'0
N
0
Devonian 345-395 Fig. 7.04. Since limestone was known to be
"" Silurian 395-430 permeable, this site might well have been con­
Ordovician 430-500
",
p..
Cambrean 500-600
demned as b~ing unlikely to hold water.
However, work was continued over several ,"."
~ c ProterzQk 600 plus million seasons in which time various structural in­
,,"
........
".~ Archaean 3000 million terpretations were suggested, Fig. 7.05(A) and
p..-"
(B). Finally a combina tion of detailed field mapp­
Table follows J. Verboogen et al. The Earth-An ttJJroO.ucliott. to ing and deep drilling produced acceptable
Physical Geology, 1910, Holt, Rinehart' Be Winston, New York,
evidence' of a watertight< geological structure,
Fig. 7.06.
It is essential to establish, as early as possible,
the general geological formations of the region.
Preliminary reconnaissance should therefore be 7.2 Local Geology
concentrated in areas where rock in situ is ex­
It is important not to restrict the extent of
posed-usually on the mountain ridges and in
local geological investigation. It should cover not
the beds of streams. The possibility of leakage
only ~he damsite but the whole works area.
from the filled reservoir 'N into an adjacent
stream 'B' should not be overlooked, Fig. 7.03.
Chemical analysis of the' water in various
tributaries, and the main stream will indicate the ,. Author's, Note. The above is given only to emphasize
the need for thorough investigation; the full story of this
pa"rticular site is published in the QuarterlY Journal of
Engineering Geo1cgy, 7) No.2, 1974, 'Investigations into the
Fig. 7.01 Folded quartzite Watertightness of the proposed Gordon Olga hydro electric
, storage in,South Western Tasmania', G. T. RobertS,snd M.
Fig',7.02 Edgar fault, Australia Andric.
- -------~ ­ !

142

Fl'
Li
to' .

Fig. 7.04

.·:,
U
"

Fig. 7.05(A)

Fig. 7.05(B)
;l
:j .
.-. ,

Site investigation, Gordon River, Australia

Access roads in steep gorges will involve steep be concentrated in areas of greatest relevance to

batters, heavy machinery will require adequate the dam, i.e. where the Engineer indicates high

foundations, whilst the method and efficiency of compressive or shearing forces.

quarry operation will depend upon the depth of

overburden and stability of slopes.
7.21 Surface Geology
For the dam itself, I agree with the late
Professor Lugeon of Lausanne--a very eminent Of greatest relevance are the discontinuities in
engineering geologist; he stated that knowledge the rock formations, i.e. do' their strike and dip
of the foundations on which a dam is to be con­ provide possible mechanisms for failure when the
structed should extend to a depth as great as the rock mass is subjected to loading from the dam­
height of the proposed structure. This does not and when water under high pressure from the
mean that every drill hole should go to this reservoir may have permeated the discon­
depth, but that sufficient information should be , tinuities?
obtained to ensure a reasonable understanding of The extent of weathering will govern the
the rock formations to that depth. quantity of overburden to be removed. In general
It is essential that the geological investigations terms, we look for weathering problems in the :
L

": ,.,
'l::,'1
-'
 143

i
;~

1000

2000
I ; ~
• Possible interconnection
of limestones below' i'l
, ~

7000ff using alternative :1

posifion fOl FO\,lltm
cf. Fig t1 3000 ~
~
~

,~
:; ! ;
I,
1 '
!
,I
I
4000

.,i 5000

Fig. 7.06 Acceptable interpretation of geology

river bed in young topography hut high on the The efficacy of surface mapping will depend...·
banks in old topography. upon accessibility and what can be seen. At most
Under embankment dams it may be possible to sites the in situ rock is covered with soil and
leave in place alluvium that has been well con­ debris; the most efficient way to expose the sur­
, !
solidated---except for a zone directly beneath the face geology is by sluicing the site,' Fig. 7.08. If
,I
core, Fig. 7.24, or beneath the plinth of a decked care is taken in this work it should be practicable
rockflll dam, Fig. 7.07. to meet environmental requirements concerning
UIS
river pollution. Joints, cracks and faults will.·be
Concrete deck, .' '
. t-offerdom OIS
cofferoam
evident and determination of· their orientation
\ I and dip relative to thrusts from the dam will be
'.
simplified.
Rivet gravel
In sedimentary series, Fig. 7.09, attention
plinlQ River grovel in situ
should be given to bedding planes and seams, i.e.
Fig. 7.07 Decked rockfill dam-River gravel left the infilling material may have low shear
io p"ice strength especially when saturated. However,

:1
J

-'i.;~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _"""'"'_'_ _ _ _ _ __
 .:>,
1;.11

144 n
;d

non-planarity or discontinuity of seams can make contact surfaces-<!ither of the rock foundation of
a site acceptable, Fig. 7.10. a non-integrated clay layer or of a conduit buried
Although gneiss, mica schists and associated in the embankment. The concept of hydraulic
rocks are generally satisfactory for strength and gradient must be constantly before the geologist
watertightness, any excess mica in the foliations and the Engineer when studying both lower
could drop the angle of friction from 40 to 30 foundations and abutments.
degrees, Fig. 7.1 L However, such weakness is
sometimes counteracted by intense folding of the
7.22 Geophysical
rock, Fig. 7.12; once away from the effects of sur­ i
face weathering a very sound foundation is Geophysical exploration is widely used to sup­
available, Fig. 7.13. On the other hand, quart­ plement surface and subsurface investigations,
ni
i ~
, j!1
zose foundations can be thinly bedded and having the advantage ofbeing relatively rapid and
heavily fractured, Fig. 7.14. cheap when compared with other methods such ,~I
Dolerite (Diabase) is a hard strong intrusive
rock. Cooling cracks are usually present and
as diamond drilling or aditing. Following a
suitably planned geophysical survey more
J 1
I
weathering can occur in these to considerable detailed-exploratory work can be sited to best ad­ fll
depth--often over 100 m. Vertical and subver­ vantage and, in turn, the results obtained can 1. lj
tical cracks are also formed by the escape of gases dl
then be used to upgrade the original geophysical
during solidification, Fig. 7.15; Chemical
deterioration by movement of water can lead to
large-scale decomposition in these seams, and
interpretations.
In general, seismic and electrical methods have
proved of most value in engineering in­
flii
, I
t
this may occur at any depth. vestigations, although other geophysical techni­
Faulting will also open cracks and crush the
material with subsequent weathering--often to
ques, including the gravitational and magnetic
methods, have occasional application. Specialized
'1'
plastic clay. Another common feature of dolerite geophysical methods of drill hole logging can
(and granite) is sheeting due to relief of tectonic
stresses and other causes. Frequently this is sub­
often be employed to solve specific or unusual
problems, e.g. self-potential measurements or 'l'~. t
horizontal and sometimes of 'onion peel' for­ neutron-logging can be employed to define zones
mation, Fig. 7.16. In either case it is a difficult of high water leakage. :1j
foundation to prepare, i.e. overnight a layer can ~J!
lift and become drummy. Once cleaned up the
area should be covered with concrete and
arrangements made for consolidation grouting.
Fig. 7.08
abutment
Cethana Dam, Australia-Sluiced right nl, ~1
For foundations other than rock the quickest
method of revealing geology is by trenching with
a back hoe. This is often a useful supplement to
drilling where much core may be lost, or
Fig. 7.09

Fig. 7.10
Horizontally bedded sandstones and shales

Undulating, dipping bedding planes

boulders may be interpreted as rock in situ. Care
must be exercised to ensure stable slopes in any
t.rench exceeding 2 m in depth. Although the
orientation is normally controlled by the geology
and topography, the grade of an exploratory
trench should be. adequate for drainage. The
faces revealed should be mapped, sampled and
photographed. If openings will not be within the
lindts of later dam excavation they should be
backfilled for safety and appearance.
For each type of dam the possibility of leakage
must be determined. This is most likely to occur
through permeable materials if the pressure and
hence velocity of water is sufficient to cause
erosion. Leakage is most common along smooth
n!
<,,'
"I:
ij1
Fig. 7,11 Laminated schistose quartzite
Fig. 7.12 Intensely folded schistose quartzite
Fig, 7.13 A sound quartzite foundation-Abutment
drainage gallery in foreground
Fig. 7.14 Quartz-sandstone foundation-Thinly
bedded quartz and siltstone overlain by thick beds of
fine-grained ashstone
Fig, 7.15 Dolerite (Diabase) foundation--Cooling
cracks, sheeting and near vertical fault
Fig, 7.16 Dolerite--'Onion·peel' sheeting
 (',' '

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T ..;.­
-;.,..­

~f ,5i-,"

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7,09 "]

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7.10
i.
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~I~
,

ii

.;:
150 n
~],

Seismic methods are the most highly

developed of all the geophysical techniques and
are widely employed in engineering in­
points on the Earth's surface is measured. This
potential is a function of the current, the
geometry of the electrode array, and the
n
vestigations. They are based on the study of the resistivity of the Earth. r1
travel paths of artificially created elastic waves in A commonly used electrode configuration is :L j
the earth. Such waves can readily be generated at the 'Wenner' array, Fig. 7.17. By increasing the
or near the Earth's surface by a percussion, electrode spacing progressively the variation of
generally with an explosive or mechanical source; resistivity with depths can be determined [1
sensitive transducers (referred to as geophones) (electrical drilling), whereas by maintaining a
are sited at some distance from the source to
record the time of travel of elastic waves through
the intervening strata. Various modes of waves
fixed array and traversing across the ground sur­
face, lateral variations can be observed (electrical
trenching).
n
are generated by a percussion source; in "most
applications only the fastest-travelling mode, the r-------{I}-----~ ]
compression wave, is studied. The velocity of
elastic waves through rocks is determined by the
density and elastic properties of the rocks. At dis­
continuities or interfaces, such as bedding­
n
i­
~

planes, joints, faults, etc., reflection and refrac­

tion of these waves occur. Thus by studying the
travel times of the refracted or reflected waves
Fig.7.17 Electrical resistivity-Wenner array D
k

between the source and the geophones a great
deal of information about the properties of the
subsurface materials can be deduced. For ex­
ample, depth of overburden, thickness and extent
of weathering, and the quality or nature of the
bedrock can usually be readily determined by the
Since the geophysical work can be influenced
by so many variables within the foundations, it
cannot be used as the sole tool of exploration. D
When used in conjunction with other methods,
and progressively calibrated against definite ex­ f}.
:
posures, it is a cheap method of investigation--of t ..

seismic refraction method. particular value in determining variability of

In more sophisticated applications, studies of
other elastic modes such as the shear-wave can
conditions over a large area.
D ,:
yield values for Young's Modulus and Poisson's ~
f1· }'
Ratio, providing the density of the rocks is 7.23 Drilling ;- l'
d
known or can be reasonably inferred. It should d
be noted that such determinations involve low This is a basic means of subsurface in­
vestigation. Power augers and percussion drills
~
'dynamic-loading' of the rocks and commonly
produce results slightly different from methods will remove material as a powder or slurry. Its c
such as flat-jack tests which employ large static examination gives some information concerning
loads. the strata traversed. However, errors occur due ~-l
to caving at unknown levels in the hole and
In engineering practice the most commonly
damage to the hole by removal of the drill rods.
",.1
used electrical method of geophysical exploration
involves the measurement of the variability of If such holes are washed out they can accom­ ,--,
modate periscopes or borehole cameras for in situ : ~
the electrical conductivity (inversely the U
examination of the rock formations. The Calyx
resistivity) of rocks. The electrical conductivity of
a rock-mass is primarily dependent on the drill, Fig. 7.18, permits extraction of a core. An
abrasive material-like steel shot-is fed under
'" .
~
moisture content contained in pores and fissures, :---.1~
although the mineral composition is also impor­ the rotating hollow cylindrical head. Chippings
tant if conductive minerals such as clay, graphite are removed in the water flush and a 'Calyx' is
'l
or sulphides are present. " :
~.-~
~
In the method a current is passed through the Fig. 7.18
1.2 m diameter Calyx drill
ground, usually through metallic stakes, and the ,l
potential difference produced between two other Fig. 7.19
Sandstone core--1.2 m diameter d
:: 11
.-­ ~
:

']
5.
~:l
-~"--. -.~--
\
<,;

i, :
• < <

7.19
 -
- - -

,,
152

left standing at the bottom of the hole; this is ~l','

Waler end
broken off and removed as core, Fig. 7.19. This :} ,

type of drill can drill holesup to 1.5 m diameter,

the calyx being broken off with explosives. Holes
larger than 1.2 m permit access for personnel-for Pump coupling socket
,
,
;
~ j~

inspection or testing.
Diamond drilling probably dates from work
done by the Swiss Engineer, R. Leschot, at the
Mount Cenis Tunnel. Its aim in foundation ex­
ploration is to obtain maximum core recovery. Swivel bearrng assembly
for holding ond core tubes
Generally speaking, the more broken the ground
conditions the more difficult will be the task of
recovering good core samples. Invariably the "'
most .important piece of core is the piece that has ; J•
!
been lost. If drilling is to be done by contract it is
unwise to base payment solely on length drilled;
at least a proportion of the payment should be Split core lube blowout
related to the percentage of core recovered in a valve ossembfy

condition acceptable to the geologist. Core

:1
recovery is dependent upon ,
!

The nature and character of the strata;

The type and condition of equipment;

The method of drilling; ,

The experience, skill and patience of the drillers.

"

Thirty years ago a large proportion of drilling • _'1' "

was done to recover EX cores-22 mm diameter.
1t was not unusual to lose 10 per cent of the core,
especially from clay' or brecciated zones in
sedimentary series. At Poatina, Tasmania, EX
drilling in the mid~1950's was successful to a ++-- Split COre ',

depth of 532 m, but its prime purpose was to

determine the thickness of a dolerite intrusion
tube

0
I
l::_

rather than to derive detailed geology. Good

results were obtained at the Olga River,
Tasmania, from a hole 1090 m deep, drilled
through quartzites and mudstones, terminating
with core 41 mm diameter.
However, in many parts of the world it is now
the practice to recover 100 mm cores even
n
though the cost per'metre would be double that
of 50 mm cores. It is claimed that the extra cost is
Reamer sbell
D
justified by the better core recovery. Cores up to
150 mm are sometimes taken for special pur­
poses. D'

The original diamond drill used a simple core Core lifter

barrel; this gave satisfactory results in rock but ,rO

;
very poor core recovery in soft friable material.
Developments in core barrels have been rapid,­
culminating in the triple tube, split inner tube
barrel, Fig. 7.20. In this arrangement drilling
Fig. 7.20 Triple ,ube, split inner
, rube;- core barrel
·., "
U
,
:
 153

fluids are delivered to the face of the bit down volves the reinforcement with a steel rod of the
the annulus between the holding tube and the mass to be sampled; the rod is encased in a
outer tube; the core is thus protected from narrow initial boring with a liquid that causes
washing and consequent erosion. The split core the whole of the core, when overdrilled, to
tube can be removed hydraulically from the adhere to the rod. Although expensive this
holding tube, laid horizontally and the top half method is justified to interpret thinly bedded
removed to expose the core. rock, the direction of dip of which may be vital to
With hydraulic-feed machines the operator has stability of the dam.
definite control of the drilling, and with cores 40
to 50 mm diameter one should expect better than
i 97 per cent core recovery in most situations. 7.24 Adits
! Some of the factors that control the length
The most positive information is obtained by
drilled by a diamond bit are size and pattern of
going. underground. In special cases the vertical
diamonds on the bit, the wall conditions of the
Calyx hole is useful, but in general an adit has
hole, rock hardness and abrasiveness, rock joint­
the advantage that it can follow geological
ing, as well as the pressures applied and rotational
features-with rises to different levels if ' re­
speed of the bit. With so many variables it is
quired. Adits of minimum dimensions-2;2 by
difficult to provide 'an assessment of the life of
1.5 m- can be excavated economically by a few
diamond bits, but figures in Table 7.2 are indi­
men with primitive equipment, Fig. 7.21. This
cative; these were derived from drilling done in
Tasmania in the past decade with NMLC bits. permits work to be done before vehicular access
to the site has been provided. For investigation of
the quartzite schist foundations of the Gordon
Table 7.2. Life of Diamond Bits Arch Dam, Tasmania, all equipment and per­
sonnel were transported' and serviced by
Length drilled
helicopter, a primitive haulageway and light
i l
; 1
Rock type Circulant (m)
cabJeways. Eight small adits were excavated of
! J Quartzite Water 6 total length 1600 m, Fig. 7.22. The cost of these
Quartzite Sol. oil-water 11
1.8
adits per metre was about. twice the cost per
Jointed quartzite Sol. oil-water
]
Conglomerate
Conglomerate
Water
Sol. oil-water
6
9
metre of 41 mm diamond drill. holes. There was,
of course, no comparison in their relative values.
Chert Water 4.6 The walls, floor and roof of the adits can be
i Chert Sol. oil-water i6 properly mapped, Fig. 7.23, and photographed;
I' !
:'1
Jointed chert Water 2.2
7.3 the direction of strike and dip of all discon­
Dolerite Water
I Dolomite Water 7.4 tinuities can be seen; samples of the infilling
material can be taken-for both undisturbed and
I

!
Schist
Schist
Water
Sol: oil-water
27
43 remoulded laboratory testing-and ill situ testing
Argillite Water 24 can be carried out at special locations. In many
Sandstone Water 40
Mudstone Water 44 instances these adits canla!5 be used for perma­
nent drainage and survCl"lli.nce of the abutments.
A note of warning1s justified concerning small
i
From this table it is evident that the presence adits since there is always the possibility of nox­
of joints in the rock seriously decreases the life of ious or explosive gases accumulating in dead
I

I
the bit, whereas the 'use of soluble oil in water as
il the circulant has improved life by as much as 75
!
per cent. Penetration rate has also been in­
creased, by upwards of 40 per cent, by the use of
soluble oil in the circulant. To obtain 100 per
cent core recovery in which layers of drilled
.I
material would preserve their relative positions,
Laboratorio Nacional de Engenharia, Lisbon, has
developed a special sampling process. 5 This in­
J
ends. Special safety precautions are necessary if
the depth of shaft or length of tunnel exceeds
four times the square root of the cross sectional
area of the opening. ' .
,At the site of the 210 m Auburn arch dam,
U.S.A., the exploratory tunnels were 3.1 m high
and 2.5 m wide. They were excavated with con­
,ventional tunnelling equipment and were large
enough to permit underground testing on a large

J, ;. z:
! i

155

Outline of
Gordon Dam 01
foundation contact

Fig. 7.22 Gordon Dam, Australia-Layout of investigation .ruts

~• Foul! 'u'
$ " " "
NOlin wall

Roof

S00ln woll

,. "' " '!

o II! 1
5! ! ! !
Viewed f rom outside

veia or lens
c::::>q, Quarlz - '$'- Axis af anficiine Grey,dark grey.greenish,fresh hord.lhinly to
Crushed ond broken tone -·~l·- Axis of syncline lhickly foliot(ld.fjne graiMd to glossy Cllurt­
~ olong fault ar joint tt Cloy sill .life wilh mIca rich layers
~ CI(lsely joinled zone c. Crushed rock

..1lA Joint face Ih Broken rock

Green, dark green, yellow brown; slightly to highly'
weothered,soft to medium hard limonite stained,
--..§:2: Foliation oW WeIer flow

-+- V(lfficol foliation Sheal(ld in port Amphiholite

~ Joint • ® Wot(lr drlpping
ij 5 Photograph Black,dork grey, thinly foliafed SCllisf interfoll01(ld
- - - Verlicaf join! ; 'J ~71940rill hole wilh grey, dark greY,medium fa Ihit:kly foliated
?-~ Faull with sens~ of ni~~emenl' QfJor/zile

Fig. 7.23 Typical logi;ing of explor.tory arut

i I
scale as well as the access of equipment for later 7.25 Permeability
foundation improvements.
Permeability of foundations is of basic impor­
The size of adits and how they are excavated I
tance-see Chapter 8-it can lead to piping
will vary from site to site; the important fact is
under the dam, gradual erosion of material and
that they permit visual inspection and in situ
collapse of part of the dam. It can also provide
testing where required.
access for water into the foundations to cause I
uplift under the dam or into the abutments such ·1
Fig. 7.21 Small exploratory .rut that their stability might be endangered. Great
:-J

I
!
I
I
.-!
I
"".·.·'~'.~Al. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~4t~~. . . . . . . . . .~~_~ •
. ­
 ;s
1
, '1
156

,~

: :
: i
i.,;:
.-.(
Crest 01 Dam
": {
,;
,

ril
il
: l

9
~j
I
Quaternary

~ Talus
Precambrian

1';'"I,j Quartzite, schist

n
II
slate, phyllite
:I} Glacial drift "1,
1:".:\:;:::.:::1 Periglacial solifluction
and fluvio glacial material ":, j

: I

Fig. 7.24 Parangana Darn, Australia-Central corc rockfill on foundation ABeD

,
j
geological terms, Fig. 7.25. It is unsafe to permit
responsibility therefore rests with the geologist to
explain any possible mechanisms whereby water logging to be done by untrained personnel simply
might leak from the reservoir or prejudice the because they know the standard terms. It is
safety of the dam. equaIly important that the logging be done in
Parangana Dam, Australia, is a central core close liaison with the Engineer so that any
rockfill 46 m high. The Mersey river. eroded a qualifying 'Engineering language' can be added
deep gorge in Precambrian rocks, but this was with mutual agreement at the time. It can be un­ ,1
filled with periglacial solifluction (eroded and safe fo.r an Engineer to place his interpretation ;.J
deposited) and fluvioglacial (eroded and trans­ on geological terminology! For preference,
ported by water) materials overlain with glacial drilled cores should be retained for some years
drift and talus, Fig. 7.24. The central core was after the dam is commissioned. If it is necessary r~
,j
continued downwards as a cut-off-Fig. for them to be taken from the site for examina­
13.68-with grouting extending below its base. tion or discussions they should be returned to the ,~_-;l

site for permanent safe storage. The cores in each

The important recommendation by the geologist
was the depth to which the cut-off and the grout box should be photographed, Fig. 7.26, LJ I
I,
curtain should extend. preferably in colour; the photographs, copies of
log sheets and their interpretations should be
filed at the one location. Geological maps, both
7.3 Recording and Presentation
regional and local, should be continually up­
'1
The significance of the geology must be made dated, from the preliminary reconnaissance stage . I
clear to the Engineer whose training in geology through the design stage and well into the con­ ;j
may be minimal. For this reason the methods of struction stage.
recording ,and presenta.tion· must be readily un­ It is most desirable that a geological model of
derstandal:!le to all concerned. . the site be prepared-Chapter 19. As with the
All logging-whether of drilled cores, shafts, maps it can be regularly updated. The careful
trenches, adits or other exposures--should be representation of strata, seams, joints and
done by Engineering Geologists using standard faults--together with the directions of lines of
 157

AREAL 01i\1I;,';: GOFeOO,,) LOCATION Lowt:Ii! DAMSITE

LINE 67/33
SHEET
I

DISCONTINUITIES ROCK DESCRIPTION

D-3,00 TALUS
5o.nd· ~i1t wit}}
qua.rtz.irc FragmfZ.n~!to .

.3.00 - 7.60 SOilS7" qUarrZDSe

tora. brlZa.k!!ii "",dil, i.. if) tart
M W to HW,
a.Jo"fj /O/fc...hon vUH clO5l.Zly faJ~r~,
WfUJ.X fa va.ry 'Ntl.a.k,

Joinf~, .sfwp. light ane'! dark gra!:J.

raggwd, .$I:;a.inad. > 'D % ~rlZ in dj.$~ <IDmm
a1 "itrvals or Me..lC, C:c:m1. h;:nglh 160mm
a.bout "C;Om i/l CJuart.ZOS" ZLlnrz
roLio..tion d.ips Sfoin.s on .$omq Fol/cHon
..... log ..surf'a.cas .

160 10.
w
GIL/ARIZ rTE.
9fY;l,in, F tD MIf?
folhid, mod. .sfons
grfZ!J wilh .brown

10.0.0- 1!:teQ .sCJ.usT C>U""l'l:~

In p::UI; VfZr!:l clcJ.sdlJ
foIla.bu1, .11""" end dode. .
g"'4l.
10.00 -1.!IrE!D MW_HW
I:H~O-JS,2D F-SW

"­ -StQ.ir.s on.soma- toJ,ellf:m-l

surFa.t;QS ,
Cora discs !n0Ji.£ ..::JOmm
"­ let oa /z; 15.20
IJ'::::uv: ma.x. J5mrn
1.5.00 Jo;nt 15.eo- (:J.a;;
Sub v£l'fica 1
iI "" ra9~ brown
.5.}Qjni~ .

III ""

3·4 ofnd joints

dip "" 45<>

"­ "
"
Broken J3.f!o- 2.5,1" G:1UA.eTzrrr:..
tn.nr. VI2:.I'!:I Ihin ~jsJc::..s~
barJ", #kd. i:J::, a.50
.5-bJoinl5 r b:::J's'iI!f !hill/!:! fO/jt:l.t~
dip 30 -.f.5 *' .st"".g iD W"y st",,1l!}.
..5=ma. ~..
planalj btuM'1 ql'f.I.'.I'
1 ~!ain«l. t..c:u'tr mtlX J30 mm.
!

Fig, 7,25 Typical borehole log

,I

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____ . J
II,A
 tt'f'
, ;

158

11
:1
1'I
j;

,'1;
~.J

1J'
c

n
U

159 'I
I
thrust from the dam-will greatly facilitate un­ magnetic tape--together with accurate time con­
derstanding and should reveal incipient struc­ trol. Extraneous background noise, such as
tural weaknesses or paths of possible water loss. quarry blasting, must be separated and efforts
made to establish the magnitude of all natural
events, their epicentres and depths of focus.
7.4 Seismic Activity
Records should be continued for as long as
The Engineer is particularly interested in two possible--at least 5 years after initial filling of
aspects of seismic activity, ~amely: the reservoir and preferably to cover several
periods of large drawdown and refilling of the
(i) Whether natural earthquakes, of an intensity
reservoir.
that may cause damage to the dam or ap­
Large dams should be monitored for any
purtenant structures, are. likely to ocenr in
major events. The installation of strong-motion
close proximity to the dam; and
seismographs is not expensive. These instruments
(ii) Whether earthquake activity might be in­
do not give a continuous record but are triggered
duced by the ftlling of the reservoir-with
to record activity of predetermined magnitude;
the possibility of damage to the dam or
they can be operated by batteries-but would
liability for damage to .other structures or
not then record standard time. It is usual to in~
persons. Though the magnitude of the shocks
stall such instruments on rock at the base of the
may be low, the proximity of the epicentres
dam, on the crest of the dam and preferably on
could make the effects serious.
rock at a short distance from the dam.
The magnitude of an earthquake is an indica- ,.,
7.41 Natural Events tion of its absolute size, or total energy release. 6
Preliminary investigations should include It is measured by the Richter Scale, an arbitrary
research of earthquake history of the region. logarithmic scale which defines magnitude in
Besides official records, the local newspapers will terms of the maximum amplitude of a standard
often reveal shocks felt by people in centres seismometer at a distance of 100 km from the
remote from any seismographs. epicentre. Accurate calculation of total energy
Even though no evidence is found of past release is not possible, but a number of empirical
seismic activity it may be unwise to assume that formulae have been put forward which roughly
nothing could happen in the future; in fact the correlate estimated energy release with Richter
two largest events recorded in U.S.A. occurred in magnitude. A magnitude of 8 to Sf is a typical
seismically quiet regions. Field surveys should in­ value for the greatest historical earthquakes.
clude the recording of all faults in the region The intensity of an earthquake is a measure of
with particular attention being paid to the period its effects at a particular place, and depends on
·1 when the last movement occurred. However, both the magnitude and the distance from the
I movement on faults is not the sole form of earth­ epicentre.
. quake. Most intensity scales are related to human ex-__ ..
The Engineer must decide. the scope of seismic perience and structural damage, and there is no
investigations with due regard to their probable clear relationship between ground acceleration
cost in comparisQn with the cost of conservative and intensity, although various empirical for­
I assumptions in design, the effect of such extra mulae have been put forward. The commonly
! cost on the viability of the project, and the adopted scale is the Modified Merealli Scale; this,
damage that might occur by neglect of such in­ as described by the U.S. Atomic Energy Com­
vestigations. mission, is compared in Table 7.3 with the scale
Appraisal of the seismicity of the site should. be. used in Japan.
undertaken by experts at the earliest possible A recent example of damage by natural earth­
date. Equipment should preferably record the quake is the occurrence at San Fernando,
three components of movement direct on to California, on 9th February 1971.7 •84 There was
no warning and no foreshock. The initial shock
was felt for more than a minute but most of the
Fig.7.26 Cores available for inspection damage was done in the first 13 seconds. The

.>.,_..,."'!._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-lL·Jj
/
160

Table 7.3. Scates of Earthquake Intensity

. Ground
Modified Mercalli scale acceleration J.panese scale
I. Detected only by ~ensitive instruments O. Felt on Seismograph

II. Felt by a few persons at rest;especially on 1. Felt when standing still

upper floors; delicate suspended ohjects
may swing

III. Felt noticeably indoors but not always II. Generally felt by everyone. Slight shaking

recognized as a quake; cars rock slightly,

vibration like passing a truck 0.005 g
of window or. door
-1
(
IV. Felt indoors by many. outdoors by few, at Ill. Building shakes, windows and doors rattle,
night some waken, dishes, windows, hanging objects such as electric lights i
doors disturbed, cars rock noticeably 0.01 g sway, ripple on surface of water in a
vessel noticed
V. Felt by most people, some breakage of
dishes, windows and plaster, disturbance
of fall objects

VI. Felt by all, many frightened run outdoors,

falling plaster and chimneys, damage
IV. Strong movement of buildings, unstable
objects fall and water spills from a vessel
:1
small 0.05 g 4/5 full

VII. Everyone runs outdoors, damage to V. Grave stones and stone lantern topple,

. buUdingsvaries on quality of construc­ damage to brick chimneys and plaster

tion. Noticed by drivers ofcars 0.1 g walls 1

:1
Vlll. Panel walls thrown out of frames, faU of
walls, monuments, chimneys. Sand and
VI. Approximately 30% of wooden buildings
destroyed, mountain and cliff slides
..
. mud ejected, car drivers disturbed . numerous

IX. Buildings shifted off foundations"

cracked, thrown out of plumb, ground
cracked, underground pipes broken 0.5 g

X. Most masonry and frame structures VII. Over 30% of wooden buildings destroyed
destroyed. ground cracked, raUs bent,
landslides. 19
Xl. New structures remain standing, bridges
destroyed, fissures in ground, pipes
broken, landslides, rails hent

XI!. Damage total, waves seen on ground sur­

face, ·lines of sight and level destroyed,
objects thrown into the air 5g

magnitude of the earthquake was 6.6 on the
Richter scale. Sixty-four people were killed and
property damage was estimated at a thousand
million dollars.
In the 3 days following the earthquake more
than 1000 aftershocks, of magnitude 2 or
greater,. were recorded in the area; the maximum
magnitude was 5. The earthquake was associated
with oblique slip reverse faulting along the
southern front oil the San Gabriel mountains
which rose 1 m and moved horizontally 0.3 m.
Fig. 7.27 Pacoima Dam, U.S.A.
. Fig. 7.28 Lower San Fernando Dam, U.S.A.
. (Both photographs by courtesy of Department of
Water Resources, California)

. ",
·.. ~.

..
···1

.j
162
j

Maximum recorded acceleration was by an constitute slits at depths exceeding 3000 m-their ": .,
accelerograph located on bedrock on the left prolongation causes rock bursts-which are U
abutment of the Pacoima Arch Dam about 6 km seismic events of magQitude up to 4; .the greater
north east of San Fernando. This arch dam was part of the energy goes into fracture but some
located directly on the overriding thrust plate of passes into the earth as seismic waves. ~ i
,I
the fault. The accelerograph recorded a short­ [
Underground Explosions. Underground nuclear
duration peak reading of 1.01 g in a horizontal : , II
direction and 0.7 g vertically. This was the
explosions have been carefully monitored and
provide a powerful source for study of seismic ,
~
,,
highest acceleration ever recorded in California. '\
The chord of the arch at crest level shortened by
events. It was reported in 1969 that one explosion
n i,
,.,
..
triggered thousands of small earthquakes in a ,
25 mm-and it has been decided to abandon this ,~j
zone 12 km long and 4 km wide at depths of 4 to :.
dam, Fig. 7.27, until remedial measures can be un­
dertaken.
6 km. Observations have been made at over
I
twenty underground explosions and it is quite n
Although the two seismoscopes on the Lower
San Fernando Dam plunged into the lake they
evident that they are capable of triggering seismic
events. It has been suggested that they may be
~l i
,
were recovered and had recorded maximum
accelerations of 0.5 g horizontal and 0.1 g ver­
activating stressed fault zones that are already
highly stressed tectonically.
n
:; ~
I;
I
tical. The original dam was b).lilt in 1912 to 1915 '3
~,

by the hydraulic-fill process to a height of 27 m. Fluid Injection. The events at the Rocky
.Over the years it was progressively raised by Mountain Arsenal near Denver, Colorado, are '-'l
'.' various means, the final modification in 1940 well documented,'o and continue to be the sub­ U
being with a rolled-earth downstream toe and ject of study. The well was drilled over 4000 rn
berm. The dam is founded on a dense clay
alluvium with lenses of sand overlying an imper­
deep and huge quantities of fluid were gravitated
or pumped into it between 1962 and 1966.
.q
U
,
vious complex of shales and sandstones. In 1967, Previous seismic history is lacking, but the region I:
:- 'i
on the recommendation of the city'S consultants, was one of low seismicity. In the period 1962-6.5 • •l I

concurred in by the State Division of Safety of t.here was good correlation between the number u I
Dams, the reservoir was being operated with of shocks per month and the rate of injection. An
maximum water surface elevation 3 m below unusual feature is that during 1967, that is after ;;--1
.: :i
spillway level. Strengthening of the dam was final cessation of injection, the seismic activity U
scheduled for 1973--74. This dam was severely increased-three tremors of magnitudes greater
damaged, Fig. 7.28, and was taken out of service. than 5 being recorded.
A length of 550 m of the upstream face slid into
the reservoir--some 22 500 m l of material.
Reservoir Filling. The classic case is that of the 1
t­
filling of Lake Mead impounded by Hoover I
'As later demonstrated' by extensive exploration
and analysis, the slide occurred when portions of
Dam, U.S.A. The capacity of the reservoir is 42
x 109 tonnes. No earth tremors were reported in ~:s. J
the upstream shell near the base of the dam li­ the region prior to construction. Filling began in
quefied. The resulting overall lateral movement of
the slide rna,s .was largely On horizontal planes and
not on a circular arc surface tYpical of slide, where
1935 and the first shock was recorded in 1936
when the water level had reached· 100 m. During
1]
~, ,

. limiting equilibrium has been exceeded in static .1937 over 100 tremors were felt and seismic in­
cases.' strumentation was begun. The largest shock ,
'1
.-, :;

It is.reported'b that Los Angeles will spend recorded was magnitude 5. The most important u

$30 million to replace the San Fernando dam
completely.
7.42 Triggered Seismic Events
The. simplest cases have been documented in
deep mining, i.e. in the Witwatersrand gold mines
where the stopes are effectively plane--about 1
m high, and exceeding 30 m in length. These
conclusions are the pronounced variation of ,
seismic activity with the annual variations of 1"1
water level and the clustering of epicentres in
rwo regions which appear to be associated with
,fJ I
special geological features. It has been assumed
that the earthquakes are caused by the load im­
posed on the crust probably on faults or regions
of weakness. Other large dams in U.S.A. have
been instrumen ted but only at Shasta has
'1
•j
~: ­
 I
pronounced activity (up to magnitude 3) been
I,
observed. concentrated within a 7 km radius, on the west
The reservoir above Kariba Dam, Rhodesia,
began to fill in 1958, total load being 170 x 109
lOnnes. No information was available of prior
seismic history. Shocks were first observed 6
months after filling began-but the greatest (of
magnitude 5.8) did not occur until 4 years later
when filling was complete. Epicentres appear to
be mainly within the dam region in which several
faults are present. Rothe (1968) has drawn atten­
tion to ten other dams that have shown impor­
tant seismic events of magnitudes up to 6.4.
Koyna Dam, India,'2 was sited in a region
regarded as exceptionally quiet-being classified
0.1 on the Indian seismic zoning range of 0-7.
The dam is 103 m high and reservoir 2.8 x 109
lOnnes. The strongest earthquake recorded after
filling of the reservoir was of magnitude 6.4; it
subjected the dam to accelerstions of 0.5 g under
which it did not fail despite considerable damage.
It was later strengthened by heavy buttresses.
Lake Eucembene, Australia (4.8 x 10· tonnes
of water), was instrumented because the reservoir
was created in a region of known seismicity. Dur­
ing the early filling two shocks of magnitude 4
and 5 occurred, but doubt is felt regarding any
relationship to the reservoir filling. However,
since that date many shocks up to magnitude 4
have been recorded-but with no discernible
relationship between magnitude of shock and
reservoir level.
Filling of Talbingo Reservoir, Australia (0.9 x
109 tonnes of water), began on 1st May, 1971.
During 13 years prior to filling no tremors had
been recorded--except one some 20 km from the
site. Seismic activity commenced on 19th May
J with a very small event followed by two more in
I the same month.· In June,. 39 events were
recorded. A further increase in activity was noted
in July and August with increasing water level in
the reservoir. Mter August; when the rate of fill­
ing dropped sharply, there was a corresponding
drop in seismic events recorded. All events were
of magnitude less than 2.4 but were of sufficient
strength to be observed at several seismic stations
in the area; the epicentres could therefore he
located and the activity was attributed to the fill­
ing of the reservoir: Up to 1972 over 2000 weak
events were recorded-the strongest being of
magnitude 3.5 recorded on 24th July, 1972. Most
i
(I I
i I
I,
~".';"".'lI'!I.,_ _ _"",.'-... . .. "~.'<!l'._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.....................................=====~~_·_.
163
of the events large enough to be located were
bank and upstream from the dam.
The raising of Lake Pukaki in New Zealand in
1976 will probably cause an increase in
seismological activity in the area according to the
Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research. The DSIR and the Ministry of Works
have recommended that special seismological
recording instruments be installed in the Pukaki
area to monitor earthquake activity while the
lake is being fIlled. After Lake Benmore was
created, 29 shocks occurred in the following 6
years, whereas only 4 had been recorded in the
2+ years prior to filling the lake. Half of the 29
shocks occurred in fairly close proximity to the
lake. Some recent studies show the Pukilki region
could be 'overdue' for an earthquake and· the
raising of the lake could trigger this (Water
Power, May 1974, p. 154).
It is interesting to note that Mickey, . a
\1leismologist in U.S.A., compared seismic activity
surrounding Hoover Dam, Flaming Gorge Dam
and Grand Canyon Dam.13 He states thilt at the
first the frequency of seismic events appears to be
related to the level of water in Lake Mead.
However, at the other two sites, the filling of the
reservoirs in 1962-63 apparently· caused a
dramatic lessening of seismic activity. .
At this date there is no confirmation that 'the
building of a dam will initiate seismic activity in
the particular area. However, it is a possibility,
and for that reason it is advisable to monitor the
region well before, during and after filling of the
reservoir, particularly if it is subject to re81;l.1ar
drawdown. . ,.
7.5 Valley Wall Stability
A gorge wherein the side slopes are equal to or
steeper than the angle of repose of loose rock is
attractive as a damsite; however, in such a gorge
instability of the slopes ·can pose serious
problems. The cliffs in Fig. 7.08 received very
detailed examination before confidence could be
established in their stability, particularly during
construction. Of more concern is instability that
may be induced by inundation of the base of a
slope as the reservoir fills, Fig. 7.29. This will
lower the effective weight of the toe of the bank
and lubricate any seams and joints in the rock
__
,~_l
L
,
 Y-n--w

164

mass. Fluctuations of the reservoir level will

cause corresponding changes in the ground water
gradient, which in turn may induCe a landslide. ,:\~k,L-+--t'-t7- Une of max. shear
in vicinity of crock

Crock

A Restraint
X
Fig. 7.29 Ground water level
~"6-m..n.\
-
--- from loe
).......- of apron
\./
/'

Some disastrous slides have been discussed in

Chapter 3. However, many cases exist of Fig. 7.31 Stresses in valley wall-Crack in wall of
building follows line of maximum shear
precautionary measures taken either to prevent a
slip or to ensure that no catastrophe to the dam
would result if the slip did occur. other side of the ravine (Rio di Bosco Nero), Fig.
From late mid-1963 to June, 1964, three rock 7.30. In 1959 a large landslide of 3 million m! fell
slides occurred immediately downstream from into the reservoir some 500 m upstream of this
the Gmuend Arch Dam in Austria (built site. IS Although a wave of water passed over the
1943--44). These were caused by progressive dam no significant damage was done to the arch
loosening of the rock mass by pressure water dam.
from the reservoir moving within the abutment. In Peru in 1974 a landslide of incredible
The dam was reinforced with a huge foundation proportions occurred. This was apparently
gravity block and the sides of the valley were triggered by the draining of some lakes high up
supported from the block." on the mountains following earth movements.
At Pontesei Arch Dam, Italy, the Rio di Bosco The slide of 1600 million m' of material moved
Nero -joins the reservoir a little upstream from downward some 2 km and laterally 7 km and
the dam. In 1957 cracks were noticed in the road dammed a river to a depth of 200 m. The collapse
tunnel that passes through the intervening pin­ of this natural dam caused a flood of 7000 m!/s
nacle of rock, and it appeared that large masses and the loss of 400 lives. Although this was a
of rock might fall. It was decided to construct a natural event it emphasizes -the need for a
concrete buttress supported by the rock on the thorough knowledge of regional geology.
Geological studies of the valley above Mica
Dam, Canada, revealed the possibility of a large
landslide into the future reservoir. Even though
its occurrence appeared unlikely it was unpredic­
table; steps were therefore taken to ensure the
safety of the dam should the slide occur. Amongst
other actions, the crest of the dam was widened '
considerably and the rate offilling of the reservoir
was under strict control.
Deep excavations into the banks of a steep
gorge may cause instability related to existing
tectonic stresses, Fig. 7.31; in this case a high
lOOm
L:..'-'-'-'-'-'-L:..LJILJI Fig. 7.32 Arapuni Dam, New Zealand

Fig. 7.30 Pontesei Reservoir, Italy-Buttress sup­ Fig. 7.33 Tachien Dam, Taiwan-Owner Taiwan

port for valley wall Power Co.; design by Electroconsult

166
horizontal stress existed in the rock mass.
Pressure water from the reservoir infiltrated the
'bedded sandstone and the rock itself swelled with
saturation. The resulting forces caused cracks to
appear in the end wall of a building-following
the line of maximum shear.
Where the river takes a 180° bend below a
dam Ii narrow ridge results, and there can be a
very significant hydraulic gradient between its
two sides. Serious leakage occurred below
Arapuni Dam, New Zealand, Fig. 7.32, but it was
successfully stopped by grouting. The 180 m
Tachien Dam in Taiwan,17 Fig. 733, is being
built in a very steep gorge; Pitan Creek joins the
Tachia River just upstream from the dam,
resulting in such a ridge between the reservoir
and the river downstream from the dam.
Wide valleys' should not be exempted from
dose 'investigation for possible slip planes. One
large slide was initiated in Tasmania by a canal
excavated through country with a surface cross­
fall of about 1 in 20. Filling of the canal, coin­
cidental with rain, lubricated a very thin seam of
montmorillonite clay which provided the failure
plane..
7.6 Mining
The existence of a mine eitber under or adja­
cent to a dam will present many problems such
as:
Possible subsidence of the foundation of the dam;
7.71 Reconaissance
Loss of water from the reservoir;
In this stage an assessment is made of the types
Flooding of the mine;
and very approximate quantities of suitable
Excessive hydrostatic pressure at faces in the
materials occurring within reasonable distance of
mine.
the site. This is often based on a study of aerial
The Cataract Dam, Australia-and other
nearby dams ofthe Sydney Water Board-have
been built' on Triassic sandstone that overlies
coal seams some 500 m bel,ow. Studies prior to
construction 16 led to the conclusion that a pillar
of coal 270 m diameter should be left in the mine
directly below the dam, i.e. a conical angle of 30°
at the base of the dam. Based on coal-mining
practice, and particularly if lesser depth were
involved,this angle might well approach 45°. It
was also agreed that coal could be extracted
under the reservoir owing to the presence of
shale beds in the series-any resulting sub­
sidence would not endanger the water supply by
undue leakage. Where the mine is under the
reservoir there is, however, the possibility that
sufficient water could pass through the interven­
ing rocks to flood the mine, or at least increase its
q
drainage problems. Even if the rock series were
sufficiently impermeable to impede the flow of
lj
, I
water, there is the possibility that excessive inter­
stical pressures' could be built up--with danger
to the mine faces. If the mine is above and adja­
cent to the reservoir, saturation of the hillside
and change in the water table could lead to
potential instability. Seismic effects from blasting
within the mine might then be sufficient to
trigger a landslide.
Since the matter of liability could be of major
importance, the geological investigation should
include information on both existing mines and
potential mine sites.
7.7 Materials Investigations
As early as possible in the general in­
vestigations the Engineer must be advised on the
availability of suitable materials for the dam, i.e.
impervious, semi-impervious and free-draining
materials for an embankment as well as sound,
inert rock or gravel and sand for concrete
aggregate. The work normally proceeds in three
stages: reconnaissance, prospecting (or feasibillty)
and detailed examination.
photographs, reports on regional geology, the
gathering of local information and possibly aerial
inspection. Uwally little subsurface work is done
at this stage. However, samples would be taken
for preliminary property testing, as well as
petrographic and mineralogical examination. A
locality plan showing the sources of various
materials relative to the site would be prepared
for appraisal by design and construction
engineers.
7.72 Prospecting
Selected areas are more accurately. delineated
 ,lOP
-n
f t
for systematic exploration, with sampling on a
grid of, say, 100 m squares_ Samples of materials
that might be used for embankment dams are
tested for maximum dry density, optimum
moisture content and the likely range of shear
strength parameters. Alluvial sand and gravel
deposits are prospected to determine overburden
depths and the likely quantity of usable materials
available at reasonable cost.
7.73 Detailed In'OeSEigarioltS.
The exploration techniques employed will de­
pend upon the topography (accessibility), the
properties of the materials and the nature of the
deposit, particularly its depth. Augers are com­
monly used in fine materials, but bulldozer
trenches or backhoe pits will present a broader
and a more accurate picture. In coarse materials
the dozer is often used above the water table and
the backhoe or dragline below the water table.
Seismic methods are normally employed to
. , supplement the information so obtained.
It is usual to prove quantities of materials at
least 50 per cent in excess of the volumes re­
quired for the dam; this is to cover actual losses,
materials used for other purposes, and for
possible increases in the required quantities. In
1. G. A. Kiersch, 'Vaiont Reservoir Disastet­
Geologic Causes', AS.C.E. Civil Engineering, 34,
No. 3, March 1964, pp. 32-39.
2. R. C. S: Walters, Dam Geology, 2nd edn.,
Butterworths, London, 1971, pp. 71 and 257.
3. C. J. Okeson, 'Geologic Requirements of the
, Foundations of Large Dams', 8th [COLD
I Congress, Edinburgh, 1964, Q.28, RA, 1, pp.'
73-85. • 11. J. P. Rothe, 'Fill a Lake, Start an Earthquake',
! New Scientist, 11th July, 1968, pp. 75-78.
4. 'Sluicing for Site Investigation:r-Corin Dam­
site', Journal I.E. Awt., 37, No.9, Sept. 1965, p.
258.
Koyna Dam, India', Proc. 11th Symposium Rock
,I 5. L.N.E.C. Activity Sluiel, No. A.s. 401/72.
Mechanics, Berkeley, California.
'.
6. J. C. Jaeger, 'Occurrence 'imd Effects of Earth­
. I quakes', ANCOLD Bulletin No: 29, Oct. 1969,
pp. 2-'-24.
J 7. 'The San Fernando, California, Earthquake', J.
Internal. Ass. Earthq. Engng., 1, No. 1.
8. (al D. J. Leeds, 'Report on the 1971 San Fernando
I Earthquake', AS.C.E. Civil Engineering, 42, No.
•.. J
5, May 1972, pp. 58-60, with discussion August
1972; (bl K. V. Steinbrugge and H. J. Degenkolb,
'Meeting the Earthquake Challenge--California's
.. ' New Laws', Civil Engineering, Feb, 1975, p. 45.
(c) 'Remedial Action for Pacoima Dam', Water
!,
f
167
coarse materials requmng separation and re­
blending-for processed filters in embankment
dams or for concrete aggregate--a further allow­
ance should be made to cover losses in the split
of gradings and the waste in sizes in excess of
requirements.
All exploratory excavations should be logged
by the Engineering Geologist, in' close liaison
with the Engineers, so that misinterpretation of
terminology will be avoided .. ' .
Normal testing of mechanical properties will
be carried out by the Engineer, but the Engineer­
ing Geologist should arrange for petrographic
and mineralogical examination of the materials-
especially to: .
Aid correlation of geological formations;
Explain anomalous behaviour or predict changes
in composition or properties in the new en­
vironment;
Define mineral composi tion, type and degree of
alteration, microfractures, etc.;
Warn of possible alkali aggregate reaction in con­
crete;
Warn of any dispersive characteristics of soils; ..
Report on soundness of particles, as may be
related to undue breakdown in stockpiling,
mixing, or consolidation in an embankment..
References
Power and Dam Construction, Mar. 1976, p. 7.
9. Effects of the San Fernando Earthquake on tfIe Van.
Norman Reseroot'r Complex, California Dept. of
Water Resources, Division of Safety of Dams
Interim Report, May 1971. c':
10. J. H. Healy et aI., 'The Denver Earthquakes', .
Science, 161, pp. 1301-1310.
12. G. W. Housner, 1969, 'The Seismic Events at
! ].
13. Mickey, New Scieltlisl and Science Journal, 1st I~
July, 1971. . !, '(~
14. G. Horninger and H. Kropatscher, 'The Rock ~
Slides Downstream from GMEUND Dam Austria :
i
I ~
and Measures to Safeguard the Dam', 9th [COLD : I i
Congress, Istanbul, 1967, Q.34, R.37, 111, pp.
657-{l69.
IS. (al Q. Zaruba and V. Marich, Landslides and Ikeir I
COnErol, Czechoslovak Aca\femy of Sciences,
Prague, 1969, Elsevier, Amsterdam, London, I
New York; (b) R. C. S. Walters; Dam Geology, 2nd
edn., Butterworths, London, 1971.
,!
168
16. L. A. B. Wade, 'Dam Construction in New South
Wales, Australia', Minutes of Prot. I.C.E., 178, Pt.
IV, 1908-1909.
Bibliography
R. E. Leggett, Geology and Engineer/ng, McGraw-Hill,
New York and London, 1939.
C. Jarger, Rock Mechanics and Engineering, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1972.
M. Duncan, Engineering Geology and Rock Mechanic,
(2 Vols.), Leonard Hill, London, 1969.
D. S. Parsimis, Principles. of Applied Geophysics,
Methuen's Monographs on Physical Subjects.
D. U. Deere et al., Engineer/'ng Classification and Index
Propertie, for Imact Rock, University of nlinois, Ur­
bana, Illinois, U.S.A., Dec. 1966.
D. G. Moye, 'Classification of Rock Weathering',
Engineering Geology for the Snowy Mountains
Scheme, Journal I.E. Anst., 27, No. 10-11, Oct.,
Nov. 1955, pp. 287-298.
T. N. Burke-Gaffney, 1951, 'Seismicity of Australia',
Journal &> Proceedings Royal Society of N.S. W.,
Australia, No. 85, pp. 47-52
H. A. Doyle, 1. B. Everingluun and D. J. Sutton,
'Seismicity of the Australian Continent', Journal
Geol. Society, Australia, 15, 1968, pp. 295-312.
D. S. Carder, 'Reservoir Loading and Local Earth­
quakes', Proc. 6th Annual Engineering Geology
Symp., Boise, Idaho, 1968.
R. G. T. Lane, 'Seismic Activity at Man-made Reser­
voirs', Proc. I.C.E., 50, Sept. 1971, pp. 15-24;
Discussion, 51, April 1972, pp. 767-784.
N. M. Newmark and E. Rosenbleuth, Fundamental, of
Earthquake Engineering, Prentice-Hall, New York,
1971.
W. G. Milne and A. G. Davenport, 'Earthquake
Probability', Proc. 4th World Conf. on Earthquake
Engineering 1969, 1, pp. 55-67.
W. G. Milne and A. G. Davenport, 'Earthquake
,.,:
17. C. H. Wang, 'Design and Construction of the
Tachien Dam', World Dams Today, Japan Dam
Association, Tokyo, 1970.
Damage to Earth Dam-U.S.S.R., Water Power,
Aug. 1972.
R. V. Phillips and D. L. Georgeson, 'Environmental
Considerations of Dam Construction and Opera­
tion in Seismically Active Urban Areas' (San Fer­
nando), 11th [COLD Congress, Madrid, 1973,
Q.40, R.18, 1, pp. 255-270.
P. M.. Mane, 'Earth Tremors in Koyna Project Area',
9th ICOLD Congress, Istanbul, 1967, Communica­
tion C13, V, pp. 509-518.
S. S. Saini, 'Behaviour of Koyna Dam-Dec. 1967
Earthquake', Journal of Structural Division, Paper
9015, Proc. A.S.C.E., 98, No. ST7, July 1972, pp.
1395-1412.
UNESCO, 1970, 'Report on First Meeting of the
Working Group on Seismic Phenomena Associated
with Large Reservoirs', SC/CONF., 200/4, Dec.
.1970.
General Report of Yugoslav National Committee,
'Grancarevo Dam', 10th ICOLD Congres',
Montreal, 1970, Q.39, G.P.10. ,
C. Jaeger, 'The Vaiont Rock Slide', Water Power, 11, ,I
No. 3--4, March-April 1965, and Civil Engineering
and Public Works Review, July 1965, pp. L]
'.
1033-1034.
P. Londe, G. Vigier and R. Vormeringer, 'Stability
of Rock Slopes--,-A Three-<limensional Study',
Journal'Soi! Mechanics and Found Divn., Paper
6363, Proc. A.S.C.E., 95, No. SM1, Jan. 1969,
pp. 235-262.
B. Nath, 'Hydrodynamic Pressure on High Dams Dur­
ing Earthquakes', Proc. I.C.E., 42, March 1969,
pp. 413--421.
 !
!i
CHAPTER 8 !
f

Foundations
!
. I,
1
The foundation of a dam must be considered as rockf~ls from the abutments, any tension cracks
an integral part of the dam and therefore be will provide paths for the ingress of water under
given as much attention by designers as is given pressure from the reservoir. Pre-splitting is
to other parts.!" It is required to withstand­ therefore recommended since this will limit con­
without unacceptable deformation-the loads im­ siderably the fissuration of the rock mass during
posed upon it by the structure, both immediately excavation. Since adits are .usually excavated
after filling the reservoir and in the long term. for geological exploration,· opportunity is often
With time, deterioration by saturation and perco­ taken to measure rock stresses in the walls, floor
lation of water can occur, whilst soft rocks and and roof of such galleries. If located too deep
clays usually exhibit lower residual strengths within the rock mass, such measurements may.
under sustaIned loading than under rapid testing. provide interesting information on crustaf
In the case of a concrete dam the ratio of the stresses but will have little relevance to the dam
modulus of deformation of the rock mass to the or to stability of the valley walls. It is thelO to
modulus of elasticity of the concrete in the dam 20 m of rock immediately under the dam that is
is important-but of greater significance is any of greatest importance. Analysisof records from
serious variability of the modulus of deformation rectangular adits is neither simple nor accur.atei
along the axis of the dam. besides which excavation of the adit will have
The rock mass must have adequate strength in caused some disturbance to the rock mass, and
compression and shear; the presence of products even hand-finishing at the site of the tests will
of weathering, clay or mica in seams will rarely reach the limits of such damage.
seriouly decrease the shear strength. It Is nor­
mally assumed that a rock mass will not sustain
tensile loading-due to the presence not only of
macrocraclting in the mass but also of
microcracking within the rock itself. A
knowledge of the rock microstructure is
therefore important if high pressures will be im­
I I
posed by the dam. It is particularly significant \ I I,

Heaving Crocks

that micro-fissures cannot be consolidated by .

grol!ting. ... . Fig. 8.0~ Possible cracking following~
Recent studies have shown that quite high tec­ excavation
tonic stresses can exist in rock very near to the
surface. The Engineer should therefore deter­ As opposed to the irregular rectangular section
mine whether such stresses are present, since ex­ of an adit, the effect of a circular opening in a
•j cavation of a large quantity of material may stress field is amenable to mathematical analysis .
result in heaving of the valley bed or inward Many devices have therefore been developed for
movement of the valley walls. Resulting tension measuring the stress at the bottom of a borehole,'
cracks can penetrate to considerable depths, i.e. a hole is drilled, a strain gauge is affIXed to
resembling natural relaxation jointing often the rock at the bottom of the hole, and the hole is
visible in gorges approximately parallel to the then overbored to a point beyond the gauge in
i
.. I
valley, Fig. 8.01. Apart from the possibility of order to de-stress the rock upon which the gauge
169


170
is mounted. The original stress in the rock nor­
c.' mal to the axis of the hole can then be calculated.
A further development by Rocha' consists es­
sentially of:
'(i) Drilling a borehole with diameter D to the
neighbourhood of the point where tne state
of stress is to be determined, Fig. 8.02;
o --Elecfric coble
LQrge borehole
'H,'I--AtohWe cylinder
Fig. 8.02 Bore hole dilatometer (After
Rocha) ,
(ii) Drilling a coaxial hole of smaller diameter
(d = 3.7 em) and a length of about 90 em
startingilt the bottom of the previous hole;
.clii) Cementing on to the wall of this hole a
plastic cylinder in which electric strain
gauges are embedded, pointing at con­
venient directions and connected by an
electric cable to measuring apparatus on the
surface;
(iv) Taking initial readings on every strain
gauge;
(v) Overcoring so as to relieve stress and obtain
a core with a diameter not less than 7.5 em
while keeping the cable connected to the
gauges;
(vi) Taking final readings to determine defor­
mations caused by stress relief;
(vii) Calculating the state of stress that existed at
the point based on the deformation deter­
mined.'
When loaded, a dam will tend to move and to
bend downstream-in either case tension cracks
may result in the rock mass immediately
FE
upstream from the dam. Although these may not
cause serious loss of water they can provide paths
for the ingress of water that will:
Exert hydrostatic pressure, the extent of which
will depend upon the opening of the
joints-itself dependent upon the compressive
stresses and temperatures in the rock;
Act dynamically to transport material and cause
piping;
Produce physical and chemical changes in the
rock. Some alarming figures have been
n
: !
U
pU)Jlished on loss of strength of rock following
saturation, i.e. up to 15 per cent for Syenite
and 30 per cent for some Quartzites.
Repetitive loading of saturated specimens will
lower strengths, lubricate joints and thereby
lower both frictional resistance and cohesion.
Within the matrix of joints, cracks and
bedding planes in a rock formation and the
various materials thereof, there will exist a
weakest combination of same. The Engineer
must pursue his investigations and testing to the
extent that he can visualize this combination and
'ld
understand the mechanisms that would be in­
volved in failure. It is important, therefore, that
early investigations should be sufficient for
either a concrete or an embankment type of dam.
As investigations proceed the site conditions will
control more and more the type of information
required for particular designs.
Rock Mechanics'-1 is not an exact science; in
some cases theories of soil mechanics can be
applied, but at very few sites will there exist
homogeneity and isotropy of the rock mass.
Although given in a different context, Ter­
zaghi's advice might well apply to foundation
testing 'because of the unavoidable uncertainties
involved in the fundamental assumptions of the
theories and the numerical values of the soil con­
stants, simplicity is of much greater importance
than accuracy'. With this in mind, the Engineer
should use to advantage all the resources
available to him, concentrating his efforts in
zones of the foundations that may appear weak
or that will be subject to special stresses when the
dam is loaded.
8.1 Properties of Rock
With the basic premises that the dam be stable
H.·
U
U
 :" ("

'1

171

and the reservoir basin watertight, the following limestone, gneiss, schist, siltstone, grey wacke and
properties of the foundationsmu-;t be examined: tuff only 5.4 per cent of the samples had an angle
of internal friction less than 45°. This is con­
Crushing strength;

firmed by Rocha' who guote,:; a minimum angle

shearing' strength;

of friction for sound rock of 55°. Some low

Elasticity of rock;

figures are given in Table 8.02.

Deformability of the rock mass;

Tectonic stresses;

Permeability.
Table 8.02. Angle of Internal Friction of Rock
Tangent of the angle
! 8.11 Crushing Strength Rock of internal friction
! Tuff
0.9
In general the compressive load from a dam on Schist Biotite
0.5
to its foundations will not exceed 10 MFa. The Limestone (reef Breccia)
0.6
unconfined strengths of some rocks are given in Limestone (medium grained)
0.5
Table 8.01. Since rocks confined within a rock Granite (weathered)
0.8
mass will sustain much higher loads, even a cur­
s.Qry examination of the foundation should..r<;,~al
The Shear strength of a rock mass may be
rocks that would not withstand 10 MFa with a
seriously affected by saturation since both co­
reasonable factor of safety.
hesion and angle of friction will decrease. At Oahe
Table 8.01. Unconfined Compressive Strength Dam cohesion of shale dropped to zero and the
of Rocks angle of friction decreased from about 20° to
10° after saturation. Material in fault zones, if
Rock type Strength (MPa)
uniformly fine-grained, may have an angle of
Siltstone 24-120 friction below 20°, though the presence of 9r~~­
Greywacke 20-30 ciated rock in the fault may. result in an angle of
~-
Shale 35-110
I Sandstone 40-200
friction as high as 30°. Since saturation will
Limestone 50-240 affect the fault material, this latter figurewould
Dolomite 50-150 not be realistic for design without thorough
i Granite 90-230 testing.
Basalt
200-350
, Dolerite (Diabase)
240-320
'! Gneiss 80-330
8.13 Modulus of Elasticity of Rock
When subjected to uniaxial compression most
The strength of the rock will depend upon its crystalline rocks exhibit a stress-strain
quality, the degree of weathering and the relationship somewhat as shown in Fig.
presence of micro..cracks, hence the wide ranges 8.04--the modulus increasing as the load is in­
in Table 8.01. creased. The initial tangent modulus is given by
The strength of the rock mass, on the other the slope of the curve at the origin-that is the
hand, will be related to the number of cracks andline 'a'. Gradually a stress is reached where the
curve becomes approximately linear-between
joints, the nature of their JnfilJillj; material and
whether there are any rock-to-rock contacts 0, and 0l' hi this region the modulus is defined
across the joints. It will also depend upon as the tangent modulus or the secant modulus.
Jllall~rity and continuity of seams and foliations,
The secant modulus is less than the tangent
Fig. 8:03. -- .
modulus since it includes the initial plastic
behaviour of the rock. Although the secant
modulus is the value often used, the term
8.12 Shearing Strength
modulus of elasticity should be applied only to
The angle of internal friction of rock was ex­ the elastic behaviour.
amined by the United States Bureau of In addition to non-linear elastic behaviour".,
Reclamation.' Of 575 triaxial tests made on most rocks exhibit an hysteresis
"'._---­
effect-the un~
f1j
d

'1
d

~ t
I
U

n
i I
L;}

lJ

 :1
i " ­
173

i I
,
I
'd
~ L ___________
~~2____________

ill,
~.

",', ~'
I
, .i

";1 o
I
)
I
"

,~
'I
"
I

"'l
I
o R
'j :1 Strain (E 1
!;
-II ' , Fig. 8.04 Stress-strain curve for rock in uniaxial compression

'I
loading eUI'Ve being PQ. As the stress is decreased in Table 8.03, the large ranges again emphasiz­
to zero a residual strain, OR, is often obseI'Ved. ing the need for testing at each site.
On reloading, the euI'Ves gradually move to the
, right representing a transient creep. Increasing Table 8.03. Modulus of Elasticity of Rock
I
the stress will then lead to f~i1ure along the T­
CUI'Ve. In general, rocks that have an initial
Modulus of elasticity
Rock type (MPa X 1000)
"] modulus less than 60 000 MPa will have
:, i
• . j stress-strain curves that are eoncav.'! upwards . Limestone 3-27
Dolomite 7-15
Since rock is not isotropic; and usually con­ Limestone (very hard) 70
:':.j tains miero-<:racks as weI! as other discontinuities Sandstone 10-20
1 such as bedding planes, it would'be more Quartz-sandstone 60-120
appropriateto-apply the term 'modulus of defor­ Greywacke 10-14
mability' (or deformation) rather than 'modulus Siltstone 3-14
"I

~:.~

Gneiss: fme 9-13

'\ of elasticity'. However, cornman usage accepts coarse 13-23
that the property of a piece of rock tested in the Schist: Micaceous 21
laboratory may be accepted as the 'modulus of Biotite 40
Granitic 10
J elasticity'. This is in contrast to the 'modulus of
Quartz 14
deformability' (or deformation), measured in a
Gr;U1ite: very altered 2
rock mass in tim, i.e. by plate loading or slightly altered 10-20
I

)
anchored cable application of load good 20-50
If this differentiation is accepted then the Quartzite: Micaceous 28
modulus of elasticity of rock--like its com­ sound 50-80

" J pressive strength--will depend upon its Dolerite (Diabase)

Basalt (sound)
soundness, composition and origin. The order of Andesite
70-100
50
20-50
magnitude of such moduli of elasticity is shown Amphibolite 90
I
The Modulus of Elasticity of sedimentary rock
will depend upon the direction ofloading relative
I
Fig. 8.03 Foliation in quartzite to the bedding or stratification,
-" ..
~
Table 8.04.
,.

1
,J

-,I ".we. <"~" _ _ _ _' ' ' ,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~~_ _

 "'" '''''... , ,e,,,, "'", j. 7

174 n
Table 8.04. Modulus of Elasticity of Rock. Effect of evident in field tests where the first application
Stratification of load causes excessive non-elastic defor­
Ratio mation. 1O• 11
E-paraJlel to At Karadj Arch Daml > the modulus of
stratifICation elasticity of the diorite rock was 35 000 MP •. In
the foundation there were fractures some 5 m
E-normalto
Rock type stratification Reference apart filled with hydrotherm-~fiy altered
rock-wherein the feldspars were kaolinized.
Sandstone (Rossens)
2.3 9 The in situ modulus of deformation of the rock
Granite Urseren A
1.3 9
mass was found to be about half the above value.
Schist (hard laminated)
1.9 10
UserenB
3.5
9 The Nagawado Arch Dam-155 m high-in
Sandstone (Schistose)
1 to 1.7
10 Japan is founded on granite cut by many vertical
Quartzite (hard, little
fractures and faults more or less parallel with the
or no stratification) 1
10 line of centres of the dam. Tests confirmed the
Sandstone 1 to 1.6
H.E.C.
Tas. coefficient of elasticity from 30 000 MPs to
75 000 MPa for samples of rock but only 3 000
MPa to 10 000 MPa from in situ jacking tests of
Values in Table 8.05 indicate the influence of the rock in situ. Thus the principal failure
stratification in sedimentary rocks, but also the mechanism studied was sliding along fault sur­
increase in modulus with increased stress. facesY
For purposes of investigation oniy, the
Table 8.05. Modulus of Elasticity. Meander Mudstone
modulus of rock in situ can often be assessed by

Test
Modulus
(MPa x 1000)
inspection, aided by a geological hammer.14 If
loose material is removed and the rock is struck
q
,
smartly with a geologists' hammer, the resulting
fI
(a) Laboratory··
Static--nonn.l to bedding sounens a good indication of modulus of defor­
0-1.4 MP. 24 mation: L
0-2.8MPa 25
t./
0-5./iMPa 31 A ring like .steel (frequency 12000 cycles) in­
0-8.4 MPa 28 dicates a modulus around 70 000 MPa;
Static--parallelto bedding A 'solid' ring (around 8000 cycles) indicates a
O-I.4MPa 24 value nearer 7000 MPa;
0-2.8 MPa 42 A low-pitched note warns that the modulus may
0-5.6 MPa 46 benear700 MPa; whilst for
0-8.4MPa 46
A !:IMll S~k, one should think in terms of 70
Dynamic MPa.
Normal to bedding 34
Parallel to bedding 41 Though not recommended as the basis for
design, such a simple method will provide an ex­
(b) insilu perienced Engineer with an overall impression of
Jacking-normal to bedding 17 rock quality and variability. --.~
parallel to bedding 27 :1
In order to reduce the cost of testing, much
work has recently been done on the correlation of t.J
elasticity with more easily measured properties
8.14 Modulus oj Dejormation
such as density and porosity. Serafim 15 has
suggested a correlation based upon absorptionof
t]
!
The Modulus of Elasticity of rock is normally water; his results for granite at various stages of
adequate, but due to the existence of joints, weathering are shown in Fig. 8.05.
faults and seams in the rock mass-sometimes If a foundation deforms under load it will
open and sometimes filled with products of" cause additional settlement of an embankment­
decomposition-.the modulus of deformation of type dam or a redistribution of stresses in a con­
the rock mass may be inadequate. This is usually crete dam. For a particular dam there will be

ii Water absorption!: Oegree ofalferatian (%)
1510152025303540
1 i;
.1 '\. ApproxlmQfe relafive
" /densHy
o
XOdUIUS
10 2 -
.,
,
]
III
":---...
~ IO~------------------~
Fig. 8.05 Correlation between water ab­
sorption, modulus of elasticity and specific
gravity of granite (After Serafim)
an acceptable deformation; with adequate
knowledge and sufficient care a dam can be
designed to be safe on almost any foundation.
One dam in Canada, originally known as Mission
Dam, . is an excellent example of what can be
achieved by scientific study of the characteristics
of the foundations. Located on the Bridge River
in British Columbia this dam is built on very
permeable river gravels with a highly com­
pressible'thick clay stratum below. Terzaghi's
design for this 60 m dam provided for a grout
curtain to go down 150 m to bedrock in order to
make the foundations reasonably watertight. To
prevent water penetrating cracks expected to
develop on the surface while the settlement was
occurring, polyvinyl chloride sheeting was placed
over an area of 1 hectare. From the studies, he
predicted accurately that major settlement of the
foundations would occur, with a maximum of 3.5
m. That this dam is behaving so very closely to
his prediction is a worthy tribute to Dr Terzaghi.
JI It was a most difficult and daring project and un­
, derstandably the dam was re::fiamed the Terzaghi
Dam.
For a concrete dam the deformability of the
foundation will affect the stresses in the
dam--see Chapter 11. Although it has been
stated' that the ratio of Ee to Ee has hardly any
influence on stresses so long as it is less than 4;
this is disRuted by some Engineers who ~
great sensitivity to the ratio in regions of an arch
dam towards the crown at mid height. Analyses
ofKariba Dam supported this latter view, i.e. for
the ratio Ee to Er equal to unity the calculated
I tensile stress was 4.35 MPa whereas for Ee to Ee
of 4 the value was only 0.62 MPa.
Each dam must therefore be analysed for a
range of values of the ratio Ee to Ee apjlropriate
>U
175
to the site. If considered necessary, cement
grouting can be used to increase the modulus of
2.5 » deformation, see Section 8.5.
2.3 The modulus of deformation is not something
z:. that is subject to one clear definition. It may
2.1
1.9
.~
~
be measured in various ways.
I. 7 .~
Q
l. 5 a;
EM--Modulus of Deformation in situ including
the effect of closing of any joints in the
ex:
rock mass in addition to 'plastic flow.' and
dosing of bedding planes within the rock
itself;
EML--Modulus of 'Elasticity' in the first loading
cycle performed in the laboratory, which
will include any plastic flow of the rock
and the closing of bedding planes. The' Se­
cant Modulus of 'Elasticity' would include
long-term creep. Strain readings at cons­
tant applied stress may need to be taken
over a period of weeks to be certain that
most measurable creep' is -recorded;
ED-The Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity which
may be considered as almost equal to the
true Modulus of Elasticity of the rock (lI)
Seismic methods of measuring the coeffIcient
of elasticity or deformation involve different
techniques of pulse velocity measurements based
on determining. the ~pagationtimeofelastic
longitudinal (compressionfand transversal (shear­
ing) waves. They also include supersonic or
seismo-acoustic methods. Using modern electronic
short-time measuring equipment-allowing the
measurement of 1/50000 sec--these procedures
find extensive use both in laboratory and field
tests. The seismic determination of modulus is
based on the assumption of a perfectly elastic
isotropic medium. Since the effects of discontinu­
ities are not clearly understood the method is
approximate only. Dynamic methods are those
employed for measuring modulus of elasticity
based on the natural frequency arrived at
through oscillation measurements, in general on
laboratory~....JI.,..Since the seismic method is
applicable to laboratory and field testing and is
both quick and cheap it is generally adopted-­
and quite frequently in literature it is referred to
as dynamic modulus. Some comparative values for
static and dynamic modulus for rock samples-­
laboratory tested-are given in Table 8.06.
 E
{pI­
LI

176

Table 8.06. Modulus of Elasticity of Rock. Static tI. average value, whilst for rocks such as sand­
. Dynamic Values stones it may be between 0.25 and 0.5.
Modulus of Elasticity

The ratio for either a rock specimen or a rock

MP. X 1000)
mass can be determined seismically; the value so
obtained is generally higher than that from .,
Rock Static . Dynamic physical tests, probably due to the effect of water L~

Greywacke 11 32 saturated partially decoupled interfaces Golnts or

Sandstone 13 27 foliations) on the shear wave velocity.
Shale 17 24
14 36
''.
Siltstone
8.16 Tectonic Slresses
Granite
Basalt (sound)
Andesite (Hypersthene)
30
52
55
39
52
S4
The fact that rock may be in a state of high in­ U

~ ,

ternal stress is often overlooked. It is common to

The values of static and dynamic properties are
equal only for compact homogeneous rocks at low
stresses..When the stress exceeds 35 MPa the
value of ·dynamic properties of homogeneous
rocks will be 10 to 20 per cent greater than the
static properties. For less compact rocks the
dynamic to static ratio may exceed 2-but the
difference decreases with increasing streSs.
The results of tests carried out at the 185 m
Mossyrock Dam, U.S.A.,l' are given in Table
8.07. The foundations are on thick lava flows
with interbedded flow breccias and agglomerates.
Table 8.07. Modulus Measurements at Mossyrock
Dam (MPa)
Test Unit A Unit B
(i) In siru jacking
7S0 mm dia. plate
(7.4 MP. max'm) 16500 9000
(ii) Lab. core tests 30 300 20 700
(iii) Dynamic downhole
geophysical 25 000 30 300 33 800
Tests (i) and (ii) probably measure the aforemen­
tioned EM and EML whilst (iii) would be a field
deformation modulus, hence lower than ED.
However, the values agree approximately with
the indicated relationship.
8.15 Poisson's Rario
This can be determined during tension and
compression testing of rock samples. A value of
0.5 would represent a plastic rock--O.25 is an
assume a vertical stress field due to the weight of
. overlying rock. The corresponding horizontal
stress will vary with the rock and the rock for­
mation; frequently one horizontal principal
stress will equal or exceed the vertical stress, the
other being much lower-indicating the ex­
istence of large shearing stresses.
Crustal horizontal stress increases with depth.
In Scandinavia 17 the stress in rock near the sur­
face has been measured at about 16 MPa increas­
ing to 110 MPa at a depth of 1000 m, i.e. four
times the deadweight. This may be due, in some
degree, to local causes, but such a rapid increase
in horizontal stress could prove dangerous. As
excavation proceeds and loading on the strata is
reduced, there will be upward changes in level in q
. l
the area. As a result of the reduction in vertical U
Unit C restraint the strata can no longer transfer the ex­
isting horizontal forces, but buckle upwards with
horizontal cracking. This deformation reduces
the horizontal load on the layer so that the un­
5500
derlying strata then tend to carry the horizontal
24 000 tectonic stress. As a result the strata down to con­
siderable depths suffer disturbance to their
equilibrium.
If horizontal cracks are caused, either in the
foundation or the abutments, then erosion can
occur and resistance to sliding will be decreased.
This may be a part explanation of some dam
. failures.
8.2 Testing
, Laboratory testing of matedals can be mis­
leading in the context of foundations; the
Fig. 8.06 In situ shear test
 .q
.I
1
I

lj

·I

i
I
j

·I

. ,
•I

8.06

_...
 if
178

material has been moved from its environment;

its moisture content will most likely change; it
may be classified as undistrubed but the
procedure of sampling must cause S(lme distur­
bance; it may be remoulded; it will frequently be
tested uniaxially whereas it is 'confined' in the
foundations and a scale effect will be introduced
due to the size of the specimen tested. Results
must therefore be examined critically with regard
to accuracy and significance.
In situ testing is primarily to provide a picrure
of the quality of the rock mass; it is indicative
rather than precise; each test provides informa­
tion relative to one small area and since, in
general, the tests are done quickly they may not
represent the behaviour of the foundation under
long-term loading. Care is therefore necessary in
interpreting the results of such field tests.

8.21 Compressive Strenglh Fig. 8.07 In SilU shear test

Generally it will not be necessary to test the
rock mass for compressive strength. However,
careful geological investigation is required to
locate seams and fauUs and to assess their
relevance to the dam. 'On the one hand a mont­
morillonite clay may be squeezed out under load,
on the other there may be sufficient- rock con­
tacts to transmit load across a breccia-fIlled joint.
In all circumstances the effects of saturation and
long-term loading must be considered relative to
each material of the foundation.
8.22 Shear TeslS
These are commoniy made on 'undisturbed'
s~eeimens in galleries. Success will depend upon
the avoidance of disturbance of the specimen as it
is exposed from the parent rock. The specimen is
then protected and loaded in two directions, Fig.
8.06. It is important that the axes of the jacks
pass through the centre of the zone under test,
Fig. 8.07. If the normal load is applied first, in a
stepped increase, it is possible to measure the
coefficient of deformation in this direction. The
load must be limited to avoid damage to the
specimen. For the shear test, a normal load is
applied and held until any displacement is
stabilized, the tangential load is then applied in
steps and displacements measured. By repetition
with different normal loads values of cohesion
and angle of friction can be derived. Tests should "1
be continued to large strains and conducted :, j'
under varying rates of increase of tangential load
in order to assess the residual values of cohesion ­
and friction.
8.23 Residual Rock Slresses
These can be measured by overcoring a strain
gauge fIxed to the wall of a gallery, Fig. 8.08.
The rock surface must be carefully prepared by
hand to a zone not significantly affected by the
excavation of the gallery. The strain gauges-in
a pattern to permit the derivation of principal
stresses--are affixed to the rock and zero
readings taken. A diamond drill is then used to
overcore the gauge and de-stress the rock. From n
[.1
final readings of the strain gauges the deforma­
n
J:'
'.
Fig. 8.08 Residual rock stress measurements-­
Stress relief by drilling
 179
,,
Measuremenls mode only
in direction perpendiculor
to plor1e of jock,
Principal stresses assumed
10 be In this direction.

+ +
, i, I,,
"

"
I

"'1
I Fig. 8.09 Residual rock stress measurements

tion due to de-stressing can be obtained and developed by LNEC, PortugaV' and by Mar­
hence the original stress pattern in the rock. As tinL"
mentioned earlier in this chapter, this principle In excavated galleries it is convenient to con­
i can be extended beneath the rock surface--by duct simple jacking tests between walls, or ,,
"I affixing the strain gauge at the bottom of a small between the floor and roof, Fig. 8.11. In uniform'
hole and then overcoring to de-stress the rock material, half the extension is considered as the
,, surrounding the gauge, Fig. 8.02. The flat jack deflection of each bearing plate. If in inclined
" I can be used for determination of stress in one stratified rock then a central datum must be es- '
direction, Fig. 8.09. In this case two metal pins tablished so that the deflection of each plate can
are set into the rock face and each scribed with a be measured. The site of the test must be chosen
reference line. The distance between the lines is
measured. A saw is then used to cut a narrow slot 1 1-,-, Coble heod
between the pins. A flat jack is inserted in the ,u r'-'
-Jacks
slot and pressurized until the pins are again at '-­ '-­
their original spacing.

;/'A'.' 'v
8.24 Deformation Modulus
The simplest method of.assessing the deform­
ability of a foundation is the jacking test. A ~
hole is cored to reveal the strata and a cable is
anchored at the desired depth. The cable is con­
creted into a cable head that can be loaded by ~
hydraulic jacks, Fig. 8.10. A simple stress-strain f
relationship can then be derived. ,I
; ,
i
At the 7th ICOLD Congress, Rome, 1961,
Jaeger-in discussion of Question 25 (Vol. 11, p.
57) suggested triaxial testing of rock in situ. An
anchored cable was stressed to produce vertical
compression in the strata whilst the hole was
pressurized with water (between packers) over Fig. 8.10 Measurement of foun­

the length under test. This system has alSo been dation modulus

180
Fig. 8.11 Jacking test to determine modulus of deformation
so that the results will be relevant to the dam; in
fact it is the zone near the surface--possibly
damaged to some extent by blasting-that is of
prime importance. Tests were conducted along a
70 m length of an abutment gallery at Kariba
Dam. The rock modulus varied from 70 000
MPa to 3S 000 MPa due to increased weathering
of the rock towards the face of the gorge.
Possibly the most reliable results are obtained
from radial jacking tests conducted in a prepared
section of tunnel, Fig. 8.12. A concrete lining is
cast within the tunnel. Between this lining and a
rigid steel fonner a layer of flat jacks is inter­
posed, Fig. 8.13. Prior to the modulus tests the
weak concrete lining is fractured by pressurizing
the jacks. The modulus tests are then conducted,
recording radial extension on inbuilt gauges.
An alternative to this was developed in Europe
whereby a section of tunnel was plugged at each
end and flIled with water. The radial load was
applied by increasing the water pressure; in-built
gauges recorded the radial extensions.
Such radial jacking installations are expensive,
are complicated to ensure meaningful results,
and can usually be justified only for large dams
q
on difficult foundations. Great care is necessary
with the tunnel excavation-usually pre-splitting
to proflle after the main excavation is completed,
and removing all loose or drummy material by
hand methods. Since the effective zone of in­
fluence of a test only extends about 6 m from the
applied load, each test is a spot sample and care
must be exercised in the extrapolation of results.
In connection with the Auburn Dam a new
method was evolved by the United States Bureau
of Reclamation for evaluating the foundations'·
and I quote:
'To include all geologic features in the analyses, . Reclamation)
~..
sections were taken through the dam and the foun­
dation for each location where the deformation
modulus is desired. Both horizontal and vertical
'1
'.
. sections are used in the studies, and a twO­
dimensional finite-element grid is constructed to
simulate and describe each section. The finite­
element technique is particularly well suited to this
problem as each zone ofvarying material properties
can be modelled according to its geometric limits
and its particular defonnation modulus, Fig. 8.14.
Loads are applied to the finite-element model
through· the dam portion. The displacements along
the concrete-to-rock contact are plotted to show the
11
~.J
deflected shape of the contact. The deflection
pattern is a function of the varying moduli values .,
used to describe the geologic features actually ex­
isting under the dam. Next, the foundation material
in the finite-element model is assumed to consist of
i
a homogeneous materiaL A modulus for this
idealized foundation is determined by trial such
that the deflection pattern under the dam closely
approximates that for the actual condition. This
value is then called the "effective modulus".
By selecting an adequate number of study sec­
tions, the variation in effective modulus for the en­
tire foundation can be determined, and ultimately
these values are used in the stress analyses for
designing the dam.
In conjunction with effective modulus deter­
mination by the fmite element method, various
means of improving the foundation using concrete
backfill in selected areas of the faults are also being U
studied. Whenever one of the major raults is en­
countered, varying amounts of concrete backfill are
simulated in the finite-element model and the effect
on stresses, deformations, and modulus are
observed.
Fig. 8.12 Auburn Damsite, California-Exploratory
tunnel for modulus tests.
Fig. 8.13 Auburn Damsite, California-Radial jack­
ing test.
(Photos by courtesy of the United States Bureau of
f1
< ,

,I

l
 182
This approach is a valuable guide in determining
where and how much treatment is needed. The
finite-element studies themselves are a culmination
of extensive data gathering and intennediate steps
of analysis. It is not feasible to include all the
variables influencing the modulus directly, such as
very small-scale geological features. For this reason,
the goal is to isolate the small-.;cale variables, deter­
:.:
mine their effects by intennediate studies, and then
incorporate these results into the finite-dement
studies.
The influence of joints and shears up to 12 mm
on the modulus is correlated through a Joint-Shear
Index. The effects of discontinuous shears greater
CJ Amphibolite
"-".'::::.....1 Faull zone
c:::::J Metasediments
_ Tole seam
•'1
E:=J Sh~or zone
Original ground surface
Contilever secli'on----­
Fig. 8.14 Auburn Dam, U.S.A.-An example of the
finite element grid for a section taken through the
dam and foundation (Courtesy of United States
Bureau of Reclamation)
, .
than 12 mm will be determined and classified into a
Shear Catalogue. These effects will be detennined
as functions of thickness, fi11ing material modulus,
continuity, orientation, and spacing. As each shear
of this type is encountered, its effects can be ac­
cumulated with others occurring in discrete zones
of the foundation.
This accumulated influence coupled with the ad­
justed modulus, as derived using the Joint-Shear
Index, produces a value of defonnation modulus
used in the finite-element model. All continuous
faults and shears are accounted for directly in the
finite-element studies.'
8.3 Sliding
The sliding of a dam is resisted by friction and
cohesion, either at the boundary of the dam and
the foundation, or along seams within the foun­
dation.
The shear-friction factor, i.e. the ratio of total
resisting force (friction plus cohesion) to the total
applied horizontal load should exceed 5. (Some
countries accept 4). It is of interest that Spanish
Regulations cover the case of zero cohesion by ,.. ,~
specifying a minimum friction factor of 1.5 in
such cases.
Since the possibility of sliding is present at "1
". J
most sites some solutions to the problem will be
described in some detail. "-1
,i
8.31 Meadowbank Dam, Tasmania"
This is a 43 ni high massive buttress dam, Fig.
14.57. The general nature of the foundation rock
had been ascertained by mapping and drilling,
but it was only after more detailed investigations
by 1.22 m diameter calyx holes and after excava­
U
tion at the site that the continuous nature of the
seams that existed in the foundation was proven.
Because these seams provided poten tial sliding
planes it was decided to change the design from
the gravity dam originally contemplated to a
massive buttress dam stabilized against sliding by
prestressing cables, Chapter 12. ;--1
The foundation rocks are Triassic sandstones, : 1
siltstones and mudstones which are pre­ U
dominantly quartzose but contain varying
amounts of mica, graphite, clay minerals and ox­
ides of iron and manganese, Fig. 8.15. Within the
siltstones and mudstones the amounts of mica
and clay minerals increase as the quartz grain
size decreases. The beds of the different types of
rock vary in thickness for less than 1 mm to more
than 1 m and in some cases grade from one type
to another, Fig. 8.16.
The relationship between beds is complex
because they are lenticular, and on a regional
scale they are not continuous. The general dip of
the bedding is from 3°-4 0 ; its component along
the river being about 1 0 upstream.
The site investigation also revealed brecciated
sandstone, siltstone and mudstone at various
levels. This breccia material occurs in generally
flat-lying zones of a curved nature which cut
through the different rock types. The breccia
zones are not cemented but are characterized by
Fig. 8.15 Meadowbank Buttress Dam, Australia­
Horizontally-bedded sandstone and shale
'·
,.
~ -"
 ;\ \

I
!

184

:Lj1

TRIASSIC Section A-A nl

o Sandstone LJ

• Mudstone -'
...'
® Calyx hole

Diamond drill hole

f

fl
u
n
,d '
, I

50
'~~~-L-L'
0
Pion

~
________~'________"'
100m
r]

L.

Left abutment
2 Spillway
3 Right abutment (rockfill)
4 Power station

5 Power station excavation

6 River diversion channel

[J

Fig. 8.16 Meadowbank Dam-Dam layout and foun­

dation geology
r]
;
L
.

s in sandslOne _
Bed dinq P\O~-==----
-----=-.-::-~. -- -8",0;"',d
­
140 mm ' --'--­
sandstone

Limits of seam '; -';I

(cloy, mudstone etc)

•iI
' i

]1
I

oI 100
I'!
200 300 400mm
! !

Fig. 8.17 Meadowbank Dam-Brecciated zone exposed in Calyx hole in

right abutment

, ~
1'
d
1

U
,.,
, ,
soft zones of variable thickness containing
angular rock fragments of varying size, shape
and quantity in a matrix of finer grained
material, Fig. 8.17. The zones were thought to
be flat-lying faults and were therefore considered
continuous as far as the dam foundation was
concerned. The matrix of the breccia zones is a
grey inorganic clayey silt of low plasticity; the
liquid limit was about 30, the plasticity index
about 13, and it contained 12 to 25 per cent of
clay sizes. The first laboratory shear tests on this
material were on 38 mm diameter undisturbed
samples obtained from breccia zones in the first
calyx hole. Mohr circles plotted from eighteen
undrained triaxial shear tests gave an' average
shear parameter of C' = 0.14 kg/em', tan 1/1'=
0.65 and a minimum parameter of C' = 0.21
kg/em', tan 1/1' = 0.5. Disturbed samples were ob­
.. ,
tained from any seams that were thick enough to
I give sufficient material for the tests. Con­
! solidated-undrained triaxial shear tests were
carried out on the remoulded samples. Normal
consolidation was used in these tests" so any
cohesion due to over~onsolidation in the un­
disturbed soil was not shown. The minimum
shear parameter obtained was C' = 0, tan 1/1 =
0.5.
Initial undrained shear tests on undisturbed
samples of the brown plastic clay filling the joints
in the sandstone gave a shear parameter C = 0.49
kg/em', tan 1/1' = 0.15, but desiccation near the
surface was obvious, and the test report warned
. I
I
that the clay might be softer at depth. Further
triaxial tests on remoulded samples loaded more
slowly, gave C' = 0, tan </> = 0.24 when normally
consolidated.
When calyx drilling of 1.22 m diameter holes
was undertaken for visual inspection of the foun­
dation, it was decided to carry out in situ shear
tests using the following method:'!·22
1 was assumed when an 'increment of 0.04 kg/cm2
Drill NX (53.4 mm diameter) core hole to locate
seams;
Drill calyx hole to within 20-30 em of the seam
to be tested and remove core;
Cut annulus with calyx drill to 2-5 Cm below
seam;
Remove sufficient rock from one side of the core
plinth to accommodate an hydraulic jack
between core above the seam and the side of
,! the hole;
.'
'.\"' .
185
Wedge a steel beam with curved end plates across
the hole to take the reaction force from a ver­
tical hydraulic jack;
Fix dial gauges at three positions on the upper
surface of the core to measure vertical and
horizontal movement;
Apply shearing forces to the seam at each of
several normal loads, and record the
movements of the core above the seam.
The arrangement is shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 8.18.
,
ISieelbeom
Recorder--·/ .wlth curved
Sleelwedge
/!endP!OleS,
ir-i\K::=::1b-V6flIClJ! jock
Clay seam
Steel rollers
SecHon A-A
J A
Horizontal
~Qck
Dial gauge .?':::::::±=:c:r'L22m dio Calyx. ,
(vertical and horizQnta!) drilled hole
PIon
Fig.8.18 Meadowbank Dam-Arrange­
ment of in situ shear test
The normal load was applied until the dial
gauges indicated steady conditions. The horizon­
tal load was then applied ,in increments, allowing
movement under each increment to cease or
become very small. Failure at any normal load
in horizontal stress caused movement of approx­
imately 1 mm. The in situ tests on the brown clay
seam in the sandstone of the left abutment at El.
56.5 also gave lower values than the laboratory
triaxial tests. Because the tan 1/1 of the material in
this seam was low (0.25), it was decided to ex­
cavate below the seam for the buttresses on that
abutment, Fig. 8.19.
It was found that the seams existed at frequent
levels, at least down to a bed of massive sand­
 .~ :

'1
U

,
'.
i i
I 187
stone below EI. 15.2, and for design purposes
could be considered continuous. Several of the
seams were thought to outcrop some distance
downstream of the dam and it was calculated
that the weight of rock above them was insuf­
ficient to prevent sliding of the supporting rock
before the required passive pressUres could be
developed. In any case, hydraulic model tests of
early spillway designs had indicated that the
foundation rock might be eroded down to a level
of approximately El.. 33.6 quite close to the
downstream end of th~ dissipator thus removing
all support above that level, Fig. 19.30. In addi­
tion the power station. tailrace would be ex­
cavated to EI. 24.4 immediately adjacent to the
spillway. It was therefore concluded that it would
not be safe to rely .upon the support of rock
downstream of the spillway dissipator.
For the spillway section, sliding calculations
were made for horizontal and inclined planes in
the foundation making the following assump­
tions:
(i) Vertical cracks in the foundation rock at the
upstream heel of the dam and at the
downstream end of the dissipator;
(ii) Full headwater hydrostatic pressure acting
in the upstream crack;
(iii) No resistance from rock downstream of the
spillway dissipator;
(iv) Full tailwater hydrostatic pressure acting in
the downstream crack;
(v) Uplift on 100 per cent of the area of the
sliding plane and varying linearly from full
headwater at the upstream end of the plane,
to full tailwater head at the line of main
foundation draills and then full tailwater
head downstream of the drains. The forces
acting in the fimil design in accordance with
these assumptions' are shown in Fig. 8.20.
At any reasonable level within the foundation
with these assumptions the factor of safety
against sliding for the original gravity dam
proposal was calculated to be less than 1.0.
The following methods of increasing the
sliding factor of safety were examined:
(i) Provision of shear keys at upstream or Factor of Safety
downstream faces;
Fig. 8.19 Meadowb.nk Dam-Horizontally-bedded
sandstone and shale
=.
--.."'.~. ~''''~''''''''.'"''''''i'''''. _ ..........______________...__________..............,...=--­
(il) Provision of vertical or inclined prestressing
cables;
(iii) Change of the dam type to either rockfill,
prestressed gravity, massive buttress with
vertical upstream face, massive buttress with
sloping upstream face, multiple arch or
hollow gravity.
Shear keys if provided alone without prestress
would need to have extended down to El. 15.2
and were rejected on the grounds of cost, practic­
ability and doubt as to their structural behaviour.
The rockfill dam was rejected because of the dif­
ficulty and cost of providing a spillway for this
type of dam at this site. The design chosen was a
massive buttress dam with a sloping upstream
face, which had a factor of safety against sliding
of 1.10 on a seam just under the buttress .. Ad­
ditional resistance to ensure the necessary factor
of safety was provided by inclined foundation
pre-stressing cables situated in an anchor block
downstream of each buttress (see Chapter 12).
At any possible combination of headwater and
tailwater levels and with the uplift assumptions
detailed above, the fmal design had to satisfy the
following factoroOf-safety criteria for sliding on
horizontal planes and sloping planes dipping
upstream.
Level Factor of Safety against sliding
Above HI. 30.5 2.0
Below HI. 30.5 linear variation from 2.0 at
EI. 30.5 to 1.5 at EI. 15.2
EI. 30.5 was 3 m below the greatest depth. of
spillway erosion predicted by models tests..
The reduction in required factor of safety
below EI. 30.5 was considered justified because at
lower depths there would be an' increasing
resistance from rock downstream of the dam and
from shear on the valley sides,neither of which
was taken into account elsewhere in the
calculations. The factor of safety against sliding
on horizontal planes was calculated by the
following formula (see Fig. 8.20):
C+F
=
c'A + rw - U + P cos a) tan ifi'
.......
-~="""""'"
 188

to be one free from earthquakes, an analysis

was made including an acceleration of 0.1 g
applied to the normal operating load case.
The factor of safety at the level of the
buttress foundation was 1.49 which was con­
sidered acceptable.

F
'1IIillllllilllllllll'~llilllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllm
Hu .::: UpS1ream hydrostalic force
Htj :: Downs1ream hydrost01ic force
W = Weight of dam, rock and woler
above sliding plone AS
Fig. 8.20 Meadowbank Dam--Forces on spillway
! block
U:: Uplift on sliding plane
P :: Prestress
F '" Fricil(1n on plane AS
C " Cohesion on plone AS
8.32
At Mequinenza Dam, Spain,23-'I-a gravity
dam 77.4 m high with a central overfall spillway
(six Tainter gates each 14.5 by 15.5 m for a max­
imum discharge of 11 000 ml/s)-a somewhat
similar problem arose.
The dam rests on Oligocene layers formed by
an alternating succession of almost horizontal
limestones with intermediate layers of lignite and
marl. When foundation work began it was
thought that normal excavation depth would be

i
I•
The factor-of-safety furmula fur inclined planes
was similar. Essentially this formula gives a factor
of safety on the assumed value of tan ¢'. The
shear parameters adopted for design were C =
0.14 kg/em' and tan ¢' = 0.5.
The economic optimum angle for the founda­
..:tion pre-stressing cables was found to be 35°
from the vertical.
Close to the base of the buttress, the normal
operating load case governed the amount of
prestress while at levels lower than El. 32 the
design flood case governed.
adequate considering the type and height of the
dam, but when construction was almost complete
serious doubts arose as to the stability of the
foundations and it was found that sliding could
occur along some of the lignite and marl inter­
layers. In situ tests were made on specimens of
sizes from 0.5 by 0.5 m to 4 by 4 m in order to
study scale effects. All tests gave C between 0.5
and 0.7 kg/em' and tan ¢ between 0.6 and 0.7.
The alternatives considered were:
(i) Inclined cables stemming from the
'.:
. ,
downstream face and deeply anchored into
the foundation rock. These would have
U
~ _. !

In addition to the loads due to combinations of

head and tailwater levels with the above assump­ provided a supplementary horizontal compo­
I
tions the final arrangement was checked for the
following abnormal conditions:
nent acting against the water load-and a

vertical component that would have in­

J
(i) Foundation Drains Blocked. The distribution
ofuplift was taken from a flow net which was
creased the forces normal to the possible

drawn assuming all drains blocked and the
grout curtain to be impermeable to its full
depth of 27.4 m. The flow net ignored drain­
age to the surface between buttresses. The
sliding factor of safety for this condition was
calculated' as 1.60 above EL 27.4 with a
linear variation to 1.25 at El. 15.2. This was
considered acceptable because an extensive
drainage system would be provided under the
dam and dissipator slab with provision for
future redrilling. if found necessary.
(ii) Earthquake. Although the region is believed
sliding planes; n
Ll '
I
(ii) A special transverse tooth-like structure--­
obviously large-to be placed underneath
the dam and conveniently anchored to it in
such a way that possible sliding could only
occur in deeper regions.
The first was abandoned on the basis of high
cost and the existence of the thin limestone
layers, with lignite and marl in between, made it
difficult to anchor the cables properly. It was also
thought that long-term settlement could occur in
this foundation requiring periodic re-stressing of f!
. ,
the cables. Li
1
, I

189

, The second was abandoned due to the very

11 high tangential stresses and tensions observed in
.e'l models at the intersection of the dam base and
,
I
Probable failure
the tooth structure and the difficulties involved
in constructing the thrust wall under the existing
, dam.
\. Limestone with lignite The scheme adopted is shown in Fig. 8.21,
in ho(izonfal layets which indicates how the potential failure line was
!0 )
moved deeper into the foundations and ad­
ditional weight was added. It is to be noted that,
although the horizontal stratifications 'were as
close as 200 mm, there were very few vertical
/
Joint between old ond new COnCrete lithoc1ases. The horizontal load could therefore
8' be taken on these horizontal planes.
___ I Model tests at ISMES were made to a scaie 1
to 60 which permitted many details of the 'dam
Limestone with Strengthened Failure line and the ground to be reproduced. Uplift\vas in­
in horizontal layers port cluded by modifying the tension in wire stays
!0) that simulated the dead weight. lt 'was deemed
necessary to install deep drainage under the d'Wn,
Fig. 8.21 Mequinenza Dam-Simplified drawings
showing the probable failure lines in the unstrength­ with grout curtains at both the upstream and
ened dam (a) and the reinf01:ced structure (b) downstream ,ends of the structure, Fig. 8.22.

o 5 10 15 20m
~ .. ! ! !

PorI of strenglheni.ng

I - - - - Limit of the old shliing pool

:'"

I
!

ond

curtoln __ -1-
_--I I I
-~,--
I I I
-- Grout cu,,'oin'?-I.I

1 ; --
-r-:---;($e I
I Drains ~I T ...LI~S.OO .'. Grol)t~
II I ico.n':>" qo.\\ef'l I thoin ",,'"''''---'
I I I
Oeep IQflgiludinol gallery

Fig. 8.22 Mequinenza Dam-A section through the main spillway. The dotted line shows the location
of the original stilling basin, and the galleries, grout curtain and drains can be seen (Water Power,
.1 March 1971)

I
II
" '
 190

8.33 The Tims Ford Dam, U.S.A., was envisaged as

At the Dworshak, 219 m high gravity dam,
U.S.A.," the 'Noreen' shear had been well
defined by explorations and in itself would not
have been detrimental to stability. However, the
·'Patty Suzie' shears, Fig. 8.23(A), found unex­
pectedly· during excavation, were not revealed
by the pre-construction exploration. The
methods considered to develop resistance against
downstream sliding were:
Mining out the shears and backfilling with con­
crete;
Installing high-capacity prestressing eletllents
. across the 'Patty Suzie' zone; and
Constructing a buttress.
a concrete gravity dam. More extensive in­
vestigations revealed seams of decomposed shale,
frequendy existing in near-horizontal bedding
planes in the limestone and shale foundations.
Cores, 0.92 m diameter, were tested in the
laboratory. The average strength of seams was
given by an angle of friction of 32° and C = 1.05
kg/em'.
Large-scale field tests were made of rock par­
ticles sliding on a rock surface. The angle offric­
tion varied 29° and 33°, increasing with the den­
sity of the rockfill in the test box.
It was decided to build a rockflil dam, with in­
clined core and side slopes of 1 on 2.5 00 this
site. 2 "1

The last was the least costly-and was adopted, 8.4 Permeability
. Fig. 8.23(B). The buttress is 45 m long and ex­
tends across the full width of the stilling basin. Mter completion of a dam, water under pres­
Its maximum height is about 30 m. Provision was sure from the reservoir may move through the
made for draining the shear zones, whilst the foundation, either around grains of the material
rock and ·contact below the buttress were as in sands and gravels or through interconnected
grouted. joints, seams and bedding planes as in sedimen­
tary formations, or it may be lost through natural
EL49!.6m
underground channels. In the first case, excess
flow can lead to piping and erosion of material,
with consequent danger to the structure; in the
second, water may .!lOft~l! infilling material,
HAOOm
---
F::::':::--:~ thereby reducing its frictional resistance, it may
erode soft material from seams and it will in­
troduce hydrostatic pressures that could cause in­
Excavation Hne
ror chule ond stability in the rock mass; whilst in the third case
stilling basin it may lead to such serious loss of water that the
~\ project is abandoned.
/,
Noreen /"::::r::::::.:::::~,-~I==-­ The stat~ of stre·s;ln the rock mass will affect
El.<19L6m
sheo.r its permeability. The compressive load imposed
(A 1 on the foundation by the building of the dam will
tend to close cracks and decrease permeability.
Filling of the reservoir will change the distribu­
tion of stress on the foundation-with a
EL400m tendency to open cracks upstream from the dam
and tighten the formations at the downstream
Excavalion line
face. It has, however, been found that subsequent
for chule ond l(jwering of the reservoir can cause qulteslgnifi­
stilling basin
cant increases in permeability. If a small reservoir
is to be subject to rapid changes in water level, the
.I'ex~ of stress on the foundations may make
necessary a more comprehensive programme of
[ 81
grouting than would otherwise be necessary.
Hydrogeological· investigatioos should be
Fig. 8.23 Dworshak Dam~ U.S.A. undertaken to define any possible modes or n.
u

'
0

l
~.
,.
I,i
I
,r

191

directions of leakage. Regular measurements in soils the well permeability test is ade­
.,.!, piezometric holes will reveal groundwater quate--U.S.B.R. Earth ManualEl9, 1963.
hydraulic gradients that might indicate the direc­ Almost regardless of the type of foundation
tion 'of unacceptable permeability under pressure material, it is usual to conduct water pressure
from the reservoir. tests in a large,.proportion. of exploratory dia­
Radioactive isotopes are sometimes used2S but mond drill holes; the loss of water-being ex­
dyes such as fluorescin and Rhodomin WI are pressed inJ.ugeons, i.e. 1 Lugeon represents the
quite effective in tracing water movement. The loss of 1 V~in per metre length of hole under a
last is not easily absorbed into rocks or soils and pressure of 10 atm.
can be detected with borehole instruments in con­ For the proposed Mackintosh Dam, Tasmania,
centrations as low as 1 in'100 million. the preliminary investigations indicated that a
Although it is standard practice to pressure test rockfilf darn -should be the most suitable. Gravels
drill holes for water loss, care must be exercised overlying bedrock were of such depth as to
so that the fluid pressures do not cause or extend preclude their total removal from under the dam.
cracks too fine for the later penetration by grout 'E-venoo- provide a deep trench under a clay core
but sufficient for the entry of water than could or under the plintl} of~pervious upstream
exert enormous jacking forces. face would be expensive. In order to prove the
acceptability of the site and to design a suitable
8.41 Permeable Materials •
cut-off system, permeability tests were conducted
Where dams are to be constructed' on under contract by the Cementation Co. Ltd. The
permeable foundations of sand or gravel, pump­ in situ material included talus, i.e. angular
in or pump-out tests should be conducted, see the fragments of quartz, quartzite and conglomerate
U.S.B.R. Earth Manual E18, 1963. In shallow up to 1 m in diameter in a matrix of sand and
----_.

25mm 1.0. plastic lube,

open at IOP,--_--::::".-Pressure gauge
Graduated
rl--r-"'--1i~r-Gos flow ~egulolor
scale
Valve To compressed
gas supply

I_--r-,Mercury manometer

From sialic
weter lank
200mm Qulercasing Fischer and
shown partially withdrawn Gland....... Va Ive
Porter flowrotor

lj,1==4U1
: 't-ilc.- Perforations
between 3m and 5m
apart
_Valve
Valve Hand
pump

3mm nylon lube

Level recorded of bottom

of 3mm tube
Cell tilling
shown thus
Double pneumatic packer
Gravel ~

Sand

Groul

.I Figs. 8.24 and 8.25 Mackintosh Dam-Permeability tests

192 L:'oj
clay, spread down and across the valley as a ment of water along bedding planes in sedimen­ "~]
fluvio-glacial deposit. Holes were drilled to tary formations-it being general for these to be L
receive a 200 mm diameter outer casing. Each interconnected by open-joint systems. The usual
hole was divided into cells by infilling with layers
solution is to provide several rows of holes for
grouting-the holes being staggered between
~1
\
i·i
of gravel, grout and sand. The inner casing was ~'

perforated at convenient locations. Using lines. In a three-line arrangement the holes in the
pneumatic packers it was then possible to apply outer lines are grouted first-intermediate holes n I:
water pressure in any zone selected, Figs. 8.24 in the lines being drilled and grouted if deemed t!
and 8.25. Each zone was tested under constant necessary by the grout consumption or water­
head and under falling head; the results in­ pressure tests. After completion of grouting
dicating up to 1 x 10-5 m/s with an overall along the outer lines, holes are drilled along the
average of 2 x 10-6 m/s. This was considered line midway between; these are often deeper and
acceptabl~ubject to grouting under the dam are grouted at depth under greater pressure.
to intercept flow through any undiscovered There are, however, occasions when seams are
penneable zone. filled with clay or other easily erodible material.
To seal pervious unconsolidated sediments by Erosion of clay from such seams could result in
cement grouting is a difficult operation. If the settlement of the dam. It is then advantageous to
penneability of the natural sediments exceeds remove this soft material and replace it with
10-2 cm/s, grouting with a clay-cement mixture cement.
can reduce the permeability to about 10-4 cm/s. As a secondary effect of this there may be
If the original penneability is less than 10- 2 cm/s
some improvement in shearing resistance within
the grouting will be less effective; when it is 10- 3
the foundation but this is rarely relied upon.
cm/s it is most difficult to inject any cement Meadowbank Dam, Tasmania, Fig. 14.57, is
grout. It is unwise to rely on a single row of grout
founded on Triassic sandstones and shales (Sec­
holes; perferably three lines should be used as tion 8.3). Foundation improvement consisted of
described later for sedimentary fonnations. consolidation grouting to a depth of 8 m below
In order to increase the length of the leakagethe buttresses, the gravity abutment blocks and
path it is not uncommon to provide in the design the right abutment retaining wall. A cut-off cur­
"for an impervious blanket (of clay) to be spread
over an area extending upstream from the dam. In
tain was provided---extending 27 m below the
limits of excavation across the river bed and to
[]
some .cases this has been done successfully after
filling of the reservoir by dumping clay sand
materials through the water. Clay blankets have
lesser depths along the abutments. A concrete
plinth not less than 0.6 m thick was provided and
through this, patterns of holes, inclined 20° or
pi
hl
been used successfully in front of dams 50 m J
30°, were drilled, Fig. 8.26. Seam washing was
high; under greater heads some have failed.
Should, th,e underlying foundation be of
effected by connecting an injection manifold to
the top of one standpipe and injecting water (and
~1
limestone-possibly with sink holes and
occasionally air, but this can easily induce uplift
caverns-then the hydraulic gradient through
problems). Water and dislodged material were f1
the blanket may be so great that even a generous ~j
ejected from adjacent standpipes. This operation
filter layer beneath it may be insufficient to pre­
was repeated from various standpipes until a
vent its collapse into the sink holes. The same
maximum number of connections had been
danger exists if the sediments are so pervious as
made. The majority of the material ejected was
to be free draining, and this can occur by inter­
fine clay in suspension and silty material up to 9
connection between lenses of coarse gravels.
mm. Sodium bicarbonate can be added as a dis­
Before adopting a blanket for heads exceeding
persive agent to assist in loosening the clay.
75 m the foundation should be examined care­
However, there are reservations concerning this
fully, and if any doubt exists an alternative fonn
practice since any chemical left in the seams may
of cut-off should be considered.
detrimentally affect them at a later date.
The time required to establish connections
8.42 Permeable Seams
varied from 2 to 30 minutes. Jetting was con­
Precautions must be taken to prevent the move­ tinued until clear water appeared-often after 30 U
n"

;D
",
t,

u
""~;-
"
'
 " !

193

Cells type 'a' Cells type 'A'

'c'holes
thon cells
5~111~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~~ C~!l!~ol lol(!s
j
of in each.
cell 10 lie on Ihis line,
These holes nol jetted AU holes in each cell 10 be drilled
Elevation of upstream fOCe to some level QS cenlrol holes

Note
03 137 ,370.3,37 137 03 - Spacing of cel! holes 10 be
-' measured normal to holes
"I 0,3 1,37 1,37 0,3 1,37 1,37 0,3
)

:B ~Dtf 'f if Plan

1tfr
Noie:
-Holes marked Ihus. ore edended where shown 10 form curlain Iype 'e'
Curtain eel! type 'A' Curtain cen type 'B'

Fig. 8.26 Meadowbank Dam--Arrangements for cell grouting

J
I minutes. The quantity Qf clay material remQved recQgnized Qn a world-wide basis. Karst fQrms
was nQt great-about 1000 ccs frQm each 3 m Qne Qf the preoccupatiQns Qf the InternatiQnal
cell. Cement grQuting was then dQne thrQugh the AssociatiQn of Scientific HydrQlogy (lASH) and
same holes. the UNESCO HydrQIQgical Decade. The General
CQmmittee Meeting Qf the InternatiQnal Associa­
8.43 Karszic Foundations tiQn Qf HydrQgeolQgists (IAH) held in Prague in
The term karstic appears ,to. have Qriginated 1958 set up, a special' cQmmittee on karst
from a regiQn Qf that name in YugQslavia, where hydrogeolQgy.
I surface streams are cQnspicuQus by their absence. The subject came under discussion at the 9th
i Leakage referred to. as karstic describes lQSS ICOLD CQngress, 1967, whilst at the 10th
of water thrQugh pre-exlsttng drainage CQngress, MQntreal, 1970, sixty Papers were
systems-usually associated with cavernQUS presented against QuestiQn 37 'Recent develop­
limestQne fQrmatiQns. Where karstic cQnditiQns ments in the design and constructiQnQf dams and
are known to. exist (Qne-third Qf the area Qf reservQirs Qn deep alluvial, karstic or Qther
Yugoslavia) extensive investigatiQns are unfavQurable fQundatiQns: The Papers appear in
necessary; at Busko' BlatQ Dam they extended VQlume III of the PrQceedings. Londe's General
over 20 years. 29 It may be easy to. condemn a Repon Qn these is reeQrded iri VQlume V, whilst,
site--but when water must be stQred and there is discussions appear in VQlume VI.
no QbviQusly better site the Engineer carries a The extent Qf investigatiQn and treatment will
grave responsibility. FQr instance, many Qf the depend upon the value Qf water at the'particular
dams of the Tennessee Valley AuthQrity. were site. At Vrtae Dam, Yugoslavia, a lQss' Qf 19 mlls
IQcated to. suit navigation and. as a result are Qn was recQrded and accepted, whereas fQr the
limestone fQundatiQns. Some remedial wQrk has G1ems stQrage in West Germany the whQle reser-­
been necessary at these sites. The importance Qf VQir basin was lined with asphalt. 30
limestQne under a dam or .reservQii IS now At Camarassa Dam, Spain" the Qriginal
(
"
194
leakage of 2.5 m'ls grew to 11.5 m3/s, but it was
ultimately controlled by grouting. On the other
hand, at the Montejaque Dam, Spain-built 40
years ago--it has never been possible to fill the
reservoir due to losses through, the banks and
floor of the valley.31 Similarly the reservoir of the
May Dam, Turkey, has never been filledP This
dam was built on limestone but the bed of the
reservoir consists of alluvium 15 to 20 m thick
overlying karstic limestone, conglomerate and
marl. Water seeped through the alluvium and
caused more than thirty-six sink holes to appear
near the dam.
In U.S.A. the Lone Pine project was com­
pleted in 1936 and abandoned, whilst at the Ira­
Price Dam excessive leakage prevented the com:­
plete mling of the reservoir,
An excellent study has been made by
Therond33 of sixteen reservoirs, of which ten
were affected by leakage; his summary is particu­
larly relevant:,
'Out of the 16 reservoirs examined, 10 were
affected by leakage when they were filled, Le,
Camarasa, Bouvante, Monte;aque, Channine­
Moux, Castillon, Canelle., Karaoun, Nebaana,
Vouglan. and Sainte Croix,
Leakage appears wholly or partly at natural
springs, that existed before impounding. The other
r~urgences appear' either from fractures near ,the
main springs or from karst galleries On short dis­
tances; leakage patbs 'can exist, being linked with
joint systems even though the rock' may not
necessarily be karstifled. Leakage from the storage­
lakes examined re-appeared at a distance between 0
and 6 kID from the reservoirs. The farthest point of
resurgence is generally a natural spring with a not
inconsiderable discharge.
Leakage rates vary with the reservoirs from a few
litre. to 12 m'/., The high rates (more than 1 m'/s)
reappear less than 1 kID from the lake. The leakage
rates always increase with lake level. In many cases,
there is declogging of some pipes and the underflow
regime alters suddenly with rising lake level.
In general, there is ground degradation and in­
creasing leakage with time. At 7 schemes out of the
10, leakage appeared as soon as filling started. The
absorption zones in the reservoir can be of' very
different types. There may be generalized infiltra­
tion over large areas, infiltration through, well
separated fractures, or leakage through a limited
number of shafts.'
It is apparent, therefore, that great risk is in­
volved when siting a dam in limestone or karstic
regions, On the other hand, stored water can be
of great value and it would be unrealistic to' con­
demn a site ,without adequate investigation,'4
Water can be lost from a reservoir either:
By-passing the dam into the same river valley or
through karstic formations into an adjoining
valley:
By reversal of flow in springs due to the reservoir
head;
Through sink holes connecting to underground
caverns--collapse of the sink holes being in­
duced by weight of the reservoir water; these
can be of structural significance if close to the
dam;"
Through fissured zones that rarely involve
stability problems and can usually be sealed by'
grouting;
By the water under reservoir head forcing out or
eroding residual clay and alluvium infilling in
channels;
Removal by solution of soluble gypsum (a slight
seepage at Mequinenza Dam, Spain, grew to
17 m3/s in 1 day due to solution in seams
where lignite and gypsum were together),
Investigations must be carried out on a
n
regional basis, with efforts concentrated locally
in areas revealed as karstic,'· Signs of such for­ ill
,,1
mation are natural sink holes that may partly fIll
with rainwater but drain rapidly, springs that ,'1
feed water into the reservoir area, or dry river ,i, j
beds, Flow from karstic" springs varies more
rapidly With rainfall than from other springs.
The range of water temperature from karstic
springs may be two to three times that from
U ,;
other springs, Dye tests may be performed to
IiI:
trace the movement of water-fluorescein is
visible to the naked eye in concentrations of 1 t~]
part in 200 million by weight. The quantity of
dye required will depend upon the underground
storage as well as upon the actual flow going
'1
"
d
underground.
: 1
To appraise the order of magnitude of I
permeability in a" given direction through kar­ .. j
I;
stified limestones the following should be
studied:
]1, '
State and direction of tectonic disturbances of
the limestone mass and its space relationship :! 1
with the hydraulic gradients of karstification;
Magnitude, direction and duration of hydraulic
u
gradients to which the limestone mass has n;. '1
been subjected in the past; •.1
Ul I:
f;:;,-.
 'I

195

I Total volume of water which flowed through the Typical of the extensive grout curtains
I underground formation. necessary in karstic regions is that at Grancarevo
Dam, Yugoslavia';';7 (1967). This double­
Hydrological studies should include:
curvature arch dam-123 m high--<;:reates a
Simultaneous measurement of the flow in the reservoir of 1280 million m3• The dam site con­
main stream and tributaries; sists of Lias limestones which are karstified to
Correlation of stream regime with those of considerable depth on the left bank. Besides a
neighbouring streams known to be free from rather pronounced stratification of the rock
karstic problems; mass, the dam site is fissured by several systems
-.' ) Piezometric surveys for hydraulic gradients. of cracks which are frequently fllled with clayey
Geophysical methods should be employed both materials near the surface. The dam abutments
for regional studies and for local dimensioning of were improved by consolidation grouting
caverns, etc. through a total length of 20 000 m of boreholes.
Once a site has been adopted certain Below the dam and in the flanks, a two-row cur­
precautions to be taken may.include: tain was built covering 60 000 m2 and reaching a
maximum depth of 150 m, Fig. 8.27. The water­
Complete sealing of the floor and banks of small tightness of the reservoir was ensured by the ex­
resenroirs; istence of a large dolomite anticline that crosses
Provision of a deep grout curtain;
the' River TrebiSnjica, but which prescribed
Provision of a cut-off wall;
limits for siting of the dam.
Provision for drainage of the dam abutments and

Rama Dam, Yugoslavia, is a rockfill embank­

foundation with provision for further grouting
ment with reinforced concrete upstream deck.
, if necessary;
The damsite lies in formations of karstified
Filling of the reservoir should be in stages, being
J.' held or lowered as required for remedial work;
calcareous rocks, limestones, and dolomite
limestones of the Triassic period. There is 'a fault
Provision of large capacity outlets;
zone of considerable size in the river bed and the
The dam could be built in stages to prove the
banks are intersected by minor faults; the rockfill
reservoir as at Karaoun Dam, Lebanon.
was compacted in. 1.5 m layers with· 10.5 t
In karstic regions it may not be possible to ex­ vibrating rollers. A grouting, drainage and in­
tend a grout curtain either laterally or in depth spection gallery was incorporated in the plinth of
to seal against an impermeable formation; the the concrete deck, Fig. 8.28.
possibility of it being outflanked should not Treatment of Keban Dam, Turkey,· has been
therefore be overlooked. described by Ie Be!,'" to whom. I am obliged for
i
I•,
I
I
! ,'­

!
. t

! 1. Contact grQuting
2. Upstream toW of groutholes
i 3.
4.
Perimetrical join.t
Downsteom tow of 9foutholes
jI
I
5.
G,
Conso'lido!ion grovting
Diversion tonne I
7. 8oltorn outlet NO,l
o, 50
,
100m
I a Penstocks

'. I 9.
10,
II.
Bottom outlet No.2
Railway tunnel
Spillway

Fig. 8.27 Grancarevo Dam-Developed profile of the dam and grout curtain

(
196

.. -

\ . )0
1\ ".
IT\ "-
.U:-S

Secfion of grout curloin

1. Dolomitic limestone
2. Faul1 ~one
3. Limestone
4. Marl and cloy
5. Contour of grout cur10in
6. Cut-off wol! with inspection gallery
7 Upstream row of grout holes
a Consolidation groutlng
9. Contact grouting
+505.88 10. ContrOl boreholes
r499.5Q

Cross ·secfion of Dam

I. Reinforced concrete face H
'j
2. Hond poeked roekflll
3. Rockfill
4. Cut-off woH with inspection gollery
5. Drainage gallery
"1' )
Fig. 8.28 Rama Dam, Yugoslavia
c 1

the following summary and diagrams:
'The Keban Dam is located in Turkey on the upper
part of the River Euphrates. It is constituted by a
rockfill dam of about 200 ni of height and is
followed on its left abutment by a gravity wall of
concrete having a maximum height of 80 m. At the
crest the rockftll is 673 m long, the COncrete wall
about 400 m.
The foundations were due to be treated by the
conventional way of a grouting curtain carried out
from a certain number of -borizontal galleries
located in the vertical axis of the dam, and ex­
tending under the whole concrete dam and on the
limestone abutments of the rockftll dam.
During construction, these galleries discovered a
great number of cavities most often ftlled with clay
or debris; many dissolution channels were also en­
build an underground concrete diaphragm wall in
place of the grouting curtain in the are.s were kar­
IJ '
stification rendered the conventional grouting im­
possible or inefficient.
The fJrst part of the foundation to be treated
with the diaphragm wall has been the left bank
abutment of the rockfill dam and some parts of the
foundations of the concrete gravity dam in areas
where important outflow of water appeared
dangerous. Later on, the same method has been ex·
tended so that, presently, 20000 m' of wall have
been carried out.
This wall is huilt in the vertical plane of the ex­
isting grouting galleries. Its thickness varies allow­
ing for the conditions ofthe rock with an average of
1. 70 m; General method which is in use is
analogous to tbe stoping works wbich are in prac­
tice currently in mining. The panels of wall are i.
~-l

: I .
generally made between two galleries at about 20 m
countered. It- became obvious that tbe foundation difference of level. One starts by excavating from LJ ~ :
was a very complex karstic formation.
In a fJrst period, the Owner asked a very intricate
the outside or from an horizontal gallery one in­ , -

clined shaft at 45· situated between two horizontal

day-to-day work of exploration following the solu­
tion channels, excavating the cavities and filling the
whole with concrete.
The main drawback of tbis procedure was the
impossibility to program correctly tbe wo,k,
therefore the Owner decided since April 1969 to
galleries, tben following operations are carried out:
Perforation and blasting on the ceiling of the in­
clined shafts of rock on about 2 m;
The muck is sliding down to the lower horizontal
galleries for excavation;
r]
t
 197

CD Drilling stage Typical cross-section ® Mucking stage

2O.50m
-
Loodet ~ Solzgifter H.C.400

~~~~~~~~~;~\50m
---.j
oownSl~::k: J-Jttrl~=1;Yl':~r ;. Upstream

: Stoodard woggon

@ Cancreling stage @ Typical formwork

Shoft excavoli

50m

. ,
.. 1 lsi Sloge
disposal
2nd Stage
!
Wall area 8200 m~

3rd Stoge

Diaphragm woll !NOrfh} ..

Fig. 8.29 Keban Dam, Turkey

-!

 n,.-1i
i: :;
'~

:.~
~.j

r1
.1.,'.
1':1

rl

L~

Ifl
!' '~
L:S

~
;:~
: '
'­

fl
i'~
q
(j
t,

!']
L:i
\-.'!

['J

Cl
LJ
".,. I
~

U
F!
[J

~]
~.;

'1
tJ

i']

, '1
U

']

~-.-

8.30

D
n, 1
U

~l
~ ..
i.ij
 n

199

Concreting of the invert of the sloping shafts with a dam it is usual to drill primary holes to a depth of
.,
. ,; thickness equal to the blasting of the ceiling, the
concrete will be used to raise a mobile platform
about 10 m in a general pattern wherein holes
will be at approximately 8 m centres. Each hole
for the next round.
will be located and oriented to best advantage. 1f
This method allows to excavate and build the wall there is considerable consumptiol! of grout, in­
in several locations, independent one from the termediate secondary -holes wIDbe drilled and
others.
At Keban at the one time there were 5 sites in grouted, followed by intermediate tertiary holes
simultaneous work. This method, Figs. 8.29 and if required. It is important that-grouting
8.30, has provided an impervious barrier in place pressures be kept low to avoid heaving of the
where conventional grouting proved inefficient.' rock and propagation of cracks too fine for the , .
;'
entry of cement but sufficient to accept ·water.
8.5 Foundation Improvement Where there may later be relatively high stress
concentrations the grouting pattern should be
Some action will usually be necessary to im­ spread to consolidate a bulb under the dam, Fig.
prove the foundations for a dam in order to
8.31. The holes should be located and oriented to
provide:
.j .
'I' ,! Less deformation under load;
-i, Greater impermeability; .
Greater resistance to shearing;
Protection against erosion;
II
, Greater stability of abutments.

8.51 Consolidation
8.511 The usual method for consolidating sands
and gravels in situ is by vibration. In extreme
cases the same effect can be obtained with ~­
plosives.3• At Karnafuli Dam, Bangladesh, mQ,n­
.i "soon"floods scoured the diversion channel to
Fig. 8.31 Consolidation grouting for an arch
depihs of 20 in bei~w general river bed level in dam
an area that would later be covered by the
downstream shell of the rockfill dam. To de­
I
,I
, water the hole would probably have endangered
intersect as many seams as possible. In sedimen­
the side slopes of the firsHtage embankment. It
was therefore decided to dul!!J.l_ cohesionles. tary series it may be advisable to wash soft
material into the water in the hole; after so filling materials from seams and replace it with cement
and de-watering the loose material was com­ (Section 8.42). To be effective for general con­
pacted by detonating buried explosive charges.4o solidation this would be slow and expensive
i . ' ~
working, necessitating considerable checking by
I core drilling. Where the modulus of deformation
8.512 Consolidation by Grouting. In general
there will be cracks, joints and seams within the of the rock mass is low, or variable along the axis
foundation. Although the specification should of the dam, consolidation grouting can provide
considerable improvement. At Repulse Dam, I
p'rohii?it blasting within 0.5 m of the final ex­
cavation limits, there will always remain some Australia, Fig. 11.30, grouting was, done to
loosening of the rock. Openings should be in­ depths of 5 m over the foundation area..Defor­ r
mation modulus was measured by loading cables
jected with cement both for consolidation and to
anchored in the rock. The increase in modulus of
I
I

prevent erosion of infliling material in this zone

u
of maximum hydraulic gradient; Under a gravity deformation of the .jointed dolerite was of the
order of 50 per cent-for the poorest rock it was

improved from 2000 to 3000 MPa.

u
Fig. 8.30 Keban Dam, Turkey--Excavation for
diaphragm wall
It is understood that the yery comprehensive
consolidation grouting at Vaiont Dam, Italy,

~ .­
F
200
resulted in a 100 per cent increase in the defor­
mation mod ul us.41
Cabril Dam, Portugal," was built on a com:
.petent mass of. unaltered granite. Mter
measurements corresponding to the first loading
were taken it was realized that deformations in
the structure due to the foundation movements
were ~).lbstantially in excess of those predicted
,"-r' ~ _ _ _ _- .
and this was attributable to settlement. A new
programme orgrouting-;as undertaken and this
was successful in reducing the defonnations of
the cantilevers, Fig. 8.32.
250
E extend will depend upon the type and condition
1and 2 - Before 9routing the
foundation
3- After grouting the
foundation
170~~--~--~~~~~~~~'~~
a 10 20 30 40 50 60
Displacements (mm l
Fig. 8.32 Cabril Dam, Portugal-Foundation im­
provement by grouting demonstrated by less cantilever
deflection (After Seralim)
Bendora Dam, Australia,43 is founded on
quartzite formation of Silurian age. The rock
consists of very hard strong quartzite and
silicified quartz sandstones and siltstones in beds
ranging from 2. to 3 m thick:, with lenses of
friable sandstone, claystone and sedimentary
t;;e;:;aas less than 150 mm thick, Fig. 7.14. The
rock mass had a joint penneability of 5.2 to 6.8 x
10-6 mls (formula by M. A. Chapple)." Con­
solidation grouting was done over an area of
3000 m 2 to a depth of 10 m. The holes SO mm
diameter were drilled on a 3.1 m grid with in­
termediate holes where required. The cement
consumption was 7 to 9 kg per square metre of
surface--th e usual mixture being 6 parts of
water plus 1 part of cement. Analysed in closer
detall it appeared that in areas where the joint
penneability was less than 4 x 10-6 mls the
grout consumption was less than 4 kg/m'; for
permeabilities up to 9 x 10-6 mls the consump­
tion rose to 21 kg/m', whilst for greater per­
meabilities the consumption rose rapidly, i.e. to
40 kg/m2 for permeability of 12 x 10-6 mls.
Much has been written concerning consump­
tion of grout. It will obviously depend upon the
porosity of gravels or the width of joints and
cracks in rock fonnations. More importantly, it
will depend upon the experience of the operators
and the attention given to work.
8.52 Impermeability by Grouting
8.521 Grout Curtain. To impede the flow of ,
water under or around a dam a grout curtain is
usually provided. The depth to which this should '1
II,
of the rock mass. Simmonds (19511' suggested
,ci,
D =iH + C ., 1J
I
where D depth in metres
H = height of dam in metres
C is a constant varying with the founda­
tion, the size of the dam nod the signifi­
cance of leakages--say 8 to 25 m.
This is in general agreement with present-day
70 80
practice, i.e. a little less than half the height of
the dam, except wbere circumstances necessitate
special treatment. The grout curtain should ex­
tend well into the abutments on the line of the
dam, Fig. 8.33 line DBCD', or it can be returned
along each abutment--drilled from above flood
level in the reservoir--ABCA'. The location of
the abutment curtain will be determined relative
to rock formations and the provision that will be
made for abutment drainage.
When the reservoir is filled and a concrete
dam comes under load there is a tendency for
cracks to form in the rock upstream from the
dam. Their probable extent and location can be
determined by fmite element studies. It is wise,
therefore, to provide a gallery in the dam follow­ ,
ing and not far distant from the foundation con­ 'I
, l
tact. Horizontal extensions of this gallery should "'......
i
D

also be driven into the abutments. These will per­
mit regrouting should the grout curtain be frac­
tured or prove to be inadequate.
One outstanding grout curtain was that
provided at the 117 m high Dokan Arch Dam,
Iraq." The main rocks in the area are from the
)
bottom upwards-first a dolomite, overlying
that a thin-bedded limestone and finally a marl.
The grout curtain extends into both abutments,
its total length being 24 km and its area 450 000
i m' with holes as deep as 200 m. Apart from this
i curtain some 580000 m' of rock on the left abut­
ment required grouting. In all, rock sealing and
consolidation required 300 000 m of drilling and
,i the injection of 116 000 tonnes of cement and
sand.
At Limmernboden Dam, Switzerland, there
was little prior evidence of leakage but the final
grout curtain covered 550 000 m'. This may
change an item in the contract from something
envisaged as minor and possibly at a high unit
rate into an extraordinarily large payment.
::: 1,I A rockfill dam-with a cement or asphaltic
concrete deck-has a very steep hydraulic
gradient under the concrete plinth. It is essential,
therefore, to provide an impermeable grout cur­
tain under the plinth. The 107 m high Cethana
Dam Fig. 5.27, is founded on quartzite and con­
glomerate. The uppermost 8 to 10m of rock was
. 1
! grouted for general consolidation, the average
grout consumption being 48 kg per metre of
...,
hole. For impermeability, primary holes were
drilled at 10 to 12 m spacing along the plinth. If
water was lost from one of these holes at a rate
t
i, D'
i,
'I
Grundy'" has suggested :':
.,I
l
Fig., 8.33 Curtain. grouting-Alternative arrange­
ments
201
exceeding 0.01 Vmin per kPa of pressure per
metre depth of hole, or if the grout take exceeded
70 kg per metre of hole, intermediate secondary
. holes were drilled and grouted. The requirement t
for tertiary hqles was similarly based on the
results of adjacent 'secondary holes. The maximum
I
pressure used for the curtain grouting was 700
kPa for holes 30 m deep. The grout consumption Il.
I
,
for primary, secondary, and tertiary holes
averaged 110, 55 and 30 kg/m, respectively.
It is difficult to prove the effectiveness of Ii
grout curtain, since it would involve many pres­
surized holes on one side and an equal number of
piezometer holes on the other side of the curtain.
For this reason considerable attention has been
given to the development of geophysical methods.
I am indebted to Mr. E. Polak of the Bureau of
. Mineral Resources, Australia, for the following
comment on this method:
'Resistivity traversing can be used to control the ef­
ficiency of grouting in the area of water leakage.
The resistivity of the cement grout is lower than
that of the rock that is to be grouted. The drop of
resistiVity after grouting would indicate the percen­
tage of voids filled with the grout. The method has
been used in Yugoslavia and Austria.
On one dam site located in sandstone on the river
San in Southern Poland close..paced resistivity
traverses were placed in the area of the proposed
groUt curtain. A map of apparent resistivity was
plotted. The IlIl!p indicated low resistivity in' areas
where joints were infilled with clay. The joints were
flushed with fresh water, the change in resistivity
showed the efficiency of removal of clay. A high­
resistivity grout was pumped and subsequent
resistivity indicated a continuous zone of high
resistivity along the grout bores with the gradual
decrease in resistivity with increasing distance from
the bores.'
8.522 Grouting Pressure. The permissible I:,
grouting pressure (usually measured at the collar
of the hole) will depend on the type of rock and
the rock formations-whether bedded sedimen­
tary or massive igneous.
P= 44D
where P is the pressure in kPa
D is the depth in metres.
Zaruba" has recommended the following as
maximum values for sedimentary rocks:

202

(i). for solid rocks with steeply inclined fissures
P = 30D + 2D'
(ll) for solid rocks with horizontal fissures
If the hole continues to take grout of 0.6 : 1 mix
it is wise to adopt a policy of stop-go, pausing
for, say, 15 min between injections.
..:
:;-~

P = 24D + 0.5D' 8.523 Groufing Methods. Cement grout usually ..

wbichgive. figures greater than Grundy's at
depth in good rock and less in horizontally
fissured rock. Pressures in excess of 2 MPa
should only be applied in exceptional circum­
stances and then only under engineering super­
vision.
The 'rule of thumb' often adopted for grouting
pressure is 25 kPa per metre depth, but this must
be used with caution. For example, at Mont
Cenis Dam'8 a pressure of P = 3 D caused heav­
ing of the foundation. At Giroa Dam" a pressure
of 2 MPa did not seal but success was achieved at
7 MPa, provided that, at that pressure, the
pumping rate was limited to 3 l.lmin.
Mattmark Darn'· is founded on alluvial and
.:
~ -'-1
includes a high early strength cement; this
should be passed through a fine screen (0.6 rom
or 0.3 mm) before mixing in a high-'3peed mixer
operating at 1500 to 2000 r.p.m. The grout is
then passed through an 0.6 mm screen to a hold­
over agitator tank wherein a paddle rotates at
abut 100 r.p.In. From this, grout is fed through
a screw-type pump into the delivery line--with
by-pass connections back to the agitator tank.
Cement grout will usually block in gaps less than
0.6 mm; clay-bentonite grouts can penetrate
smaller opening~but for very fine cracks a
chemical grout is necessary, Fig. 8.34.
-
E
E
·
;;:

morainic deposits about 100 m thick with a .• ~

!::::.::

~
natural permeability of between 10- 4 and 10-6 ~
"'.,

D
~
mls. The principal grout curtain is formed by ten >
~
:
~
rows of holes in the upper layer, reduced to four , •
ul-
in the deepest alluvial bed. It extends into rock as
a thin layer. The treatment was carried out in 0.15
..·
~
,

,l
three stages, the first two using a clay-cement 0,3 0
:-­
~
'S ..· "
e
c
grout and the third a mixture of bentonite and
silicate. The average permeability of the ground
0.60
r-­
.,.2
~
•
''''
:
0

[J

was lowered to 6 x 10- 7 mls. To achieve this it 2f- ~

• E •
•
(3 ~
~ ~I-
was neCessary to drill 72 000 m of holes and use
215 000 m) of grout.
4.8 "•
u
~

E
u ~
•
>
e e
>
.
PreSsure should not be increased arbitrarily in 5­ ;;C>
•
an endeavour to force grout into the rock; it is 2

better to dilute the grout. Grouting is usually Fig. 8.34 Injectivity of grouts
started with a thin mix, say 5 or 6 parts of water
by volume to 1 part of cement. If this grout is '1
consumed freely then the mix is stiffened in ac­
cordance with a programme such as Table 8.08:
To obtain a non-'3hrinking grout, methyl
cellulose may be used as an additive, 'Methocell'
U
in the proportion of 0.2 per cent of the cement
Table S.OS. Grout Mixtures
weight will produce a satisfactory grout with a
Mix·
Maximum cement consumed
water-cement ratio as low as 0.4. Aluminium
(Water to cement
per metre of hole
powder may also be used; 0.005 to 0.01 per cent
by volume)
(kg)
of the weight of cement will be sufficient to
5: 1 42
counteract shrinkage, but the consequent evolu­
4: 1 42 tion of hydrogen may· be unacceptable.
3: 1 42 Special additives are available that cause floc­
2:1 42 culation of the cement grout; this has the special
1: 1 2S0 property of blocking cracks with cement whilst
0.8: 1 140
0.6: 1 140 allowing tbe water to travel on until blockage is
complete--the grout take is reduced appreciably.
 :'''';,o;n

203

.i Since karstic foundations usually require large depth considered necessary by the grout con­
quantities of grout, Yugoslavian Engineers have sumption or progressive water testing. The ad­
developed a variety of grouts. Thus in the foun­ vantage of downward stage grouting is that the
dations of Globocica Dam four different grouts upper vulnerable parts receive multiple
were used: treatment. To meet special circumstances as may
be revealed by the drilling--open seams or
(a) Outer rows were done fIrst using
cavities-packers may also he used in this
82% Bentonite
method to isolate the zone of injection..
17% Sodium silicate
1% Activator
to act as an immediate cut-off for running
8.524 Cationic Asphalt. In certain circum­
water.
stances, such as excessive flows of water within
(h) the second rows were the rock mass, cement grouting may not be
20% Cement and 80% Illite clay. possible. Cationic asphalt was used to seal such
flows at Morrow Point Dam, U.S.A.S! Lime was
(c) the third rows
mixed in the adi t, the mix of 1 part oflime with 4
I 30% Cement and 70% Clay.
" I parts of emulsion 'cracked' in 5 m. The lime was
I injected through a 20 mm pipe within the 40 mm
(d) the fourth row .
80% Sodium silicate with about 20% of pipe that carried the emulsion. The asphalt un­
Cement in large quantities of water to act fortunately has a high affinity for steel and gave
as an activator. considerable trouble in reciprocating pumps;
however, gravity feed or a 'Presweld' placer was
Coyne and Bellier of Paris, with the French quite successful.
fll1ll Soletanche, have experimented with aerated
cement grouts. These contain cement, sodium
silicate, water and a detergent to form a foam of 8.525 Chemical Grouting relies upon the for­
predictable properties, with no more cement per mation of a gel within the crack or seam-the
cubic metre than average concrete. setting time of the gel depending upon the
Three methods are available for grouting: proportions of catalysts and inhibitors used.
Single stage; Since the viscosity can be near that of water
Ascending stages; penetration of very fme seams is possible, and
much lower pressures are used. In general,
i
:1
Descending stages.
chemical grouting is used only to decrease
The single-stage method involves the grouting of permeability since the gel offers no strength .for
the entire length of the hole in one stage. It is transference of load. The method finds applica­
restricted to low pressures to avoid damage to tion in special circumstances such as arose at the
zones near the surface. It also entails a definite 46 m high Parangana Rockflll Dam, Tasmania,
predetermined depth of hole. Fig. 7.24. The cut-off trench beneath the central
Grouting by' ascending' stages also involves core was backfilled with consolidated clay. Before
drilling to a definite depth and then grouting in completion of this clay placing it was found that
I stages-as defined by packers in the hole-from leakage paths existed along layer boundaries of
I the bottom upwards. Such holes cannot be tested the clay; these horizontal cracks were, howeyer,
.J
after injection and the process may cause heaving too small for cement grouting. A programme of
of the surface layers. Despite the cost of the chemical grouting was undertaken; a 5 per cent
packers, it may be cheaper since the drilling AM-9 solution was mixed with suitable propor­
,: I equipment is not subject to repeated reposition­ tions of catalysts and inhibitors to provide close
ing over the hole. control of the setting time of the gel. To avoid
The method of descending stages provides for propagation of the cracks the maximum pressure
drilling of a shallow hole-maybe 10 m­ at the collar of the hole was limited to 280 kPa.
grouting under low pressure, re-dri1ling the hole Two lines of holes were used; the Jines were 1 m
to '. greater depth and re-grouting at higher apart and the primary holes were at 1 m spacing.
pressure. This procedure is continued to the Secondary holes were grouted intermediate

i
I
204
between these and provided an impermeable
barrier within the cut-off.
8.526 Drilling for Grout"ng. As regards drilling
there was a prejudice against the use of percus­
sion drills, probably related to the earlier
removal of cuttings by the air flush; however,
mod.ern percussion drills are fitted with water
swivels and rods permitting the use of a strong
water flush to remove the chippings to the sur­
face. There may in fact be a case against the use
of diamond drills in that the finer slimes so
produced are more likely to block fme fissures
than the coarser chippings produced by per­
cussive drills. The matter of obtaining a core is
separate and in many cases is warranted as a
guide to grouting.
At Dokan Dam percussive drills were used for
the first 100 m depth and diamond drills beyond.
In some strata it is difficult to maintain the align­
ment of percussive drills beyond 50 m.
8.53 Dra"nage
Although it has been common practice to
provide drainage from the foundations of gravity
dams to minimize uplift-and to provide
-
Reservoir
I
\
Gallery
IS:
IS.
\~
\
Gallery
\ approximately 20 m from the rock surface there is a
10
\ ~­
I~
'1'
I piercing this seam. The bars insetted are 30 m long
Gallery
\\0
holes were grouted with mortar.'
\%.
g \
" \
Fig. 8.35 Grouting and drain­
age from underground galleries
drainage wells below earthfill dams to control
seepage-it was the failure of Malpasset Dam
that emphasized the need for adequate drainage
Fig. 8.36 Amahata Dam, Japan-Protection of left
abutment
Fig. 8.37 Devils Gate Dam, Australia-Right abut­
ment protected and stabilized by prestressed cables ~ "1
: J
:J \
of abutments of arch dams in particular, Fig.
, 'j
11.33. : .'
The present practice is to excavate drainage . Lj
galleries to within a reasonable distance of the
grout curtain. Drainage holes are then drilled
between the galleries, with provision for
recording flows from the different zones. Where
a grout curtain is to be installed from under­
ground galleries the arrangement shown in
Fig. 8.35 is effective. Provision must be made for
re-drilling the drainage holes should they become r~
blocked, i.e. the galleries must be large enough ,1
and access possible for drilling equipment.
8.54 Protection
Although dealt with in Chapter 14, it is
n
appropriate to draw attention to the frequent
need to protect the foundation and abutments
from erosion by spillway discharge or
weathering, which itself can be intensified by
spray from spillway discharge. Such protection
wans, if adequately anchored, can also contribute
to the· stability of the abutment. For these
reasons the left abutment at Amahata Dam,
Japan, Fig. 8.36, was covered with concrete 1.5
to 2 m thick:·
'In addition to placing this concrete against the
bedrock, the left abutment was reinforced with 25
mm diameter reinforcing bars: At a distance
seam running almost parallel to the rock surface.
Reinforcing bars were inserted into the bedrock
. I
oj
and spaced 5 m apart. 45 mm diameter holes were
drilled, and after the bars were inserted the drill
At Devils Gate Dam, Tasmania, similar
protection was provided-but both the river
foundation and lower abutments were stabilized
by prestressed cables, Fig. 8.37.
At Oymapinar Arch Dam, Turkey,'2 the
problem was to protect and stabilize the steep
,abutment on the upstream side of the dam:
'This steep left bank cliff of Fatmalar limestone will
*Private communication dated 19th November, 1973,
from the Japan National Committee on Large Dam•.
1
.. ,

!
1
·I

·I
"

1
1
_I

·!

,I
 . . . m-II'"
206

be in direct contact with the waters ofthe reservoir. learnt concerning the behaviour of foundations
It may reasonably be assumed that in its natural under load. Apart from the research aspect, there
state, the steep cliff has a low factor of safety is a need to monitor the foundations· in the
against sliding. The water in the reservoir will ~- ."

apply a stabilizing load, but seepage into the rock interests of safety, i.e. to be assured that neither : l
would possibly reduce the joints' shear strength. untiue leakage nor movement is occurring. 'J
"
Furthermore, reservoir level will fluctuate every Inverted plumbobs-anchored at depth in the
'"
,I
184.00 F.S.L I 185.00 L...J

:1d

8uttressed _ _""
lining
\
~1S:Wu \1J'tr'~-Drainage holes
1
u
70.001

Fotmolar limestone

Fig. 8.38 Oymapinar Dam-Stabilization of abutment

year between normal pool level (El. 184 m( and a
minimum level as Iowa. EI. 131 m. Drawdown
must be expected to be very rapid, by reason of the
small lake area, and this condition is a severe one
for the stability of the cliff if pressures build-up in
the joints during periods of high reservoir level and
are not subsequently dissipated as fast as the level is
lowered. The stability of the cliff has been in­
vestigated, and the conclusion is clear and two-fold:
0) Water should be prevented from penetrating
into the rock mass;
(ii) The slope mUst be strengthened against sliding
on the joints.
The protection system is designed to keep the abut­
ment dry, drain it and reinforce the cliff, Fig. 8.38.
..§J?l!ti!!l m~vements.
8.6 Instrumentation
The general matter of instrumentation of
dams is dealt within Chapter 20. However, it is
well to emphasize that there is still a lot to be
"J
~
foundations with floats in a gallery within the
dam--will reveal any horizontal movement of
the dam.
Invar rods anchored at depth in the abutments
will -iildicate deformation of the rock strata under
load.
Settlement gauges should be built into the
u
u
foundations of embankment dams if deformation
is likely_ to occur.
Pieiometers in abutments and foundations will
reveal the final water table and assist in the inter­
pretation of any recorded drainage. Precise geo­
detic surveying can be used both within galleries
in the abutments and on to the abutments for any
Water leaking from the dam or abutments
should be carefully monitored, with regular
review of quantity, pressure and chemical
composition.

References
1. D. O. Martin, 'Understanding and Treatment of
Dam Foundations', Appendix A-'Lessons from
Dam Incidents', ICOLD 1973, Paris, pp.
189-190.
2. B. Kujundzic, 'Methods of Exploring and Testing
I Foundations', we cit., 186-187.
3. E. R. Leeman and D. J. Hayes (1966), 'A Techni­
que for Determining the Complete State of Stress
in Rock using a Single Borehole', Proc. lSI
Congress International Society of Rock Mechanics,
Lisbon, 2, pp. 17-24.
4. M. Roeha and A. Silveiro (1969), 'A New Method
for the Complete Determination of State of Stress
in Rock Masses', GeotltChnique, London, 19, No.1,
pp. 116-139.
5. O. C. Zienkiewicz et aI., Rock Mechanics in
Engineering Practice, John Wiley, London, 1968.
6. G. Scbnitter, General Report on 59 Papers sub­
mitted under Question 28, 'Physical and
Mechanical Properties of Rock in situ-Methods
. ", of Determining and Improving sucb Properties
from the Standpoint of Design and Construction
of Large Dams', 8th ICOLD Congress, Edin­
burgh, 1964, Vol, IV,
7, K. G, Stagg, 'Rock Mechanics in Arch Dam
Engineering' in Theory of Dams, J, R, Rydzewski
(Ed.) (witb 40 references), Pergamon Press, Lon­
,! don, 1965,
l J
8, 'Physical Properties of Some Typical Foundation
Rocks', U,S,B,R, Publication, Denver, U,S,A"
Concrete Lob, Report, No. S.P. 39.
II 9. M. Rocha, 'Meehanical Behaviour of Rock Foun­
dations in Concrete Dams', 8th ICOLD Congress,
Edinburgh, 1964, Q.28, R.44, 1, pp. 785-831.
10. K. Terzaghi and Richart, 'Stresses in Rock about
Cavities', Geotechnique, London, 111, No.2, June
1952.
11. Bernard, 'Measurement of Modulus of Elasticity
and the Application to Design of Pressure
Tunnels" Proc. 3rd IntC1'national Conference on
Soil Mechanic; and Foundation Engineering,
Rotterdam, 1952.
I 12. W. A. Waldorf, J. A. Ve1trop and J. I. Curtis,
I 'Foundation Modulus Tests at Karad! Arcb
Dam', Journal of Soil Mecbanics and Foun­
dations Divn, Paper 3576, Proc. A.S.C.E., 89,
No. SM4, July, 1963, pp. 91-126.
13, T. Fujii, 'Fault Treatment at Nagawado Dam',
10th IGOLD Congress, Montreal, 1970, Q.37,
R.9, 11, pp. 147-169.
14. J. K. Wilkins, I.E. Aust., Tasmania Division
Bulletin, Sept, 1973.
15. J. L. Serafim, Discussion on Question 25,. 7th
ICOLD Congress, Rome, 1961, 11, p. 46.
16. D. E. Kleiner and R. C. Acker, 'Rock Mechanics
Studies for Mossyrock Arch Dam', Journal of
Power Division, Paper 7795, Proc. A.S.C.E., 98,
I
.I No. POI, pp, 11-24.
31. 10th ICOLD Congress, Montreal, 1970, General
I
.'-~ .hi'''? , $\
207
17, N. Hast and T. Nilsson, 'Recent Rock Pressure
Measurements and their Implications for Dam
Building', 8th ICOLD Congress, Edinburgh,
1964, Q.28, R.32, 1, pp. 601-610.
18. M. Rocha, J, L, Serafun and de Silveira, 'Deform­
mabllity of Foundation Rocks', 5th ICOLD
Congress, Paris, 1955, Q.18, R.75, 111,
pp. 531-561
19. H. J. Manini et at, 'Methods to Determine the
Pbysical Properties of Rock', 8th ICOLD
Congress, Edinburgh, 1964, Q.28, R.46, 1, pp.
859-876.
20. L, M. Christiansen, J. L. Von Thun and G. S.
Tarbox, 'A New Method for Evaluating Foun­
dations', Water Power, March 1971, pp. 93-95.
21. J. M. Maddox, F. L. IGnstier and R. P. Mather,
'Foundation Studies for Meadowbank Buttress
Dam', 9th ICOLD Qlngress, Istanbul, 1967,·
Q.32, R.9, 1, pp; 123-141; 'Meadowbank
Dam-Foundations', I.E. Aust., Annual
Conference, 1967,
22. H. H. Thomas, Discussion on Question 28, 8th
INCOLD Congress, Edinburgh, 1964, V, pp.
221-227.
23. J. A. J. Salas and S. Uriel, 'Some Recent Rock
Mechanics Testing in Spain', 8th ICOLD
Congress, Edinburgh, 1964, Q.28, R.53, 1, pp.
995-1021.
24. A. Gete-Alonso, 'Tbe Security Conception
Applicated to the Foundations of Mequinenza
Dam' (Frencb), 9th ICOLD Congress, Istanbul,
1967, Communication C.9, V, pp, 421-456.
25. E. Vallarino and R. Alvarez, 'Strengthening the
Mequinenza Dam to Prevent Sliding', WatC1'
Power, March 1971,pp. 104-108; April 1971, pp.
121-125.
26, C. F. Corns, Discussion on Question 37, 10th
[COLD Congress, Montreal, 1970, VI, pp.
497-499.
27. T •. J. Abraham, 'Selection and Design of a Com- .•.
pacted RockliU Dam with a Sloping E artb Core
on a Foundation with Weak Horizontal Bedding .
Planes', 10th ICOW Congress, Montreal, 1970,··
Q.36, R.2l, 1, pp. 339-359.
28. E, Habetba; 'Tbe Use of Radioactive Isotopes to
Determine Permeability in Connection with Dam
Foundations', 7th ICOLD Congress, Rome, 1961, ..
Q.25, R.73, 11, pp. 495-510. ..
29, (a) 9th IGOLD Congress, Istanbul 1967, General.
Report by Yugoslavian National Committee; (b)
10th ICOLD Congress, Montreal 1970, General.
Report G.P.I0 by the Yugoslavian National Com­
mittee, IV, pp. 899-908; .
30. H. Link, 'The Upper Basin of tbe Glems Pumped
Storage Scheme Sited in Cavernous Jurassic
Limestone', 10th ICOLD Congress, Montreal
1970, Q.37, R.17, 11, pp. 287-300.
 mm~~T F fi if!!
iff rr
208
Report No. 11 by the Spanish National Com­
mittee, IV, p. 909.
32. I. Alpsn, 9th [COLD Congress, Istanbul, 1967,
'Investigation of Water Losses at May Reservoir',
Q.34, R ..27, 111, pp. 477-490.
33. R. Thorond, Recherche sur I'Elancheile des Lacs de
Barrage en Pays Kamique, Editor-Eyrolles, Paris,
June 1972, Collection d'Essais de Chatou.
34. F. Anik, 'Experience Gained in the Investigation
of Karst Reservoirs', 11th [COLD Congress,
Madrid, 1973, QA1, R.80, 11, pp. 1519-1541.
35. B. Palvin, 'Kruscica Storage Basin in the Caver­
nous Karst - Area', 10th [COLD Congress,
Montreal, 1970, Q.37, R.13, 11, pp. 209-224.
36. G. T. Roberts, B. A. Cole and R. H. W. Barnett,
'Engineering Geology of Scotts Peak Dam and
Adjacent Reservoir Watertightness', [.E. Aust.,
Conference' Papers, 1975.
37. 'Dams in Yugoslavia', Prepared for 11th [COLD
Congress, Madrid, 1973, by Yugoslav National
Committee.
38. G. Ie Bel, 'Mur- diaphragme en beton dans la
foundation du barrage de Keban', 10th [COLD
Congress, Montreal, 1970, Discussion on Q.37,
VI, pp. 455-464; (b) T. Essen and S. Seyhun,
'Foundation Problems in Keban Dam and the
Cutoff ,Wall', loc cit., Q.37, R.43, 11, pp.
811-826.
3'9. A. K. B. Lyman, 'Compaction of Cohesionless
Foundation Soils by Explosives', Tram. A.S.C.E.,
107, 1942, pp. 1330-1348.
40. C. E. Hall, 'Compacting a Dam Foundation by
Blasting', Journal of Soil Mechanics & Foun­
dations Division, Paper No. 3160, Proc. A.S.C.E.,
S8, No. SM3, June 1962, pp. 33-51 with discus­
sions in SM5, SNi6 (1962) and SM4 (1963).
41. P. F. F. Lancaster-Jones, 'Some Aspects of Dam
Cementation Practice', Water Power, May 1964,
pp. 226-231.
Bibliography
8th [COLD Congress, Edinburgh 1964, Question 28,
1, 'Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rock
in-situ-Means of Determining these Properties
and Improving them with Special Reference to the
Design and Construction of Large Dams'.
'In-situ Investigations in Soils and Rocks', British
Geomechanical Society 1970, Proc. of Conference,
London, 13/15 May 1969.
F. Mooser, 'A Case of Exceptional Permeability at El
Bosque Dam, Mexico', 8th [COLD Congress, Edin­
burgh, 1964, Q.28, R.48, 1, pp. 891-901.
J. L. Seraflll1 et al., 'Aspects of the Percolation of
Water under Concrete Dams and the Deformation
of Rock Foundations', 91h [COLD Congress,
Istanbul, 1967, Communication C7, V, pp.
381-406.
r1 j
1j
42. J. L. Serafim, 'The Behaviour of Arch Dams and
their Foundations', 8th [COLD Congress, Edin­
burgh, 1964, Discussion On Q.29, V; and Water
Power, April 1964, p. 199.
43. J. K. Hill, 'Foundation Grouting and Joint Per­
meability at Bendara Dam' (Australia), Water ; I
; 1
Power, Nov., Dec. 1966, Jan. 1967.
44. A. W. Simmonds, F. H. Lippold and R. E. Keim,
'Treatment of Foundations for Large Dams by
Grouting', Trans. A.S.C.E., 116, 1951, pp.
548-572.
45. G. M. Binnie et aI., 'The Dokan Project: The
Flood Disposal Works and the Grouted Cutoff
Curtain', Proc. I.C.E., 14, Oct. 1959, pp. '1
157-181, with discussions, 17, Sept. 1960, p.79.
46. C. F. Grundy, 'The Treatment by Grouting of
Permeable Foundations for Dams', 51h [COLD
Congress, Paris, 1955, Q16, R.66.
r1
47. Q. Zaruba, 7th [COLD Congress, Rome, 1961,
Discussion on Q.25, 11, pp. 41-45.
48. R. Marchand et aI., 'The End of a Dam Founded
II
,"J
on Alluvium: the Left Bank Wing of Mont Cenis
Dam' (in French), 10th [COLD Congress,
Montreal, 1970, Q.37, R.3, 11, pp. 47-68.
49. N. G. K. Murti et aI., 'Construction and
Behaviour of the Grout Curtain in the Alluvial
Foundations of Girna Earth Dam (India)', 10th
[COLD Congress, Montreal, 1970, Q.37, R.56,
11, pp. 1075-1100.
50. B. Gilg, 'The Grouting Curtain at Mattmark
• 1
Dam', 10th [COLD Congr.", Montreal, 1970,
Q.37, R.I0, 11, 171-190.
51. DL. R. Gebhart, 'Experimental Cationic Asphalt
U
Emulsion Grouting', Journal of Soil Mechanics
and Fundations Division, Paper No. 9172, Prot.
q, ,
A.S.C.E., 98, No. SM9, Sept. 1972, pp. 859-868. d
52. F. Anik and M. Hamon, Discussion on Question
37, 10th [COLD Congress, Montrest, 1970, VI,
pp. 503-505.
H. w. Koenig and K. H. Heitfeld, 8th [COLD
Congress, Edinburgh, 1964, 'Permeability and
Grouting of Rock Foundations' (in French), Com­
munication C16, V, pp. 581-597.
W. V. Conn, 'Inspection and Observation of
Completed, Dams on Karst Foundations', 10th
[COLD Congress, Montreal, 1970, Q.29, R.90, 11,
pp. 663-678.
K. Terzaghi and Y. Lacroix, 'Mission Dam',
Geolechnique, London, XIV, No.1, March 1964, pp.
14-50.
10lh [COLD Congress, Montreal, 1970, Q.37: 'Recent
Developments in the Design and Construction of
Dams and Reservoirs on Deep Alluvial, Karstic or
Other Unfavourable Formations' (60 Papers).
G. Millet and A. Alvarez, 'How the Karstic Mass at
n
J

'1!
Canelles is made Impervious', Revist. de Obras
Public.., presented to 11 th ICOLD Congress,
Madrid, 1973.
10th ICOLD Congress, Montreal, 1970, Report on
Turkish National Committee (Oymapinar Arch
Dam) General Paper 4, IV, pp. 709-712.
V. Selcen, 'Karstic Studies for Oymapinar Dam', 10th
ICOLD Congress, Montreal, 1970, Q.37, R.42, 11,
pp. 793-809.
M. Barroso, 'Cement Grouts and their Influence on
the Shear Strength of Fissured Rock Masses', 2nd
Congress International Society Rock Mechanics,
·1, Belgrade, 1970 (L.N.E.C., Lisbon, 1970, Memo.
i 364).
S. M. Munday and A. C. Houlsby, 'Grouting ofFoun­
dations for Dams', ANCOLD Bulletin No. 23, June
1967, with discussion No. 25, Feb. 1968.
E. D. Graf, 'Compaction Grouting Technique and
Observations' Proc. AS.C.E., 95,·SM5, Sept. 1969,
pp. 1151-1158. . Rome, 1961, Q.25, R.114.
E. Nonweiller and M. Habekovic, 'Properties of
Clay-Cement Suspensions for Grouting', 7th
ICOLD Congress, Rome, 1961, Q.25, R.86, 11, pp.
593-606.
'Report on Chemical Grouting', Journal SoU
Mechanics and Foundations Division, Paper 1426,
Proc. A.S.C.E., 83, Nov. 1957.
M. C. Behre, 'Chemical Grout Stops Water', A.S.C.E.
Civil Engineering, Sept. 1962.
,
'1
. I
.. !
209
T .. Svinson, 'Polyurethane Foamed Plastic, in
Grouting', Journal Soil Mechanics and Foun­
dations Division, Paper 8947, Proc. A.S.C.E., 98,
No. SM6, June 1972, pp. 579-602.
E. Ischy and R. Glossop, 'An Introduction to Alluvial
Grouting', Proc. I.C.E., 21, Jan.-April, 1962, pp.
449-474.
'Bibliography on Chemical Grouting', Report on
Third Progress Committee on Grouting,
Journal, Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division,
Paper 4969, Proc. A.S.C.E., 92, No. SM6, Nov.
1966, pp. 39-67.
Ministry of Japanese Government, 'Foundation
Treatment at Kawamata Dam', 8th ICOLD
Congress, Edinburgh, 1964, Q.28, R.I0, 1, pp.
187-207.
G. Candiani, 'System of Shafts and Deep Galleries for
!:
the Construction of the Impervious Cut off for
Pian Palu Dam' (in French), 7th ICOLD Congress,
T. Yahiro et al., 'The Development and Application of
! .:
a Japanese Grouting System', Water Power and
Dam Construction, Feb. 1975, pp. 56-5.9.
R. G. H. Boyes, Structural and Cut-off Diaphragm
Wails, Andrews and Boyes Ltd., Alton, England.
A. Gallico, 'A Contribution to the Design of Foun­
dation Systems for Arch Dams', Water Power, Oct.
1974, pp. 323-329.
I, •
I .
I'
Ii
)£I,.
 r
CHAPTER 9
Concrete
Although Portland cement concrete has been
used for many years, it is still a material about
which the practising Engineer knows little. For
design purposes he assumes that it is isotropic,
homogeneous, time independent and linearly
elastic. None of these is true.,
Whilst most structural materials may be
heterogeneous in microstructure, concrete is so
at macroscopic level; it is anything but
homogeneous and its properties vary with age,
with curing conditions and with rate of loading.
The Engin~r aims to produce a material that
is sound, durable, impermeable and of adequate
strength, but he is faced with the problems of
cement chemistry, particle shape, heat of
hydration, diffusivity, thermal conductivity,
segfegation and the possibiliJ;y of chemical in­
teraction between cement and aggregate.
The progress and cost of a dam will depend, to
a great extent, on the quality of concrete;
regardless of its other properties it must be
placeable, requiring only reasonable energy input
for its proper compaction. Consolidation of harsh
concrete is soul-destroying for the workmen and
as a resnlt progress will suffer and costs will soar.
Harsh concrete will often result in pockets of
'honeycomb', and this can be serious adjacent to
built-in parts such as the water seal in a contrac­
tion joint, Fig. 9.0l.
What will be required of and for the concrete
in a particular dam should be envisaged in the in­
vestigation stage of the project. It is useless for
the design Engineer to issue an elaborate
specification if the construction Engineer is
restricted to unsuitable aggregate and possibly
obliged to use plant that will not produce par­
ticles of good shape from the materials available.
The interaction of a particular cement with
the additives and aggregates that will be used is
complex. No two cements, or even rocks of the
210
i
same name, will necessarily possess similar
properties. It is essential, therefore, that
thorough investigations be undertaken and that
trial mixes be made and tested before construc­
tion starts. These mixes should be made of the
selected materials, processed and mixed in the
same manner and in the same plant that will be
employed for the job. This chapter has been
prepared solely as an introduction to the subject
of concrete; it should, however, be sufficient to
'~I
warn Engineers that concrete is in fact a poor I
building material. It is axiomatic that good con­ . I
crete will mean a good darn; the onus therefore
rests upon the Engineer to realize the necessity I
for a thorough study of the materials available, !
in order that he may foresee how they will
behave when mixed and placed as concrete in the
darn. .1
9.1 Basic Requirements
J
Concrete for a dam should have density,
durability and impermeability commensurate
with conditions and requirements at the par­
ticular site. Its compressive strength will depend
upon the cement content in the mix and the
water-cement ratio, whilst its tensile strength
should be approximately one-tenth of the com­
pressive strength.
Since minimum differential volume change is
desirable, detailed attention should be given to
the thermal properties of the aggregates.
The freshly mixed concrete should be
workable so that it can be compacted with
reasonable effort. The means of transporting
concrete to the dam should be designed to avoid
undue segregation.
Fig. 9.01 Honeycomb concrete--Adjacent to. water f, '
seal ~ J
,1
LJ
n
tel
I 1

'I
I

I
I

~
*'" ; = .A ,•. , e tt).

212
Attention must therefore be given to the
following items, many of which are covered by
National Standard Specifications.
The source and type of cement with emphasis On
tergrinding a properly proportioned mixture of
uniformity of quality throughout the job;
argillaceous (containing alumina and silica) and
The type and source of fine aggregate, whether
calcareous (containing lime) materials and burn­
crushed rock or natural sand;
The type and source of coarse aggregate-­
crushed rock or gravel;
The mineralogy of the aggregate in order to
avoid alkali aggregate reaction;
The suitability of plant to produce aggregate of
good shape and uniform quality throughout
the period of construction;
Regular sampling and testing of concrete to
verify uniformity of product;
Adequate' site storage of all materials in order to
avoid' delays consequent to breakdown in
deliveries to the site, together with bin storage
to cover breakdown of conveying plant on site;
Proper "selection and accurate control of
admixtures, including regular inspection and
testing of all automatic dispensers;
Proper facilities for mixing, handling and
compaction of concrete;
Interest and' keenness of all personnel­
Engineers, supervisors, inspectors, and
workmen.
9.2' Constituents
9.21 Cement
Great care should be exercised in the selection
of cement for a dam. It should preferably have a
low heat of hydration. Since this usually means a
slow rate of growth of early strength, the typc of
cement can easily become a governing factor in
the construction schedule. A cost-quality-time
balance must therefore be established; the selec­
tion of a more expensive cement might well
result in a cheaper dam.
It is desirable, where possible, to avoid high­
alkali cements in· case there may be chemical
reaction with the aggregates. No selection should
be made until the Engineer is satisfied with the
compatibility of the cement with proposed ad­
ditives and aggregates. Since the desired proper­
ties are usually SPecified for concrete at the age
of 91 days, a period. of 6 months should be
j
available for testing of cement and aggregates
before construction starts.
Portland cement is made by intimately in­
ing at 1400°C to 1500°C. The clinker is cooled,
ground and mixed with gypsum and ground to
the required fineness. An indication of chemical
composition is given in Table 9.01.
Table 9.01. Chemical Composition of Cement
Constituen t Range (per cent)
Lime (CaO) 60-67
Silica (SiO,) 17-25
Alumina (AI,O,) 3-8
..
,~··.1
Iron oxide (Fe,O,) 0.5-6
Magnesia (MgO) 0.1-4
Sulphur trioxide (SO,) 1-3
Soda and/or Potash (Na,O + K,O) 0.5-1.3
The chemical composltlon of Ordinary
Portland Cement and Rapid Hardening Portland
Cements shall, according to the British Stan­ '1
, j
dard, I meet the following requirement:
The lime saturation factor (LSF) shall be
between 1.02 and 0.66 when calculated from the
formula
[(CaO) - 0.7 (SO,»)
2.8 (SiO,) + 1.2 (Al,O,) + 0.65 (Fe,O,) '. J
1
Each symbol in parentheses refers to the percent­
ages by weight of the total cement.
A high lime content generally increases the
setting time but gives a high early strength. Too
little lime will reduce the strength unduly.
Each country will have its own Standards
~.
..
~.
]
for various types of cement, from rapid
hardening-through Ordinary Portland-to
special low-heat cements. The following com­
ments are therefore very general but will indicate
what is important relative to dam construction.
Heat of hydration is of prime concern; 'it can
lead to cracking and may necessitate expensive
cooling systems. Heat is generated during the
hydration of the cement-rapidly in the first few
hours, Fig. 9.02, but continuing over quite long
periods, Fig. 9.03.
There will be a rise in temperature in mass
concrete-depending upon the chemistry of the
cell)ent, the quantity of cement in the mix, the
dime!)sions of the pour, and conditions of ex-
f 1
l
~j
U j
 213

l' 5
;; ~~==-
0­
High eorly strenglh
~
~
4 30
~
0­
-,; 3
~ ,.......-Ordinary

c Portland
2
;; 2
"c'"
> f-

I '"

T
~

I '0

I
.!"

0
a: 0 3 6 9 12 15 1821 24 27
Time ofler mixing (hOurs)

Fig. 9.02 Heat evolution of ce­

ments during the first 24 hours
J" 123
I
7
I
28
Age(days)
90

(After Orchard in Concrete Tech­ Fig. 9.04(A) Typical temperature rises in

. [ nology) concretes with various cements--Cement
10 per cent of concrete by weight (After
Orchard in Concrele Technology)
, I E 120
e
i ~
40r-------------------------,
w
-
0­
~

.•
W -
~ c 218-53 .
.2 '"
0 E
o '"
-c _0
192-66
0 0

'0 150'80
.;;
...
-'"
0
<; 30
j
'"
J: 20 I ! I I I
1 3 7 14 28 90 180 365
Age (day,)

Fig. 9.03 Heat evolution of cements (By per­

mission of U.S. Bureau of Reclamation)

o 2 4 5 6 7
Concrete age (doys 1
posure. The adiabatic temperature· rises of
various cements are indicated in Fig. 9.04(A). Fig. 9.04(B) Adiabatic temperature rise in mass
These will emphasize the order of the concrete, inel uding fly ash (Australian cemen t
and South Australian fly ~sh)
temperature rise likely to occur in mass concrete.
Partial replacement of cement by fly ash will
reduce the temperature rise, Fig. 9.04(B). early strength, Fig. 9.06, and more rapid genera­
Strength. The rate of increase in compressive tion of heat. As determined by 'the Blairie
strength with age will depend upon the type of method, the specific surface area of cements

II

i
cement. At age 7 days a concrete made with low­
heat cement may only have half the strength of a
concrete made with the same quantity of Or­
dinary Portland Cement. At 28 days the propor­
tionmay be about two-thirds whilst at 90 days
their strengths will be comparable, Fig. 9.05.
Fineness. High fineness increases the rate at
which cement hydrates and results in greater
varies between 260 m2/kg and 500 m'/kg. Using
cements having values below 280 may result in
poor workability and excessive bleeding· (water
gain at the top of concrete due to settlement of
solids prior to initial set).
SupersulphateCement. This is comparatively
new and is composed of 8(}-85 per cent of blast
furnace slag, 10 to 15 per cent of calcium sul­
214

8or--------------------, between 4 and 7 hours. Its heat of hydration is

low-about 38 calories per gram at 7 days and
42 calories per gram at 28 days, and it exhibits
high resistance to chemical attack. For these : j
reasons it may find application in certain dams · ,.
·

despite its higher cost.

OL-~3~~7-·------~2~8---------=90
Age (days)
Fig.· 9.05 Typical strength-age relation­
ship.for different cements-Cement 11 per
cent of concrete by weight
Consistency. Some years ago it was common
practice to buy cement from several manufac­
turers and blend the various supplies. It is far
better to determine a reliable source of cement
and negotiate with that supplier for a consistent
product.
Unfortunately the best market for cement is in
the continuing demand for ready-mix concrete
and the properties of cement suitable for such
concrete are not usually suitable for dams.
Variability in the quality of the cement can be of
grave concern in a highly stressed dam--regular
site testing of cement is therefore mandatory if
uniform concrete is required. ',.'] .
·

1 year
; 1
9.22 Add"tives
40
90 days LJ
Various additives are used to modify the
properties of concrete, and are usually defined in
a0.. National Standards. Possibly of principal interest
::!. is the stiffening or setting time. This can be
30
'"0.c affected by:
~

'"
~ The chemistry and fineness of the cement;

."e
>
~
20
The temperature of the placed concrete;

Ambient conditions of temperature, humidity

~
E
0 and wind;
u
The cement content in the concrete;
10 The water content of the mix, especially any
bleeding characteristics;
Method of curing;
The types of additives incorporated.
o.~~--~~~~~~~~~
2.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 Site conditions or special construction re­
Specific surface (m 2 /kg x I02) quirements may necessitate the addition of an
Fig. 9.06 Typical relation.hips between com­ agent to either retard or accelerate the setting
pressive strength and specific surface area of time or 'vibration limit'.2
cement Accelerators can perform either or both of two
functions, viz., to speed up the setting of the f].
phate plus up to 5 per cent of Portland Cement.
Its sulphur trioxide content should not exceed 5
cement paste "or to accelerate strength .­
~ :
,
development. Any increase in the rate of hydra­
per cent; it is fmer. than ordinary Portland tion will mean increased heat in the dam-this
Cements having a specific surface area between may induce cracking or necessitate special
350 m2/kg and 500 m2/kg. It is said to be immune precautions" for cooling the concrete. Calcium
from false set, with an initial setting time chloride" is possibly the most widely" used
between 2+
and 4 hours and final setting time accelerator; in general not more than 1 per cent

[1'

La ,

of the cement weight should be used in dams.
The use of 2 per cent could reduce the setting
time of normal Portland Cement concrete by
two-thirds with unacceptably high rates of heat
evolution. It would also decrease resistance to
sulphate attack.
The main use for calcium chloride is to permit
working to schedule in cold weather, but con­
tinuous supervision is necessary since at most
sites there can be hot days during the cold
season. When used, calcium chloride should be
added to and mixed well with the mixing water.
Calcium chloride should not be regarded as an
anti-freeze mixture, although some work has
been done in U.S.S.R. using 18 per cent calcium
chloride plus 5 per cent sodium chloride to per­
· :1 mit working in ambient temperatures of minus
i
! 23°C.
Other chemical accelerators are available but
they are selective in their reaction with different
cements. Before adopting any of these, careful
tests should be undertaken.
Retarders. Calcium sulphate in the form of
gypsum is normally interground with clinker
during the manufacture of cement in order to
control the setting time. Organic matter such as
sugars, starches, as well as cellulose and iron
chlorides, also have a retarding effect. One-fifth
of 1 per cent of sugar can retard the set by 72
hours. Special chemicals are available such as
lignosulphonic acids and their salts that act both
as water-reducing and set-retarding agents,
whilst hydroxyllited carboxylic acids and their
salts can, with various derivatives, act as water­
reducing agents with varying degrees of retar­
dation.
The lignosulphonates can extend the setting
time between 30 and 60 per cent at normal
temperatures-at the same time reducing the
water requirement by 5. per cent ormore with
consequent increase in the strength of the con­
crete.
_J
The hydroxylated carboxylic acids usually
cause less retardation and reduce the water re­
quirement by 3 to 5 per cent. They sometimes in­
crease bleeding and lower the 24 hour
strength-but increase the 3 day strength.
The action of the above retarding agents is
very sensitive to mixing proCedure, i.e. undue
delay in adding the agent after the water has
been added to the mix canlead to variation in the
'4!'i.N"" ;_, 'eaw...,
215
retarding effect. The best procedure should be
determined by test and adher\!d to rigidly.
Waterproofing. Many products are available
that claim to waterproof concrete. Well-propor­
tioned concrete of low water-cement ratio, with
good sound aggregate, should provide the im~
permeability required in a dam. To decrease slIr­
face absorption special chemicals may be used,
either to fill the pores in the concrete or to act as
water repellants.
Expansive Action. The addition of findy
ground aluminium powder will counteract
shrinkage. It must be carefully controlled since it
involves the evolution of hydrogen. Normally
only very small quantities are used, i.e. from
0.0035 to 0.005 per cent of the weight of the
cement. This minute quantity can only ,be
i
properly dispersed by ftrst ble!lding say 1 part of I.. ,
I
aluminium powder with 50 parts of~ement, this
mixture then being added to the concrete to
provide the correct proportion.
Expansive Cements. Considerable ,research has i:
been done to produce such a cement. It is
available in U.S.A. as cement Type K and' Type
S, primarily to produce a shrinkage compensated
concrete. Creep of concrete made with expansive
cement is about the same as that made with nor­
mal Portland Cement and hence may be several
times the drying shrinkage. Some expansive
cements contain excessive sulphur trioxide and
are therefore not capable of resisting action by
sea water or sulphates. Particular care is
therefore necessary in the selection of aggregates
that are free of sulphates.
The expansion of concrete will not be as great
as the expansion of the neat expansive cement
paste/ Table 9.02.
Table 9.02. Expansion of Concrete Made with
Expansive Cement ,
Mix proportions kg of expansive Relative
cement per m' of concrete expansion
Neat expansive cement
250
1
0.1
l
I
400 0.2 I
600 0.45
800 ,0.70
1000 0.9
Entrained Air. ' This will improve the
workability of concrete and its resistance to frost
action; it win decrease segregation~nd bleeding,
216

The chief air-entraining agents are natural wood 16,-----------..,

resins and their soaps, animal and vegetable fats
and oils and alkali salts of sulphonated or sul­ 14 Concrete with
phated organic compounds. Their main function 19 mm moxin"II.1ffi
oggregate
is to ,reduce surface tension. Air entrapped un­
12
intentionally in concrete may form continuous
channels that increase permeability, but voids in­
trodueed by deliberate air entrainment are dis­ ~ 10
U
continuous and on an average are' less than ~

0':Q5 mm diameter. Some air is lost during com­

,.,

paction but air-entraining agents are usually "'

B
:;; "1
' '
': j:
proportioned to introduce 3 or 4 per cent of air. ~ No added
; j :

6
The strength' of concrete decreases rapidly
with increase in air voids for the same water­
cement ratio, Fig., 9.07. However, for the same
workability the decrease is less and an allowance
of 10 per cent is often made for 4 per cent
entrained air. Extreme care is necessary to ensure
the 'correct <;>peration of automatic additive dis­
pensers. 05 0,6 Q] 0.8 0.9
'"l:

:
,

i
Water: Cement ratio
100.---~------.,
Fig. 9.08 Durability-The effects of
water..:..cement ratio and air entrainment
(By permission of U.S. Bureau of Recla­
mation-Concrete Manual 228-D-1521)
when finely divided will react, in the presence of
moisture, with lime to form compounds with
cementitious properties. Natural pozzolans in­
clude diatomaceous earth, volcanic tuffs, fl i
pumicite and calcined clays and shales (usually ..: ~~i ,

ground to a fineness about 800 m'/kg as deter­

20
o 10 20
Percentage {air l
Fig. 9.07 ' Effect of air voids on com­
preSSlve strength-Constant water­
cement ratio
An indication' of the improvement in
durability with entrainment of air is given in Fig.
9.08. With 4 per, cent entrained air and the low
water'-Cement ratio used in dam~e durability
of conCrete can be improyed "t11reefold.
Pozzo/an. This is a siliceous material that
possesses no inherent cementing properties, but
f1
mined by the Blaine method). Artificial materials , l,
inclUde ground furnace slag and fly ash, U
Although more commonly used in recent years,
pozzolans were used 50 years ago, i.e. pumicite at [1'
the Big Dalton Multiple-arch Dam, U.S.A. Ljl,
The Ministry of Works, New Zealand, has un­
dertaken many projects using natural pozzolans n:
i.j' '
to replace portion of the cement. Typical curves <,
of strength gain for relatively rich mixes are
shown in Fig. 9.09(A). A comparison of various
pozzolans was made in New Zealand' with the
following conclusions:
'The diatomites are more active than the pumicites
at early stages.
Fineness affects the water requirements, and
with diatomites the point at which maximum bulk
density is attained appears to correspond with op­
timum fineness at which water requirement is a
minimum.
The higher activity of the diatomites is evidenced
by considerable strength gain at eady ages.

70,------- - - - - - - - ,
C" 372, P"41 C+P = 413
60 C:p '" 0.43
P
c+p '" 0.10
C Cement, kg/m)
p", PonOio-n, kg/m~
\OiotQrnilel
"~
""
90 120 150 180 210240 270300 330
Age (day.)
Fig.9.09(A) Effects of Diatomite (Preement (C)
proportions on eompressive strength (By permis­
sion of New Zealand Ministry of Works)
Physical properties of pozzolanic concrete-such
as tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and
'1 resistance to abrasion-increase at a similar rate to
the compressive strength.
Drying shrinkage was increased by the addition
of pozzo!ans but air entrainment. reduced it to
acceptable limits.
Pumicites are more effective in heat reduction
than the diatomites.'
Tests in the 19508 by the Snowy Mountains
Authority, Australia, showed that there was no
significant effect on durability using replacements
up to 15 per cent of diatomaceous earth.
Ply ash is a by-product from pulverized black
coal-fired power stations. Depending upon the
fuel and the combustion processes there can be
great variability in the quality, especially its
.. 1
fineness and carbon content. This latter can
seriously affect the strength of the concrete, i.e.
in the range 4 to 8 per cent, an increase in the
i possibly related to lack of knowledge of long­
i carbon content of 1 per cent can cause a decrease
.i
of 2 MPa in the compressive strength at 28 days. S
A decrease in the fineness,' measured by the
1 Blaine method, of 100 m 2/kg can necessitate an
.J increase in the cement content of 5 per cent for
ashes of equal carbon content. The fly ash acts as
i a sand lubricant and as a separator of the cement
j particles; the latter property pertnits the same
quantity of cement' to hydrate at a lower
water--cement ratio. The ability of fly ash to
withhold water from the ~ement depends to a
,:'2.,..'·.,.··"'·-___1'_
(
I
217
large extent upon its fineness.'. The fly ash .also
contributes to improvement in workability by the
increased volume of paste and to strength by poz­
zolanic action.
It is, however, impossible to generalise--each
product must be tested thoroughly before adop­
tion, especially in countries where there is no
Standard for fly ash as an additive to concrete.
The fly ash can be added at the mixers asa dry
powder or as a slurry, or it can be interground
with cement at the cement works.
Success has been achieved with slurries· in
Japan;8 it is claimed that the mixing is more
unifonn and that there is less bleeding from the
concrete. On the other hand it is impracticable to .
use a slurry if the moisture content of the fine
aggregate exceeds· 10 .per cent. In Australia the
general practice has been to add powdered fly ash
at the mixers. Thorough blending of the cement
and fly ash at the cement works should provide a
unifonn product; in some instances the
chemistry of the cement is then changed to in­
crease the early strength of the mixture.
In many countries fly ash is cheaper than
cement, so any replacement of cement is of direct
financial benefit. However, the advantages to be
gained by the use of fly ash sometimes outweigh
the financial aspect.
In Tasmania-a wholly hydroelectric State--­
it was necessary to import fly ash from
South Australia; its cost at the site of the Gordon
Arch Dam was slightly more than the cost of
Tasmanian cement. However, the two were
highly compatible, resulting in imprOVed
workability with difficult (quartzite) aggregate,
lower temperatures in the concrete, a lower total
I
quantity of cementitious material, and lower I
overall cost. Most work to date has been done by
replacing 20 to 30 per cent of the cement with fly
ash. Reluctance to go beyond this percentage)s
I,.
,i. ~
I
i(
tenn durability of concrete containing higher
i
proportions of fly ash.
Based on 12 years experience of the Tennessee
Valley Authority, Cannon states:?
'freezing and thawing resistance of concretes con­
taining fly. ash is independenlof the fly ash propor-.
tions for e.qual strength and air eontents. If the
I compressive. strength exceeds 10 MP. at 14 days, I
. the concrete should be satisfactory.'
The U.S.B.R. Concrete Manual warns that
' '_ ________.,. .,.,",____=".,...". "''''.:c', :'\"
! '.!.! i
218

replacement of more than 15 per cent of tbe 50r------------------------,

cement with fly asb may reduce permeability.
With, say, 25 per cent replacement the early
compressive strength is lower, but it is usual for
40
the long-term strength to be a little higher-the
strengths should be equal at ages between 3 and
6 months, Fig. 9.09(B).

C '" Cement. kg 1m 3
F 1:1 Fly (Ish. "91m 3

40

10
C;:c206. F"'O, is• :0.55

0'---!;--+--,;;;--;7--;!;--;!;---;'~:::__;'.(1V. A)
a 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16
' Tenslle strength (spUt cylinder)
Rotlo - -per cent
Compressive strength

Fig. 9.10 The relationship of indirect tensile

C=95, F"33. C+F:::128 (splitting) strengrh to compressive strengrh
C~f ~ 0.26. C~f '" 0.84

! I I 4r-----------------------~
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
(U.S. Corp'S
Age (deys) of Engineers 1
3
Fig.' 9.09(B) Ellects of Fly ash (!,)-Cement (C)
•
n.
3
proPortions on compressive strengrh-lSO mm M.S.A. ~

;;,
"
~ 2

In its studies of fly ash the Tennessee Valley .~ .•

Authority reported'" that the split cylinder ten­ {!!.

sile strengths ofconcrete containing fly ash were

generally more than 10 per cent of the com­
pressive strengths, the percentage increasing oL---~~--~----~--_r~--~
with decreasing compressive strength, Fig. 9.10. 10 20 30 Ipj 40 50
Compressive sfrength {M.i 1
The fact that the range of the results also in­
creased at low strengths was largely attributed to 1 Cement + Fly ash = 300 kglm'
the aggregate size and quantity. A similar trend
in the direct tensile strength was reported from Fly ash
=: 25 pel" cent
Japan8 for concrete both with. and without fly Cemen.t + Fly ash
ash, Fig. 9.11.
Tests made in Tasmania indicate indirect ten­ 2 Cement =300 kg/m'; Fly ash =0
sile (splitting) strengtb as high· as 14 per cent of
A at 7 days; Sat 14 days
the; compressive strength at early ages with 20
and 25 per cent replacement of cement by fly Cat 28 days; D at 3-12 months
ash. Research was extended up to 80 per cent
Fig. 9.11 An example of the relationship between
replacement of cement in mixes based on tensile and compressive strengrhs with and without
nominal cement contents of 255,238 and 220 kg fly ash (After Kokubu')
,I

219

50r-------------------, Table 9.03. Low-cement Concrete Proposed for a

50 m High Gravity Dam (M;S.A. 150 mm)
Quantities (kg/ro3)
Gordan Dom
Tq.rget 35.6 MPo
Constituents Interior Exterior
of 91 (joys
Portland cement-C Type II 93 121
Oesign 31 MPa
at 91days
Flyash-F 72 ,52
Fine aggregate 540 540
Coarse aggregate 1940 1940
Water--W 107 107
(C + F) 165 173
FIC + F ,0.44 0.30
W/C+F 0.65 0.62
10-

i L"
010203040
F
Fly ash reptocemCl'lt ' C +F . per e601
When the quantity of fly ash exceeds the quan­
tity of cement, the early strengths are very low,
Fig. 9.13. This may indicate poor durability and
possibly some difficulty in the stripping of
formwork. However, such mixes are being I ex­
1 to 4 ~ement + Fly ash = 255 kg/m 3

50r---------------~--------~
w {HEe,
= 0.475
C+F

5 Cement + Fly ash = 238 kg/m

3
40

6 Cement + Fly ash = 220 kglm 3

Fig. 9.12 Effects of fly ash on compressive strength

--Tasmanian cement and South Australian fly ash

I of cement per cubic metre of concrete, Fig. 9.12.

For ages greater than 28 days, the maximum
compressive strength results from the replace­
ment of 35 to 40 per cent of the cement. The
OtnJnlilics k{l/m 3
results indicated that the design strength of
31 MPa at 91 days (or target strength of
35.6 MPa) for the arch dam could be obtained
with approximately 230 kg of cement plus fly ash m~ 0.70, ;F" 0,52,~::: 1.<13
per cubic metre of concrete. This concrete gained .. (T..

25· per cent in strength from 28 to 91 days. It
must, however, be emphasized that these curves
apply only to Tasmanian cement, with South
Australian fly ash and crushed quartzite
aggregate.
The U.S. Corps of Engineers investigated the
use of low-cement concrete for a proposed 50 m
high gravity dam--the concrete to be placed by
cableways.1I For economy a leaner mix was
acceptable for the interior of this dam. The
following were considered to be adequate mixes
to give a factor of 4 between the 1 year strength
of the concrete and the maximum stress likely to
occur.
20 40 60 80 [00 [20 [40 160 180 200
Age{dtJys)
Fig. 9.13 Effects of Fly .sh-Cement p~rtions
on compressive stre!'gth-75 mm M.S.A.
amined mainly for their possible use in thin 'con­
tinuous layers consolidated by tractor mo'unted
vibrators. They may prove adequate for gravity
dams up to, say, 50 to 70 m in height. .
The replacement of part cif the cement by fly
ash can result in "several advantages-better
workability, less 'heat generation, less cemen­
titious material and lower overall cost. However,
220
fly ash is not often subject to dose specification
so its use should not be specified until exhaustive
tests have proved the compatibility of the
available fly ash with tbe cement to be used in
the dam, and that the fly ash is consistent in
quality.
: ... :
9.23 Fine Aggregate
The latest Australian Standard defines Fine
Aggregate as 'aggregate of which not less than 90
per cent passes the 4.75 mmtest sieve'. In the ex­
amination of aggregates the following factors
should be considered:
Petrology-mineralogy, chemistry, surface tex­
ture, coating of particles, and shape of par­
ticles;
Freedom from organic or chemical impurities;
Physical and chemical compatibility with the
cement;
Thermal properties;
Strength in impact and abrasion, to minimize the
fracture of particles during handling;
Resistance to weathering;
Grading and uniformity of product;
Quantity available and cost.
The two main sources of fine aggregate are
natural deposits of sand and crushed rock; the
former will usually only require washing and
screening, the latter involves quarrying, crushing
and screening. In either case classification and
remixing may be necessary. Although the
rounded shape of natural sands is advantageous
for workability, the irregularity and surface tex­
ture of crushed rock particles will usually ensure
better bond and probably better shear strength in
the concrete.
The particle shape in crushed sands will de­
pend upon the type of rock, the type of crushers,
and how the crushers are operated. Long
splintery particles-particularly in the coarse
sand fraction-will result in a harsh mix. Extra
cement may be required to combat this, with the
inherent disadvantages of higher cost, greater
heat generation and the likelihood of cracking
of the concrete. The alternative of adding more
water would lower the strength and result in a
less dense, more permeable concrete. Natural
sands are attractive but they must be examined for
soundness since their original source is probably Fig. 9.14 Fine aggregate-shape analysis-Dolerite
unknown. The process of washing may (Diabase) rock
necessitate the building of sedimentation tanks
and treatment of effluent if river poUution is to
be avoided.
Crushed rock can usually be produced under
close control, but the choice of crusher will have
a marked effect on particle shape. A short head
cone crusher, choke fed, will produce a far
superior sand from crushed dolerite than will a
standard cone crusher, Fig. 9.14. In samples of
the same weight the gyratory crusher produced
2.5 times the number of particles in these sizes.
.Some quartzites will break into elongated par­
ticles in any form of gyratory crusher; the centre
discharge rod mill will usually be more
appropriate. For some rocks, rolls and hammer
mills are suitable but in each case maintenance is
high. It is therefore essential to arrange for trial
crushings of the rock that will be used. These
i1
...
should be done in various types of crusher. An
apparent low cost of production should not be
the deciding factor-great savings can ac­
cumulate through the whole construction period
if good placeable concrete is produced.
To avoid variations in concrete quality, the
sand should contain not more than 6 per cent
water~ee Chapter 17. This may necessitate
duplicate stockpiles to allow adequate time for
drainage and/or the covering of the sand
stockpile in wet climates. For best results the bot­
tom 1 m of a stockpile should not be used.
There are differences of opinion on the
desirable quantity of very fine particles in con­
crete. In Sweden it is usual for 1 per cent of the
fine aggregate to be below 0.02 mm and between
2 and 8 per cent below 0.08 mm. Norwegian
practice is to accept between 6 and 12 per cent
passing the 0.15 mm sieve.
The latest Australian Standard states
'For coarse aggregate and natural fine aggregate
the quantity of material fmer tban 15 micrometre,
determined as described in Section 12 of AS 1141,
shall not exceed 2 per cent and 5 per cent respec­
tively. In tbe case of crushed fine aggregate, up to
10 per cent material finer tban 15 micrometre may
be allowed ... providing tbe total percentage of
such material in tbe total coane and fmc aggregste
does not exceed 5 per cent.'
The water requirement will vary directly with
, ,,
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TRA YLOIl tJYNATOIlY CRUSHER­

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SYMONS SHORT HEAD CONE CRUSHER

FINE AGGREGATE SHAPE ANALYSIS

9.14

222
the quantity of fine material and excess water
will adversely affect the strength. The most im­
portant factor is that the fine particles are of
sound rock-not clay or other deleterious im­
purities.
Bulking of Fine Aggregate. There is little
difference in the volume of the same weight of
dry or saturated fme aggregate. However, in
practice the moisture content of the sand
stockpile will be between 4 and 8 per cent. For
fine sands bulking will occur, as high as 30 per
cent for moisture contents 6 to 10 per cent. For
coarse sand the maximum bulking is less­
maybe 20 to 25 per cent, at moistUre contents
from 3 to 6 per cent. This is not relevant
where the normal weight batching is used, but
cognizimce must be taken should it be necessary,
for local reasons, to use volumetric measu(e­
"ments for mix proportioning at a particular
site.
9.24 Coarse Aggregate
Defined by the latest Australian Standards as
'aggregate of which not less than 90 per cent is
retained on the 4.75 nun test sieve'.
There is some indecision as to the relative
merits of crushed rock and natural gravels for
the coarse aggregate in concrete. The choice is
therefore often based on cost of production,
whereas greater attention to the quality of the
concrete might well result in a better dam at aggregate was to include a limit for flaky and
lower total cost.
Gravel is attractive since it usually gives a
more workable mix; however, gravels often carry
a coating of weathering that is not removed in the material passing the various thickness gauges
the processing and can have an adverse effect on
bond. On the other hand, some stone, such as of the sample tested (A), i.e.
quartzite, accumulates a coating of fine dust that
is very hard to remove. Since the gravels have
been transported by water, and their source is
rarely known, they must be carefully examined The thickness gauge was 0.6 times the mean of
for soundness and possible chemical activity with
the cement.
By close attention to all phases of produc­ Fig. 9.15 (A-Excess elongated particles), (B), (C)
tion-fragmentation in the quarry and selection
Crushed dolerite
.and operation of crushers and screens-it is
usually possible to produce crushed aggregate of
Fig. 9.16 Comparison of aggregate---I 50 mm cores.
good shape and grading, Fig. 9.15 (A), (B), (C).
M.S.A. 75 mm
Cores, 150 mm diameter, in Fig. 9.16, show
crushed quartzite aggregate of nominal size Fig. 9.17 Crushed quartz passing square openings
,,,, ,,l
75 nun and natural gravel of maximum size
;
100 mm. The former exhibits good bond but :.J
poor particle shape, one fractured large particle
and chemical staining (weathering) of other
pieces. In the latter, three pieces of gravel have
torn out due to inadequate bond.
l
un
Australian Standard AS 1465-1974 now defines
particle shape as in Table 9.04. The test-using
proportional calipers-for quantitative assess­
ment is described in Section 14 of AS1141.
Table 9.04. Particle Shape
Classification Description
Rounded Fully water worn, or, completely
shaped by attrition.
Irregular Naturally irregular, or partly shaped
by attrition and having rounded
edges.
Angular Possessing well-defined edges formed
at the intersection of roughly planar
faces.
Flaky Material of which the thickness is
small relative to the other two
dimensions.
Elongated Material-usually angular-in which
the length is considerably larger
than the other two dimensions.
Flaky and Material having the length consider­
elongated ably larger than the width aod the
width considerably larger than the
thickness.
The previous procedure in specifying coarse
elongated particles of say 25 per cent of each size
of rock.
The Flakiness Index was the total weight of
(B) expressed as a percentage of the total weight
~ x 100 n
u
(Al Gravel M.S.A. 100 mm; (B) Crushed quartzite
f1
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COARSE AGGREGATE
SHAPE ANALYSIS
PAff r RET. i'

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COARSE AGGREGATE
SHAPE ANALYSIS
PA5] IF RET. r
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401 301 151 /51

COARSE AGGREGATE
SHAPE ANALYSIS
PASJ]" RET. If"

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9.15(C) I
·"~,·,,~.c'ec •..,",. •. ·· ", ~'-~'

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9.17

~_,...~;;;
......-"""""'":"'I'I____
. .!! ,) .V.t os. ",iiJ! """"·_B"'··"'''"l!'_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _IJ_ _•_ _ _ _ _............. .........._ , .

~
226
the sieve sizes, i.e. for 37.5 to 25 mm aggregate
the thickness gauge would be 18.25 mm. A flaky
particle was one having a ratio. of width to
thickness greater than 3.
The Elongation Index was the total weight of
the material retained on the various length
gauges (C) expressed as a percentage of the total
weight of the sample tested (A), i.e.
~ x 100
The length gauge was 1.8 times the mean sieve
size, i.e; for 37.S to 25 mm aggregate, the length
gauge would be 57 mm.
. An elongated particle was defined as one
having a ratio of length to width greater than 3.
The type of screen used can have a marked
effect on the grading. It is difficult to make
uiUformly good concrete if flaky or flaky­
elongated particles can get through the screens.
Such irregular shapes are common in crushed
quartz, Fig. 9.17. The screens--either round
holes in plates, or square or rectangular (inclined)
---should be selected to best suit the fracture
characteristics of the rock to be used.
9;2.5 Maximum Size of Aggregate (M.S.A.)
In Chapter 17 reference is made to the incor­
poration in dam concrete of very large stones
(displacers) up to 10 tonnes placed by cranes and
of hand'1lize stones (plums) up to 15 kg placed by
hand. Although apparently old fashioned, each
procedure has its advantages--especially at sites
where labour-intensive work is required. Many
modern dams in India---such as Koyna
Dam-were built with plum concrete. It must
not be overlooked that such practice reduces the
cement requirement and hence the heat
generated in the dam and could lead to omission
of contraction ioints. On the other hand, the in­
clusion of displacers coUld lead to troubles due to
inequality of elastic modulus and thermal coef­
ficient of the rock displacer and the concrete.
This section is, however, confined to com­
ments on the maximum size of aggregate that
passes through the mixers. Based on the premise
that cement paste shOUld coat each particle of
aggregate, less cement and water will be required
when large aggregate is used. Lowering the
cement content lowers the heat generation and
decreases the likelihood of cracking.
During the past 30 years 150 mm M.S.A. has
been widely accepted-at a few dams aggregate
of M.S.A. 220 mm has been used. There is,
however, a move away from the use of such large
aggegate. Cracks tend to form around large
aggregate due to differential volume change and
voids are common beneath large rocks due to the
accumulation of air and water during vibration.
The operation and maintenance of plant­
crushers, screens, conveyors, and mixers-­
becomes increasingly expensive with very large
aggregate. Since such plant is very specialized .
it must be depreciated more rapidly than
plant that is suitable for say 100 mm M.S.A.
Considerable research was therd'ore done by the
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation ll to arrive at the op­
timum maximum size for aggregate. Fig. 9.18,
400
350
::300
c
~
8
~ 250
~
u
200
150
9 18 38 76 150
Max.lmum size aggregate (mm)
Fig. 9.18 Effect of maximum size of aggregate
and cemem· COIllent on compressive strength
(After Journal A.C.I., April 1970)
from the reference indicates the minimum
cement content to attain a particular strength in.
concrete with aggregate of a certain maximum
size. It will be noted that there is very little
change .in cement content for M.S.A. greater
than 76 mm for 34 MPa concrete as commonly
used in dams. The authors stated:
'While the following conclusions are based on the
result, of the tests performed in this investigation,
it is believed that they may be used as a general
 ~. ·1
: I
i
227

:':
guide in designing concrete mixes for average con­ 9.3 Concrete Mix Design and Grading
ditions.
Many attempts have been made to proportion
1. Regardless of age of concrete or type of materials for maximum density, i.e. mfnimum
aggregate, there are three general relationships
between cement content, M.S.A., and compressive voids. These would include the formulae by
; strength: Fuller and Bolomey and the Fineness Modulus
'. methods.
(A) High strength concretes can be produced with
less cement utilizing smaller M.S.A., (B) Medium The method that has gained wide acceptance is
strength concretes can be produced with a greater that developed at the Road Research
. range of M.S.A. at approximately the same cement Laboratory,13 being based on the water--cement
content, and (C) for low strength concretes a large ratio law generally credited to Abrams. In this
....j M.S.A. is mandatory to achieve optimum cement method the mix is designed for a required com­
economy.
pressive strength. This appears to be rational
2. Concrete containing 168 kg of cement per cubic since most of the desired propenies of concrete,
metre produced the highest compressive strength
with 150 mm M.S.A. at all ages. Similarly 264 kg improve as compressive strength is increased.
concrete reached the highest strength with 75 mm The strength will be directly related to 'the
M.S.A., 336 kg concrete with 38 mm M.S.A. and water--cement ratio; the amount of water for ,an
i 390 kg concrete with 19 mm M.S.A. acceptable workability will depend upon the s.ur~·
3. I~,. general, at the same water--cement ratio, con­ face areas of the constituents, i.e. the larger the
crete with smaUer M.S.A. has greater compressive maximum aggregate size and the coarser the
I! strength than concrete with larger M.S.A., es­ grading the smaller the amount of water. ree
pecially at the lower (0.40 to 0.50) water-<:ement quired. A smooth rounded aggregate reql1ires less
II
I ratios.
water than an irregularly shaped aggregate hav"
4. Larger M.S.A. mixes require less water at any ing a rough surface. The effect of grading on
given cement content. workability is far greater with lean mixes than
5. Each M.S.A. concrete has a cement content with rich mixes. With lean mixes (as appropriate
beyond which the water requirement increases with for dams) the advantage of using large aggregate
the richness of the mix.' is considerable but the risk of segregation is in­
creased.
The question of overall economy by the use of Typical aggregate grading curves for 37.5, 75
very large aggregate (220 mm) has often been and 150 mm maximum size aggregate are shown
queried. At New Bullards Bar Dam, U.S.A., in Fig. 9.19. The optimum grading will, however,
1 where all coarse aggregate was manufactured depend upon the type of Aggregate (gravel or
from quarried amphibolite, the average daily crushed rock), and the particle shape.
I pla.cement rate increased about 10 per cent when
100 mm maximum aggregate was used instead of 100
the 150 mm size. ~ M.S.A 37.5 mm
To assess the overall economy of large •c 80 ••
0

aggregate it would be necessary to evaluate: ~

• 60
~
Clork Dom

-­
E
The cost of production and delivery to the mixer 0
•e 40
house of the whole grading of aggregates • ~/
0. 20
II suitable for different sizes of maximum
.1 aggregate. This would include nett cost of 0.15 0.3 0.6 1.2 2.3 4.75 9.3 18.7 37.5 75 100
plant purchase, maintenance costs, and Sieve opening {mm}
"1 operating costs, making due allowance for Fig. 9.19 Typical aggregate grading curves
! reliability;
The faster placing rate with the smaller
.aggregate if it in fact gives better placeability; It is not necessary to have a continuous
. : The cost of cement (or total cementitious grading in order to obtain a minimum of voids. '1 t
material) for the alternative concretes; is often found that combining four or five
The cost of heat control for concretes of the same aggregates from a crushing plant will,' in fact,
strength in the dam. give a gap grading-as was used at Clark Dam,

(
! !
!
.~'
• I

KhZ
228

Australia, Fig. 9.19. To produce a uniform 9.4 Physical Properties of Concrete

grading with such plant would have necessitated
extra crushing and some waste sizes-hence
9.41 Durability
extra cost. Intentional gap grading has been ad­
vocated for many years. Professor Shu t'ien Li Durability of conCrete is usually determined
has stated 14 by the number of cycles of freezing and thawing
that a standard sample of concrete can survive
'The basic principle of gap grading is to omit the
undesirable intermediate sizes lying between a before it has lost 25 per cent of its original
narrow range of the maximum allowable size of the weight. Concrete that can survive 500 cycles is
coarse aggregate and the largest admissible size of considered to be satisfactory. Many factors affect
the fine aggregate and to delete the extreme fines the durability of concrete-very fmely ground
from conventional continuous gradings. The largest cement will lower the durability, whilst the addi­
admissible size of the fine aggregate should be a
trifle less than the size of the side interstices when tion of entrained air, in the range 2 to 6 per cent,
the coarse aggregate particles are closely com­ will cause marked improvement. There are some
pacted. Any effident grading must achieve strength reports that replacement of more than 15 per
from efficient packing, such that compression loads cent of the cement by certain types of fly ash may
will be mainly transmitted by direct contact adversely affect durability. This will depend
between particles of the coarse aggregate rather
than through the generally weaker mortar, though upon the quality of the fly ash and its com­
tensile and shearing stresses must be transmitted patibility. with the particular cement. In Tasma­
through the latter. nian tests, with 30 to 40 per cent replacement,
Continuous gradings require more cement and concrete failed only after more than 2000 cycles
water and hence exhibit greater shrinkage and of freezing and thawing. The essential re­
creep.
It is in the fines that the moisture content may quirements for durable concrete are maximum I
density and a workable mix that can be well com­ , .1
vary-between 1 and 12 per cent-and a check on
this must be made if any continuous grading is to pacted with teasonable energy input, together I
be used. While the sand content of the combined I
with conscientious field control of mixing, plac­ r
aggregate in continuous grading may be 35 per cent ing and consolidation.
or more, the sand content in gap grading will be 28
to 30 per cent, so an error in the moisture content
for gap graded concrete should be a minimum.
Throughout an extended sedes of 375 mixtures 9.42 Permeability
of comparable gap-graded and continuously graded
concretes the writer and his colleagues have found The life and behaviour of a concrete dam will
that: depend to a great extent upon the impermeability
of the concrete. However, a well-designed and
The unit weight of gap-graded concrete is always well-compacted concrete, even with the cement
several pounds higher (1 kg = 2.2 pounds); content as low as 112 kg/m', can have such a low
The 28 day strength is 20 to. 40 per cent higher;
permeability that equilibrium pore pressure in
The mooulus of elasticity is 15 to 20 per cent
higher; the dam would not occur within the useful life
Creep recovery i. 30 per cent greater; . of the dam. Watertightness improves considerably
Permeability ·of gap-graded concrete was much with proper curing. The permeability of concrete
less than that of uniformly graded concrete.' depends mainly upon the number of continuous'
capillary channels through which water can leak.
These conclusions were drawn from work on In principle, watertight concrete can be obtained
concrete with M.S.A. of 37 mm but the results by ensuring that sufficient cement gel is
are in agreement with those for larger size produced to block any continuous capillaries."
aggregate used by Stewart in U.K." This can be achieved by using a sufficiently low
';U\1
Gap-graded concrete is by nature stiffer and it water-cement ratio and efficient curing--TabJe
therefore exerts less pressure on formwork, 9.05. 1:1
i~ }
which may be stripped earlier; Its usefulness and In practice the permeability of concrete is ofthe ;L~J
economy on a particular dam can only be deter­ order of 5 to 10 x 1O-12m/S, the range being due
mined from exhaustive tests-. of the aggregates to the presence of small fissures and cracks in the'
and processes involved at that site. cement paste and around aggregate particles ..
 ,..,
229

Table 9.05. Curing Time to Block Continuous Capil­ " 1000,------------------,

laries with Cement Gel
Water-cement ratio
"
c
o
800
by weight Curing time
- - " - - --------:--,,-::.~-

II
...

0.40 3 days
0.45 7 days
0.50 14 days
0.60 6 months
I, i 0.70 1 year
! Over 0.70 Infinite
1'1 Wole, content (kg per~ofconcrelel
i I
! Fig. 9.20 Interrelation of shrinkage, cement
9.43 Shrinkage content and water content
I Autogenous shrinkage is the volume change
brought about by the chemical reactions, viz., weeks, 40 to 80 per cent of the 20 year shrinkage
the products of the reactions have higher specific occurs in 3 months and 66 to 85 per cent of the
gravities than the original chemicals; its extent is 20 year shrinkage occu'rs in' 1 'year. The
limited by the fact that the amount of water that shrinkage of concrete will also be related to the
can enter into chemical combination with the type of aggregate (relative compressibility of
cement amounts to only about 25 per cent of the aggregate and extensibility of the mortar), to the
cement weight. This autogenous shrinkage con­ bond betWeen mortar and aggregate, to the
tinues at a decreasing rate so long as hydration degree of cracking in the mortar, and to the con­
continues. traction of aggregate particles due to drying. In
Concrete that has dried in air will expand Table 9.06 Carlson relates shrinkage to specific
when wetted and will contract again to its gravity and absorption of the aggregate."
~: 'Il original volume as the water evaporates. Part of
;1.
drying shrinkage is therefore reversible but part
,. is irreversible. Shrinkage will vary with depth Table 9.06. Effect of Aggregate on Concrete
Shrinkage
from the surface and with ambient conditions of '--~~~~~~~~~~
humidity, temperature and wind. Specific Absorption 1 Year shrinkage
Drying shrinkage is affected by many factors Aggregate gravity (per cent) (per cent)
such as water content, aggregate composition Sandstone 2.47 5.0 0.115
and duration of initial curing. The addition of Slate 2.75 1.3 0.068'
Granite 2.67 0.8 ,0.047
pozzolans often increases drying shrinkage ,i­ Limestone 2.74 0.2 0.041
:!-q cept where the water content has }leen Quartz
"

(
, 'J
2.66 0.3 0.032 .
;.- , appreciably reduced. The drying shrinkage of
hardened concrete is principally due to the dry­
ing and shrinkage of the cement gel that is In Table 9.07 Kordina endeavours to relate
formed by hydration of the' cement-it is shrinkage to the modulus of elasticity of the
therefore related to the cement content of the aggregate.'9 From these it can be concluded
concrete, Fig. 9.20. that the properties of any particular rock are
Shrinkage continues over very long periods. variable, and that it is best to select an aggregate
Troxell reports 17 measurements over a period of of high specific gravity, low absorption and high
28 years. Some part of the movement may have elastic modulus if shrinkage is to be minimized.
been due to carbonation, i.e. carbon dioxide in It must, however, be recognized that a high
the atmosphere reacting, in the presence of modulus of elasticity may lead to undue cracking.
moisture, with hydrated cement minerals to form Trouble has been experienced at many dams
calcium carbonate. This usually increases due to excessive shrinkage of the concrete,
strength but decreases durability. The figures attributed in some cases to the aggregate. 20 Some
given by Troxell for total shrinkage are 14-34 sandstones have extraordinarily high shrinkage
per cent of the 20 year shrinkage occurs in 2 rates-up to ten times normal. The' use of such

.:

j,
230

Table 9.07. Relationships Between Drying Shrinkage Table 9.08. Typical Coefficients of Thermal
and Elastic Modulus Expansion
Elastic Absorption Drying CoeffICient of thermal expansion
Aggregate modulus %by . shrinkage at (per °C x 10-')
type (MPa) volume I year x 10:-'
Concrete of mix
Basalt 94000 3.3 300 proportions
Rounded
Aggregate Air storage Wet storage
quartz 84000 4.7 180
Crushed Aggregate ,
Dry Wet I: 4+ 1 : 7+ 1 : 4t I : 7+
quartz 23000 6.6 330 4.S
Granite 43000 S.S 290
Limestone 4.0"£ 6.1 6.3 S.8
Gravel - 1.1 13.3 12.4 12.2
River gravel Granite S.7S S.4 9.7 9.5 8.S 8.1
mixed 38000 3.2 280 Dolerite 7.7 7.4 10.4 9.2 7.6 7.7
Calcareous Sandstone 10.2 9.9 13.4 11.0 10.2 10.4
sandstone 20000 9:7 1020 Quartzite 11.7 11.0 14.7 12.7 11.7 11.8
Ferrugenous
sandstone 9400 13.6 630

sandstone as aggregate led to serious trouble in

South Mriea. 21 On the other hand, there have 9.45 Creep
been cases where the shrinkage of the eement When concrete is subjected to a constant
paste has been three times that of the sustained load the deformation produced by the
aggregate--with consequent microcracking load will be in two part~lastic deformation
within the mortar. that occurs immediately and disappears upon
removal of the load and creep which develops
9.44 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion gradually. Experiments over 20 years have con­
firmed that creep continues but at a diminishing
This will vary with the type of cement, and the rate,23 Fig. 9.21. Creep under tension is of the
thermal properties of the aggregate, but is same order as creep under compression. Ex­
u~ually within the range periments conducted over very long periods have
9 x 10-6 to 12 x 10-6 per degree C. shown indications that creep is appreciably less
in large specimens. There appears to be little
The average figure usually adopted is 11 x 10-6 difference in creep in concrete made with sharp
per degree C, though a value of as high as 14 X aggregate as opposed to rounded aggregate.· It
10-6 per degree C is reported for opaline quart-· does, however, seem to be related to the type of
zite concrete in Brazil. aggregate, i.e. Troxell et al. quotes the following
For special studies, such as the distribution of comparative values for concrete using as
thermal stresses with a dam, it is necessary to aggregate:"
measure the coefficient of thermal expansion of
the actual concrete used in the dam. For ex­ Limestone 400 X 10-6

ample, for the Gordon Arch Dam, Tasmania, the Quartz 860

coefficient was detennined as Grsnite 960

Gravel 1070

Quartzite. core . 12 )( 10-' Basalt 1250

per degree C, Sandstone 1500

Interfoliated quartzite 10 X 10- 6

When samples of concrete having different
mica-schist per degree C,
strengths at time of application ofIoad were sub­
. pam mortar 12 x 10-'
jected to a stress equal to 30 per cent of the ul­
per degree C,
timate strength, the ultimate creep appeared to
Concrete cored from dam 11.5 to 11.9 x 10-'
. . . p~r degree. C. be within a 10 per cent range, Table 9.09.
Rusch" and others" have dravin attention to the
BonnelP' has furnished some typical values for fact that concrete will fail when subjected to a
other aggregates-Table 9.08. continuing stress much less than the ultiniate
fl
C(
U
11
• • • < ••• <. _ _ <~_~!;L
 231

9.46 Autogenous Healing Z"Z6

150
-II I
This is the precess whereby cencrete heals up

-hr II
~ fine cracks caused by .overstressing. This can
~ lOO 1

e
~_

u
: I
.occur due·· t.o the presence .of incompletely"
hydrated cement; the presence of moisture is
50
-1 ,' - necessary but frequently there will be sufficient
.. moisture within the cencrete itself.
0 10
100 1000 The tensile strength across a' healed fracture
AgBldoysl

will depend upon lecal conditiens. Samples

Fig. 9.21 Creep-time relationship--Relative to broken in tension and clamped t.ogether again
dimension at 28 days immediately and cured in water can regain full
strength. However, any appreciable lapse .of time
between the c.oming together .of the fractured
Table 9.09. Creep of Concrete at Different Strengths pieces will decrease the ultimate strength .of the
Compressive strength at Ultimate creep at a join.
time of application of stress/strength ratio
I i load (MPa) 000 per cent
14 933 x 10-" 9.47 Alkali Aggregate Reaclion
28 1067
. -1
. I 42 1100 The alkali content .of cement depends upon the
,I 50 1067 quantities .of sodium and potassium; the
equivalent alkali (.or s.oda) c.ontent is expressed as
strength indicated by a test at standard loading NazO + 0.658 KzO. If this sum exceeds 0.6 per
rate, Fig. 9.22. This graph alse sh.oWS that under cent the cement is dermed as 'high alkali', and
a very rapidly applied lead c.oncrete can sustain a may react with certain forms of silica present In
l.oad in excess .of the standard failure I.oad. some aggrega~es. The aggregates generally
,
I, suspect include .opal, chalcedony, tridymit.e,
crist.obalite, ze.olite, glassy rhylolites, dacite,
~
andesite and certain phyllites. Any r.ock centain­
-
~

e
~ ing a significant propertien .of reactive sub­
o ~
~
0>
"0100
E
stances will .be deleterieusly reactive. Pure
.f!:;:. limest.ones and dolomites are net n;active but
~-;
~ ~ 50 th.ose that centain opal .or chalced.ony. are•.
fi g Similarly innecu.ous sandst.one, shales,
" c
o .E granites, basalts and ether reeks can be. rea~tive
" c
~ ~ '·0 I __ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 if they are impregnated .or even.coatedwith reac­
US .S' Strains tJnderconstont slress{O'..,ol
tive substances. Zeolites and menttn.orillenite­
i Fig. 9.~ Relationship between creep and ulti­ type clay minerals can augment .the supply .of
mate st~ngth (Mter Rusch) alkalies by cati.on exchange reactiens.
Delerite is usually regarded as very geed
aggregate but it can c.ontain a hannful mineral
When a large mass of concrete is heated by the chl.orephaeite which is expansive, and n.o ade­
hydration of cement it is stressed in compression quate test is available to determine its presence.
and creep will tend te relieve this c.ompression. Alkali aggregate reactien manifests itself by
When the concrete sl.owly ceels a reversal .of less .of strength and as an expansi.on. Outwardly
i
stress occurs leading t.o tensile f.orces which the concrete exhibits typical patterns .of cracking
would n.ot have occurred bu.t fer the. creep. The which may be accompanied by exudati.on .of
creep is greater when the c.oncrete is immature siliceous gel~. Tr.ouble has occurred at many
\
and as the concrete subsequently gains strength dams--Reesevelt, Parker" and Matilija Dams.
the creep to relieve the tensile stresses will not be . At .the latter s.ome movement .of the abutments
, 1
so .great and Cracking may ocCur. . . .occurred and upper porti.ons.ofthedam shewed
":1
1

232

distress. The dam was modified by removal of the coarse aggregate. It is influenced by the ratio of
top 10 mover a width of 90 m. cement to mixing water, the ratio of cement to
In order to prevent internal expansion due to aggregate, the grading, surface texture, shape
alkali aggregate reaction: and strength of aggregate particles, and the max­
imum size of the aggregate. Since all the con­
Avoid using aggregate materials that contain
stituents vary from country to country it is only
soluble silica;
possible to indicate the characteristics of concrete
Restrict the chemical composition of the cement
in a very general manner. At each particular site
,..'so that the sodium and potassium oxide
adequate testing must be done on aU the
(calculated as sodium oxide) does not exceed
materials to be used.
0.6 per cent;
Use in the concrete adequate amounts of finely 9.51 Compress£ve Strength
divided active silica, usually introduced in the
Compressive strength of concrete is directly
form of pozzolan. The same aggregates were
related to the water--cement ratio, Fig. 9.23, and
used at Davis Dam, U.S.A., as at Parker
increases with age of the specimen, Fig. 9.24.
Dam~but at the former some 20 per cent of
the cement was replaced with finely ground
calcined siliceous shale and there was no ao.~----------------------~
trouble from chemical action.
70.
9.~8 Bond
The various properties of concrete are related 60.
to the bond between the mortar ana the
aggregate. 28 Tests in New Zealand indicate that o
0.
the strength of concrete made with crushed :E 50

aggregate is 10 to 20 per cent greater than con­

crete made with gravel aggregate.
Patten 29 has recently investigated this subject
by first soaking the coarse aggregate for 48 hours
in a silicone solution followed by drying at
llOoC until all the solvent was driven off. The
solution filled the pores in and provided a coating
20.
over the coarse aggregate. The results oftests up
to age 6 months indicated a reduction in com­
pressive strength of 25 per cent (range 19 to 29), 10.
a reduction' in tensile strength of 17 per cent
(range 6 to ,28), and a reduction in elastic
modulus of 9 per cent (range 2 to 15). However, 0..5 0..7 0.9 1.1
there appeared to be no effect on shrinkage or Water-cement ratio
creep. Corresponding to the results of work by Fig. 9.23 Typical relationships between compressive
Darwin and Slate'O the, amount of microcracking strengths and water-<:ement ratios
developed iri concretes loaded to the same max­
imum'strain was essentially the same regardltlSs There is also considerable evidence that the com­
of the bond strength. pressive strength continues to increase with time
over quite long periods, Fig. 9.25. It has even
9.S Strength of Concrete been'suggested that dam designers should take
greater cognizance of this long-term increase.H
The compressive strength of concrete depends At this date it is usual to refer to the strength at
upon many factors, including the strength of the' 91 days since it is most unlikely that concrete in
mortar, the bond between the mortar and the dam would come under load in less than that
~
the aggregate, and the strength of the time. Concrete in the lower parts of the dam "J'
~
"

!
 eo 50
I (1"=50MPo
.,I
'-£ = 1950 )(, 10- 6
o·~
,I" • 40
_GO
Q
u= 30 MPo
"­
::;;
(\,
., <." 1950 .Ivs "
.c ::;; 30
I.' ;;
c
b
~w 40: w
w
_(1": 20.S M?a
J'! 20 E ~ 2080 x. i(f6
.~
:.!
w '"
15.
E
0
u 20
10 __+-fT '; 8.7 MPa
~ <"1880.10·

o 1000 2000 3000 .

o t23 .7 28
Age (days)
Fig. 9.24 Typical relationships between com­
pressive strength and age for various water-<:ement
ratios
'1
would be much older but usually it would be
more highly stressed.
Stres:rstrain curves, Fig. 9.26, published by
Smith and Young" have particular relevance to
concrete dams, i.e. regardless of strength of
various concretes they reach the same maximum
strain of about 2 x 10-3, when tested under nor­
mal rate of loading. Mechanical tests normally
have a qualitative control value; they do not
necessarily indicate the actual strength of con­
crete in the dam. They should be made on stan­
dard size specimens that have beeo prepared in a
standard manner. Testing should follow standard
procedures, particularly with regard to the rate
of application of load. Deviation from standard
90 Strain (e l
Fig. 9.26 Stress--strain curves. for. concrete
practice, such as inserting plywood at each end of
a specimen under test, can cause a 'decrease' in
strength by as much as 20 per cent. Very rapid
loading will indicate high strength, whilst under
prolonged loading a specimen may fail at 70 per
cent of its standard strength.
Tesc Specimen Size. Compressive tests are
usually made on cylinders of concrete 150 mm
diameter and 300 mm long. If the ratio of length
to diameter is reduced to 1.5 the indicated
strength will be about 3 per cent higher; if it' is
increased to 2.5 the indicated strength will be
3 per cent lower.
For consistent reSults the maximum size of
aggregate should not exceed one-quarter of the
diameter of the test cylinder. For quality control
of concrete, using 150 mm by 300 mm cylinders,

.,w
Q
~

.i.

100
.... t"·'

'"0c, eo :
~
, ...
.! -.,
0
'W
60'~

40
'"
'I "" 20
w
v
"­ I I
10 100 1000
Age or concrete (weeks}

Fig. 9.25 wng-term increase in compressive' strength

..I,
I
-" ' - - - - - - - _ ..........= .....==~~~
.. ......... ...__....__...............""'."'
"',",

 234
all material in excess of 37.5 mm must be wet­
screened from the sample. The test results,
therefore, do not indicate the strength of the con­
crete in the dam. For a proper appreciation of
this, cognizance must be taken of tests that have
been conducted on cylinders as large as 900 mm
diameter and 1800 mm long. The work done by
the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation indicates a
decrease in strength with increase in cylinder
size, Fig. 9.27. For 450 mm by 900 mm cylinders
tested by the Snowy Mountains Engineering
Corporation, Australia, Fig. 9.28, the line of best
fit through compressive strengths showed a
relationship of 85 per cent (range 82 to 96). This
is in good agreement with the U.S.B.R. Curve
that tends to a limiting value of about 80 per
cent. Tasmanian tests, on cylinders 380 mm by
1140 mm, showed a somewhat greater decrease.
110,--------------,
.105
100
:,"
Fig. 9.27 Effect of cylinder size on compressive
strength-Maximum aggregate not greater than one
quarter of cylinder diameter
It cannot, therefore, be overlooked that the
strength of concrete in an arch dam may have
only three-quarters of the strength indicated by
the 150 mm by 300 mm control cylinders tested
in the laboratory (aggregate larger than 37.5 mm
having been wet-screened from the mix). The
presence of biaxial or triaxial tensions would
further lower the strength in situ--whilst
strength under sustained loading is also less than
that under the laboratory rate of loading.
It is now common practice to remove
specimens of concrete from the dam for check
testing; the diameter of'the core should be
related to the maximum size of aggregate, i.e. a
core 150 mm diameter is unlikely to 'give true
strength if the aggregate is of maximum size
150 mm. In general the long-term strength of
cores exceeds the· corresponding strength of
laboratory cured specimens of 'control' concrete
of the same size.
9.52 Tensile Strength
Due to non-homogeneity of concrete the ten­
sile strength must relate to a particular concrete,
to its age at testing and more particularly to the
method of testing. Specimens may be broken
either in direct tension, or in flexure (to give
modulus of rupture) or by splitting (indirect ten­
sion~ The last method probably gives a value
fairly indicative of the true tensile strength, but
it must be recognized that the method forces the
specimen to fracture on a predetermined plane.
In practice concrete would fail through an'
irregular interconnection of weak zones. For this
test, a cylinder of concrete is laid horizontally on n
, j,
• I
the testing machine and a vertical load is applied I
through the horizontal tangential plattens, Fig.
9.29. This test" is often referred to as the Brazil r]1
test. The indirect tensile strength is given by the ,I
!
formula:
. 'I1:,'
r
T _ 2000P iii
, - rcDL
where T, = the splitting strength (MPa)
P = maximum applied force indicated on
the testing machine (kN)
D = diameter of cylinder (mm)
;c 1:~
L = length of cylinder (mm) L. ,
the load should be increased at a rate of 100 ± 10
. kN/min for a standard 150 mm by 300 mm
cylinder.
In general the indirect tensile strength is
higher than the direct tensile strength of the
same concrete. This is understandable since the
method of casting the cylinders tends to produce
horizontal planes of weakness across the direc­
tion of pull in the direct tension test. Creep tends
to alter the modulus of elasticity and for that
reason one would also expect the indirect tensile
and the flexural strength to be greater than the
direct tensile strength. In the splitting test the
Fig. 9.28 Unconftned compression tests of concrete ,
-Cylinders 450 mm X 900 mm-S.M.E.C. I
<:1'
Fig. 9.29 Indirect tensile (or splitting) test U
HI
Lf,
I
 I

lJ

,,'

 rl-,
.,
236 ,j j

centre of the cylinder is under biaxial loading 4-;

. ?
and one would therefore expect the modulus of 2.0
rupture in bending to be greater than the in­ 1.9 !\ /
/
""
direct tensile strength. This is confirmed in prac­ 2-\
I.B
tice, Fig. 9.30. 5j :\ 1
1.7 I
3-\ \'
7,------------------------,
i\. ~\ A
~\~ O{~l
..
""...... ./
1.2
:
6­
I
\ !
I. I,i

I.p r-. . / ,f]

.

,.

65 80 125 160
Diameter of specimen (mm)
, 1 ) Concrele "c': CUfllU160 dayS (4) Co~crele "p': curing 60 days
( 2: } COl'Icrele "C'; curing 28 doys f 5 l Concrete "p': eltfing 28doys

3~r----~2----~3-----4~----~5----~6
{.3 ) ConCfClc"C'; cuting 14doys (6 lConcrele"p':curing 14doys

Splilling .jrenglh (MPc)

Curves 1,21'3 ~ Motier MS. A, 2 mm

Fig. 9.3d Approximate relationship between flexural Curves4,5,6~ Concrete M$,A,400mm

lind splitting strength of concrete (After A.C.I.)

Experiments in many countries have con­
firmed the, trend that the ratio of splitting
strength to compressive strength decreases with
increasing compressive strength of the concrete,
Fig. 9.31. The same trend is apparent for the
ratio of modulus of, rupture to compressive
strength.
Compressive strength (MPo)
Fig. 9.31 Indicative relationships between
splitting strength, modulus of rupture and
compressive strength (After A.C.I.) .
The length of the cylinder-so long as the en­
tire length is uniformly loaded-does ·not appear
to affect the value of indirect tensile strength.
Tests by Borem et al. 34 have indicated that the
diameter of the cylinder will affect the resuits,
Fig. 9.32--this emphasizes the need for standar­
dization in aU phases of concrete testing.
Fig. 9.32 Indirect (splitting) strength-Effect of
specimen size (After Boretn")
9.6 Curing
The object of curing is to prevent or replenish
the loss of moisture necessary for hydration of
the cement which is rapid during the early stages.
Proper curing of concrete will improve both
strength and elastic modulus. However,
prolonged curing is not necessarily beneficial as
regards cracking, for in some cases the modulus
of elasticity increases more proportionately than
does the strength of the concrete.
'Tests indicate that a period of drying after
moist curing considerably enhances the
resistance to sulphate attack-probably as a
result of carbonation of the surface. !)
It is difficult to ensure proper curing of con­ U
crete in a dam; whatever procedure is specified it
will cause some interference with the building
process and is therefore opposed by the site
workers. This necessitates close attention to
details and strict supervision. The best method of n..
curing vertical or near vertical surfaces is by con­ U
tinuous wetting from a suspended pipe system.
This, of course, leads to excess water on the
working surface of the lift unless special

n
U
,------­
......-----~,

arrangements are made for drainage to remove
the curing water.
Points to be remembered are:
Treatment given to concrete during the first few
hours after placing is most significant;
Although it is not usually practicable to in­
stitute curing procedures until the concrete
has set, care should be exercised to protect the
surface from fast drying by heat or wind;
Adequate moist curing will induce strength gain
I over a considerable period of time;
. . J,
Curing under wet burlap, followed by continued
moist curing or ponding, produces better
results than any other method, Intermittent
sprinkling is not so effective as keeping the
concrete continuously wet;
Membrane curing compounds are more effective
if applied after concrete has been moist cured
fof 24 hours; this is inconvenient and destroys
the construction benefit resulting from im­
mediate application of the membrane. It is im­
portant to apply the curing membrane as soon
as the surface film of moisture evaporates;
delay in so doing can permit excessive drying
of the concrete with possible cracking.
Curing and protection by insulation call for good
engineering on the site. Both can be expensive
and of high-nuisance rating, but both are of con­
..! siderable value and warrant the close attention of
both designers and construction engineers.
9.7 Cracking in Concrete
During the construction of a d~ cracks may
.
, ., appear; every occurrence should be regarded as a
challenge to the Engineer. Small cracks may be
acceptable since they may sometimes heal
autogenously. Some texts suggest acceptance of
cracks up to 0.2 rum wide--but this refers to ex­
posed structures not to dams where any crack
1 will permit the entry of pressure water from the
.1
reservoir. The Engineer's aim should be to build
.-.' a crack-free damJ5 and that can only be done
'j when he has a thorough knowledge of the
j
properties of the concrete and the conditions
.
under which the dam will be built. It is a .subject the site. A concrete oflow tensile strength, high
], well worth the attention of a specialist.
The presence and propagation of cracks in
concrete specimens has been studied by variation
in pulse velocities through the concrete, by
I
237
acoustic measurements of emitted sound .and by
X-rays.36 Robinson states:
'The cracking proc~s in concrete can be separated
into two stages. In stage one, no major microcracks
occur but minor cracks exist; these latter are often
present in concrete prior to loading. As the load is
increased it is possible to detect the development of
minute cracks, notably aggregate-paste bond
failures. These cracks are exceptionally small and
their effeCt on the me.:hanical behaviour of the con­
crete is nearly negligible ... As the load is further
increased, minor cracking continues to occur until,
at a certain load, both pulse velocity and X-ray tests
show that major cracks have occurred in the
specimen ... This point signifies the end of stage
one and the start of stage two which continues from
major cracking until ultimate load. The start of the
second stage is defined as the onset of discon­
tinuity.'
This may be regarded as the strength of the con­
crete under sustained load, and agrees with
Rusch's concept of sudden increase in volumetric
strain, Fig. 9.33. Similarly, Poisson's ratio and
il
volume changes have been related to
microcracking. For short-term static loading
Poisson's ratio remains constant up to the stress
corresponding to the point of discontinuity after
I,.
I
which it starts to increase both continuously. and ,I
significantly, say from 0.2 to 0.5.
Slow crock Rapid crock
growth growth
I
Failure
stress
___L __ -::?,"-." Incr.eose in
L
_ _- , -_ _ _J..Imc::orjQf crocking
Volumetric / ' . _
sfrain
Increase In'
~_~_ _ _.,-..J.I=bond crock;ng
I;
r,
Exponslon - Strain
CO'nfrocfion
Fig. 9.33 Typical stress-strain curves for con­
,,i
"
crete under uniaxial compression
Cracking of concrete due to thermal change
will depend upon the tensile strength, strain
resistance, thermal properties of the concrete,
degree of restraint and the climatic conditions at
modulus of elasticity, high thermal expansion
and under full restraint may crack under a rapid
drop in temperature of 3°C. On the other hand,
some concretes can withstand a. sudden' drop of
18 9 C. For example, Houghton" compares the
behaviour of concrete at Libby Dam and
Finite element analyses were made--in two
and in three dimensions--to show the stresses
'1 '
;
l·
I
.
Dworshak Dam in U.S.A.: resulting from various methods of cooling. The
stresses were found to be considerably higher
'Whereas the mass concrete at Dworshak Dam can
withstand 150 millionths unit tensile strain under than those indicated in Report to A.E.I. Com­
rapid loading and 250 millionths under slow mittee 207, entitled Effect oj Remaini, Volume
loading, the concrete at Libby Dam can only with­ Change and ReinJorcement on Cracking in Massive
stand strains of 65 and 85 under rapid and slow Concrete.
loading, respectively. Therefore, for their respective A revi!!W of all concrete placed in 1973
thermal coefficients the Dworshak concrete can
withstand a rapid drop in temperature of 11 0 to revealed that no cracks had occurred when the
14·C and a slow temperature drop of 25° to 28·C computed tensile stress did not exceed 1.8 MPa.
wlten fully restrained, whereas the Libby concrete It is relevant to note the tensile stresses allowed
can withstand barely a 6°C drop induced either on concrete in the British Standard Code of Prac­
rapidly or slowly.' tice CP2007, Pt.2 Design and Construction oj "1
~ :~
At Pine Flat Dam, U.S.A., test results showed Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Structures Jor
that the ratio of modulus of elasticity to strength the Storage oj Water and other Aqueous Liquids, i.e. '·1
was greater for lean concrete than for rich con­ in bending 1.7 MPa, and in direct tension ,', -i '
, I
crete and, as a result, cracks that formed after 28 1.2 MPa for a 1 ; 2 : 4 concrete mix. When the
computed tensile stress exceeds 0.7 MPa in such
days turned away from the richer mix.
3s
At Orlik Dam, Czechoslovakia concreting structures it is usual to provide reinforcement to
n1
started in layers 2 m high. The cement content carry the total tensile forces. To set a limit of 1
was 170 ;:g/m' in the heart of the dam and MPa for calculated tensile stresses in a dam
250 kg/m3 for the faces. Cracks occurred-at­ therefore appears to be reasonable.
taining, in some cases, a width of 3 mm, and ex­ With the computer programme the Hydro
tending as deep as 2 m below the surface. The Electric Commission, Tasmania, is able to exer­
mixes were cha\1ged to 130 kg of cement plus cise a very close control; whenever it is con­
50 kg of fly ash, and 200 kg of cement plus 50 kg sidered desirable for safety against cracking, or
of fly ash, respectively, and no further cracking for economy, the spacing of the cooling pipes and
was observed.. the reticulation can be modified at short notice.
At Roselend Dam the cement content was The optimum location for the 19 mm copper
lowered from 250 kg/m to 225 kg/m , the lift cooling pipes was found to be at one-quarter and
3 3

height was decreased from 2.5 to 1.25 m and three'<!uarters of the height of the 2.3 m lift.
time between lifts was increased from 3 to 4 days. Once instituted, the omission of cooling pipes
These measures, together with a change in the from the bottom of each lift found favour with
minelalogy of the cement clinker, reduced the the site crews.
temperature rise by 15°C and no further cracks Temperature rise can be limited to 11 ° to
occurred. 39 14°C for a 2.3 m lift and 6° to 9°C for a half
At Gordon Dam, Tasmania, cracking occurred lift. The cooling procedure can be specified to
in eleven lifts during the summer of 1972-73. limit the tensile stress to about 1 MPa, see
The cracks were usually near vertical near the Chapter 17.
centre of the monolith and penetrated from the At each site consideration must be given to the q
upstream to downstream face (15 m) and altitude, latitude, temperature variations, and LJ
throughout the 2.3 m lift, Fig. 934. The con­ wind velocities. Cracking should not occur with a
crete properties were approximately: sudden drop in temperature of 6°C; it may occur
Modulus of Elasticity if the fall is 12°C and it will probably occur if
-20000MPa the fall is 17°C, In the last case the tempera­
at 14 days
-0.2 ture of the concrete must be controlled
Poisson's ratio
Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion -10.8 x 10- 6 per 1°C
(Later tests gave values as high as 12 x 10-6 per Fig. 9.34 Near-vertical crack through quartzite j
1°C for the concrete with quartzite aggregate.) concrete :.. ::'1J

------~
u
··If'l
, !
,
1

t:
I
i'
I~
,<

9.34

240
acCurately-with insula~ion if necessary, or by
modification of the concreting procedures.
To minimize the risk of cracking in mass con­
crete the foHowing precautions should be taken:
US/! cement of low heat generation;
Use the lowest quantity of cement compatible
with the required strength and durability; the
U.S.B.R. suggests" between . 165 and
200 kglm 3;
Investigate the possible replacement of some of
the cement with pozzolan, blast furnace slag
or fly ash;
Design the concrete mix for a low modulus of
elasticity;
Use the cOldest feasible concrete, above 5°C;
Use large aggregate, but having due regard for
possible microcracking in bond and total
. overall cost;
Adopt post cooling and insulation of surfaces as
necessary for the particular site;
Design the dam to avoid high stress con­
. centrations around galleries, etc.
9.8 Special Concretes
In general, concrete for dams incorporates
Portland Cement---ordinary, low heat or rapid
hardening. As a partial replacement of the
cement, pozzolans or fly ash may be used. For
special purposes Trief Cement has been used"
i.e. a process consisting of wet-grinding blast­
furnace slag in a ball mill (in which a con­
siderablyhigher degree of fineness can be ob­
tained with less power) and in maintaining the
resulting slurry in liquid form by agitation until
it is delivered into the batch mixer at the same
time as the Portland Cement. The chemical com­
position of the slag-most compatible with the
particular cement--can be accurately maintained
by the steel works.. It is ground to a fineness of
350 m2/kg. For the hearting of Avon Dam the
mixture was 70 per cent Trief slurry to 30 per
cent Portland Cement. Trief was not used for the
precast blocks tnat formed the faces of this dam.
Similar work is reported by Du P1essis: 42
'The existing South African Standard Specification
for Portland blast furnace cement permits such a
mixture to contain up to 70 per cent slag, although,
in practice, the slag content is usually nearer 50 per
cent. The slag content of site mixture was, until
recendy, limited to 50 per cent. It was soon evident
it
:, ~1
n
,,
that site mixing of slag was in no way inferior, and
resulted in concrete with at least equal qualities in
respect of average strength, coefficient of variation,
workability and imperviousness. The use of straight
Portland Cement, which complies to Type 2
American Standards, was therefore discontinued.
Experiments in the laboratories of the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research with mixes of 1
cement to 6 aggregates and a water/cement ratio of ']t '
0.6 indicated that by increasing the slag content.
from nil to 80 per cent, the total heat generated was
reduced from 35.7 to 10.9 calories per gram at 1 n
day, and 66.9 to 36.3 calories per gram at 7 days.
The temperature rise under adiabatic conditions at
u
1 day decreased from 18.5° to 5.7°C and at 7 days
from 34.6° to 19°C. The relative slower rate of
heat generation is most pronounced during the first
3 days and diminishes the possibility of having
large temperature gradients causing cracks in mass
concrete structures. One of the main disadvantages
of concrete made from mixtures of Portland Ce­
ment and slag is the loss of strength when cured in­
adequately. Tests indicated that in nearly all cases,
the strengths of dry cured slag Portland Cement
concretes at 3 months were not as great as those
which similar Portland Cement concretes develop
after 6 days. However, this fact is unimportant in :1
most gravity structures where high slag content
concrete could be used as hearting concrete, es­
pecially if !=<lostant sprinkling or flooding of
horizontal construction joints are specified and
maintained. Tests indicated that with adequate
curing, equal strengths are obtained at 28 days. In
the case of concrete gravity dams recently con­
structed by the Department of Water Affairs site
mixing of slag and Portland Cement has 'been
allowed with slag contents as high as 70 per cent.'
u
Polymer concrete is a material composed of
coarse and fine aggregates and a fine filler with a
polymeric binder such as epoxy, coal tar epoxy,
polyester or furane resins. 43 The usual percent­
age of binder has been 8 per cent, but work in
Australia44 has established that 5 per cent is quite
satisfactory. This type of concrete is expensive
and has been developed for special items such as
spun concrete pipes. Special precautions and
techniques must be adopted when handling
epoxy resins because of possible toxic effects, the
::'"j I
short 'pot-life' or time before hardening and the
difficulties in cleaning equipment. d
Typical properties of polymer concrete are
compared with those of Portland Cement con­
crete in Table 9.10.
Polymer concrete .should be distinguished
from Polymer-impregnated concrete; for the
latter a monomer with a slow catalyst is painted
l
L
l
on to the hardened Portland Cement concrete; it
I~

24i

Table 9.10. Typical Properties of Polymer Concrete mixer to impart near colloidal properties. Ad­
Average ditives may be used to improve fluidity, to inhibit
A typical Portland early stiffening or to provide some expansive ac­
polymer Cement tion. The sand for the mortar should all pass a
Property concrete* concrete sieve opening of 2.5 mm, and have a Fineness
Compressive strength (MPa) 114 35-60 Modulus a little below 2 for good pumping
Hoop tensile strength (MP.) 12 3 characteristics.
Direct tensile strength (MPa) 10 2 The minimum size of coarse aggregate should
Modulus of elasticity in be 19 mm, and therei. really no limit to the max­
tension (MPa) 9000 35000 imum size except that the objective is to reduce
Abrasion resistance 10 25
the voids to around 35 per cent and thereby
1!
Absorption
Bulk density (kg/m')
0.1
2400
5
·2560 minimize the quantity of expensive mortar. It is
Coefficient of thermal essential that the compacted mass of·stones be
expansion per 10 C 2 X 20-' 6.5 X 10-' clean and free from fmc material. Aggregate
Flexural strength (beam) should be washed thoroughly before placing a.nd
(MPa) 24 5.5
it is preferable not to use crushed rock frow
* Values are- intial values, i.e. results obtained on spetirnens not which the edges will flake during packing. After
stressed prior to test.
the aggregate has been placed and compacted it
is later polymerized by a second coat with a rapid should be wetted to assist the movement of the
catalyst. This produces a case-hardening effect mortar as it is pumped in. Grout can be intruded
:'J that improves strength, permeability and successfully under water but this procedure is
resistance to cavitation in the surface layer. not necessary.
Grout Intrusion Concrete (Prepakt, Calcrete, The shrinkage of intrusion concrete is usually
etc.) This process· involves the prepaeking of less than tliat of pre-mixed· concrete but it
sound clean aggregate, maybe in a gap left depends greatly on the efflciency of compaction.
between adjacent monoliths in a dam-and the Intrusion concrete develops strength more slowly
later intrusion of cement mortar to fIll the voids. than normal concrete but the valiles should be
The mortar is usually mixed in a high-speed comparable at 90 days.

References

1. Portland Cement (Ordinary and Rapid Hardening),
British Standard 12/1971, British Standards In­
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2. 'Effect of Water Reducing Admixtures and Set
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, .
4, March/April 1948.
1. '
eluding the Use of Fly Ash', Proc: I.C.E., 13, June
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7. Tennessee Valley Authority, Cement Study, Civil
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9. R. W. Cannon, 'Proportioning Fly Ash Concrete·
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: ..\
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, 1
L~
31. 1. P. Gvozdarev and M. Y. Vershiain, 'Economy
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n 1
i
i
Coarse Grained Aggregate', 10th ICOLD
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I
London.
(b) G. S. Robinson, 'The Influence ofMicrocrack­
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:J
and Discontinuity of Concrete', loe cit.,
pp. 713--731.
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:::1
"
:
,-:
Cracking of Concrete During the Construction of •. J
Roselend and Monteynard Dams', loe dt., R.3,
pp.33-44. . "
40. B. P. Bellport, 'Control and Repair of Cracks in ',i I
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Montreal, 1970, Q.39, R.12, IV, pp. 199-217.
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I.C.E., 12, Session 1958-59, Jan. 1959,
Ll
pp.83--106.
42. J. Du Plessis, 10th [COLD Congress, Montreal, ,I
1970, Discussion on Q.39, VI, pp. 686-687. :J
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iJ
I
; J
 243

44. C. A. Baker, 'Polymer Concrete: A Chemically 45. J. G. Du Plessis, 'Grout Intrusion Concrete', 10lh
Inert Structural Material', I.E.AwI., Civil Trans., ICOLD Congress, Montreal, 1970,. Q.39,R;16,
CE16, No.1, 1974, pp.12-16. IV, pp.309-346.

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.'
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i A.S.G.E. Civil Engineering, 37, No.7, July 1967, London,
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4, April 1970, pp.273-309. pp. 829-839.
A.C.I. Symposium on Mass Concrele 1963, 81h ICOLD Congress, Edinburgh, 1964, Q.30 (32
A. Klein, T. Karby and M. Polivka, 'Properties of an Papers), 'Design of Concrete for Large Dams of all
Expansive Cement for Chemical Prestressing', Types and Influence of Age on ConcreteProper­
Journal A.C.I., July 1961. ties', in particular R.6, T. Hatan et aI., 'Strength of
A.C.!' Committee 223, 'Expansive Cement Concretes Concrete under Combined Tensile and
-Present State of Knowledge', Journal A.C.I., 67, Compressive Stresses and its Application to the
No.8, Aug. 1970. Design of Dams'.
ICOLD Bulletin No.20, Paris 1968, Guide and A. M. Neville, 'Hardened Concrete--Physical and
Recommendalions for Tests on Surface-active Admix­ Mechanical Properties', A.C.l. Monograph No.6,
lures for Concrete for Large Dams. 1971.
ICOLD Bulletin No. 24, Paris 1973, Guide and C. M. Smith, 'Failure of Concrete under Combined
Recommendations for Accelerating and Relarding Ad­ Tensile and Compressive Stress', Journal A.C.I.,
mixlures for Use in Concrete for Large Dams. 29, No.2, Oct. 1953, pp. 137-140.
A. A. Fulton and W. T. Marsball, 'The Use of Fly Asb T. Hatano, 'Time Effect on Deformation and Failure
and Similar Materials in Concrete', Proc. I.C.E., 5, of Concrete under Statical Compressive Load',
Pt. 1, Nov. 1956, pp.714-730, witb discussion C.R.I.E.P.I. Tech. Report CS906, 1959. I·
Proc. I.C.E., 7, July 1957, p.658, et seq. O. Valenta, 'The Permeability and the Durability of
C. E. Lovewell and G. W. Washa, 'Proportioning Concrete in Aggressive Conditions', 10th ICOLD
Concrete Mixtures using Fly Asb', Journal A.C.1. Congress, Montreal, 1970, Q.39, R.6, IV,
Proc., 54, No. 12, June 1958, pp.1093-1102. pp. 103-117. .
British Standard 812, 1967, Sampling and Testing J. A. Rhodes, 'Collection of Data on Thermal Proper­
Mineral Aggregares, Sands and Fillers, British Stan­ ties of Concrete', 9th ICOLD Congress, Rome,
dards Institution, London. 1967, Communication C.9, pp.673-684.
V. Bahrner, 'Gap Graded Concrete', Cement och H. Woods, 'Durability of Concrete Construction',
Belong, 1951, Translation No. 42, Cement A.C.1. Monograph No.4, Iowa State Univ., Detroit,
[ Concrete Assoc. Library. 1968.
J. D. Mcintosh, 'Basic Principles of Concrete Mix T. T. C. Hsu et aI., 'Microcracking of Plain Concrete
Design', Proc. Symp. on Mix Design and Quality and the Shape of the Stress Strain Curve', Journal
i
!' :
I
Control of Concrele, Cement and Concrete Assoc.
London, May 1954.
'Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for
A.C.1. Proc., 60, No.2, Feb. ·1963, pp.209-224.
A. L. Marshall, 'Review of some of the Problems in­
volved in the Early Age Cracking· of Concrete',
I
Concrete', Journ. A.C.I., Sept. 1954, pp.49-64. Civil Engineering and Public Works Review, Aug.
A. M. Neville, 'Shsinkage and Creep in Concrete', 1965, p. 1169.
Journal of Reinforced Concrete Assoc., 1, No.2, A.C.!. Committee 224, 'Control of Cracking in
March/April 1962. Concrete Structures', Journal A.C.I., Dec. 1972,
., A. L. L. Baker, 'An Analysis of Deformation and pp. 717-753.
,I Failure Characteristics of Concrete', Magazine oj L. H. Tuthill and R. F. Adams, .'Cracking Controlled
I Concrete Research, London, 11, No. 33, Nov. 1959. in Massive, Reinforced Structural Concrete by
M. A. Ward, A. M. Neville, and S. P. Singh, 'Creep of Application. of Mass Concrete Practices', Journal
Air Entrained Concrete', Magazine oj Concrete A.C.I., 69, No.8, Aug. 1972, pp.481-491.
Research, London, 21, No. 69, Dec. 1969. E. V. Lyon and I. L. Tyler, A.C.I. Symposium on Mass

:'."
244

Concrete, 1963, (including a bibliography of 8}1
papers).
P. Baumann, 'Use of Prepaeked Aggregate Concrete in
Major Dam Construction', Journal of Ameri<:4n
Concrete Institute, Nov. 1948.
U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation,
Concrete Manual, 7th edn., 1966, Denver,
Colorado, U.S.A.
W. J. R. Alexander, 'Mortar Intrusion Concrete',
Trans. South African Institution of Civil Engineers,
Oct. 1960.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 'Preplaced Aggregate
Concrete-Guide Specifications, Civil Works
Construction', C.E.HOL 03, Feb. 1959.
'Preplaced Aggregate Concrete for Structural and
Mass Concrete', Repnrt of A.C.I. Committee 304,
Journal A.C.I., No. 10, 6, Oct. 1969.
B. Mather, 'Use of Concrete of Low Portland Cement
in Combination with Pozzolons and Admixtures
in Construction of Concrete Dams', Misc. Paper
C-71-8, U.S. Army Engineers, Vicksburg, Sept.
1971.

Ii

,f

-. '·1;!
;

: ~ 1

l 1
•1
l. )

i
;..:1
 CHAPTER 10

Gravity Dams

10.1 Evolution Levy's 'Communication to the French

Academy of Sciences' dated 5th August, 1895,
Masonry dams that relied upon their weight
gave his famous rule that the compressive stress
for stability against sliding and overturning cer­
tainly date back 3000 to 4000 years;! both in the material of the dam at the upstream face
should be greater than the water pressure at the
! upstream and downstream faces were sloped and
the base thickness was many times the height. corresponding depth in the reservoir.
The danger from uplift had been recognized as
'I Based upon experience the quantities of masonry
early as 1882 and was considered in the design of
steadily decreased until the first half of the 19th
the 41 m Vyrnwy Dam (U.K.), Fig. 10.01(B) in
Century when certain failures (Chapter 3)
1882-1891. A system of rock drains was incor­
aroused academic interest in the stability of
porated in this dam to reduce uplift, a practice
masonry dams. In 1853 Sazilly proposed that the
that continued in many dams over the ensuing 30
maximum compressive stresses for both reservoir
years. Allowance for uplift was made in the
full and reservoir empty should be the same and
design of Wachusetts Dam, U.S.A., in
as far as possible constant over the height of the
1900-1906,' but drains were not incorporated.
dam.
In 1872 Rankine proposed that there should
be no tensile stress in a gravity dam. After the
failure of Bouzey Dam, Fig. 10.01(A) in 18952 it
was estimated that there was a tensile stress of
0.2 MPa in the dam. Much closer attention was o 10m
,
therefore given to Rankine's rule.
E
'"
(J)

--371.95 '"
"'I
,
4m
1~~~----36c60

I E
;:;
o 10m
! N

,_"'5.;:.;50"----".---­
r 36051
Fig. 1O.01(B) Vyrnwy Dam-Approximate
section :'.'

In 1904 Atcherley and Pearson sparked off a

I , - - - - - - - - " 351.80 controversy on the safety of gravity dams, their
contention being that (1) it was not sufficient to
~2m 11.35m
design dams with calculations applied only to
horizontal sections and in fact it was across ver­
,
tical sections parallel to the axis that dangerously
Fig. 10.01(A) Bouzey Dam (After M. Mary; repro­ high tensile stresses first develop, and (2) the dis­
duced by permission Dunod, Paris) tribution of shear stresses must be more nearly
245

I
"
I
- ! ''01!IJJII.,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~~=,--=,-,-:d--->-.I
246
parabolic than linear (see Engineering and other
journals of that era).
In 1908 Wilson and Gore using rubber models
loaded to simulate both live and dead loads
succeeded in satisfying most Engineers that the
current methods of designing gravity dams were
sound and that a dam designed by the classical
theory would exhibit no tension except near the
base of the upstream face.
In 1913 Fillinger extended Levy's equations of
elasticity to account for dead loads as well as live
loads-his work and that of Richardson
produced results substantially in agreement with
the model results of Wilson and Gore.
One of the earliest examples of drains within a
dam in U.S.A. was Olive Bridge Dam, 1908-24,
but it would appear that the ftrst inclusions of
drainage in both dam and foundations dates from
1911-12 (Medina, Arrowrock and Elephante
Butte Dams).4
Many investigators, Terzaghi, Leliavsky,
Harza and others' produced arguments that the
area upon which uplift could act was between 85
per cent and 100 per. cent of the total area.
Concurrently doubts were raised whether a
drainage system could remain fully effective over
the life of the dam-maybe 100 years. As a result
conservative values were adopted for uplift that
might be effective--as high as a linear decrease
from headwater pressure at the upstream face to
tailwater at the downstream face.
.The Arizona Code 1932 stated:
Where drains are omitted a gravity dam shall be
designed on the assumption that uplift varies uni­
formly from 75 per cent of the full hydrostatic
pressure at the heel to tail water head at the toe.
There shall be no exceptions to this rule.
If positive drainage was provided the Code
specilled uplift as headwater pressure from the
upstream face to the drains and tailwater
pressure from the drains to the downstream face.
The danger of sliding was highlighted by the
failure of Austin Dam, U.S.A., and St. Francis
Dam, U.S.A.:4 it was common practice to limit
the lum of the norizontal forces to about two­
thirds the sum of the vertical forces, this sliding
f~tor being lower (though maybe marginally)
than the static friction coefficient of the dam on
the foundation. Precautions such as stepping the
foundation .and providing a thrust block under
the downstream toe probably account for the
stability of many dams in which uplift did not
appear in the design. From further study evolved
the concept of a shear friction factOr-that is the
ratio of the resistance along any plane by cohe­ ;' 1
sion and friction to the horizontal applied force.
Gravity dams have normally been designed so tL
that any vertical slice of the dam is stable against
sliding and overturning. Many dams have
been curved, Fig. 10.1O(A), the radius to the
upstream face being between 350 and 400 m.
This has usually resulted in a more aesthetic
appearance and has given the designers con­
fidence that a factor of safety against ultimate
, ,,
failure has been introduced at small additional
cost. However, modern analysis shows that a cur­
"I·
·
:J
vature of radius 360 m would relieve the can­
tilevers of less than 5 per cent of the wat':r
load-provided the contraction joints were J' i
, :'
~
I
I.
properly grouted.
As far back as 1899 Bachmann' calculated
deflections of arches and cantilevers in an arched
gravity dam. In discussion of Wade's paper' it
,1
was mentioned that the distribution of load
between arches and cantilevers was considered in
,
i j
connection with Pathfinder and Shoshone Dams,
U.S.A., in 1905, whilst Professor Warren of
Sydney University suggested the action of inter­
nal arches in the Cataract Dam.'
In 1909 Cain' presented his solution for prio­
cipal stresses in gravity dams.
Following considerable work on the distribu­
tion of stresses within gravity dams the U.S. 1 ~ I
Bureau of Reclamation perfected the Trial Load
method of load distribution for Boulder (now
!!
Hoover) Dam, Fig. 10.02. The advent of the
computer made this method even more valuable
since it is a relatively simple matter to change the
input to the computer and compare many alter­
natives.
The most recent advance has been in the
application of the ftnite element method of
analysis.9 • lo Originally developed for studies in ,:
two dimensions this has now been expanded to
three dimensions-including the foundations of
the dam and geological variations therein.
Parallel with this evolution in the design of
gravity dams there have been interesting ,· I,
developments in their structural composition.
· i
rA
, j'
Fig. 10.02 Hoover Dam, U.S.A. LJ
, p
:1
LJ
I
10.02

."~ sm;:t"}jj 4 il
 fjy.. :
.'
~
,.:
':

248
'D

:
l:.,

Mox, W. L (366.00 i Oam crest (368.00)

o
SuhhOrironfol joints []

58.00
A
O

r.·
l

f1.
(.
U

35.10 n
Grovel-Iubricoted joints O
o, 10
I
20
I

conlents of 150 k9/CU m

30m
!

Concrete with POllolonic cement

o
~u.bvertlcol I
Upstreom
f aClOg jOints
',\
j 400
, '/1,..., ~.
120 ~ CortCtele with ferric~pouolonic
~ cernenl contents of 200kg/Cu m
!l

LJ
\ I" II t'"t':I. _0

c
ownstreom Concrete with ferric1l02Z{)IOnic
!Wi> o"z'1 I JJ.
1 .. 0.2o
'0
cinq eemenl contents or 300kg!cu m

J. ! I
/
// "
I
, , I
I I
•
"'"
Grooves in correspOJ'Idence
to gfovel-lubricoled joinls

(imoves for sleel- foeing

joint support
Section A-A
Grooves in correspondence
10 grovel~ ll.lbricojed joints
~rooves fOf r··"".-:J,.',-b;,..b;o.brb;=br!...rI..,.J"'F~Fr~'lA
. steel~ facing ~r.' / n
join! ,support, ~::t..~~~~~~.~,o~o~~~~~~
. .
U

Downslream
_rL~focing

Grovel-lubricOled Subverlicol
joinls loints
5.ectiOn S~S

Fig. 10.03 Typical cross-section through Pozzillo Dam, together with

sketches showing the system of joints

Throughout the world many of the best damsites gravel acts as a lubricant to permit adjustment
have now been used, especially those of rock, Dr
Marcello of Italy originated and patented a type
of dam that has the massiveness of the gravity
following differential settlement of the foun­
dation. Watertightness is assured by a 6 mm steel
plate fixed to the upstream face; special cor­
0
1

dam and the flexibility of a rockfill dam. Pozzillo

Dam" is 58 m 'high and was constructed of 4 m
rugations permit deformability. A similar design
by Dr Marcello was also adopted for Pian Palu
0:

cube concrete blocks (Fig. 10.03), In cross-section Dam, 12 52 m high, by Ente Nazionale per
the columns of blocks are built up in contact to I'Energia Ellectrica, Venice. Built in four stages F1

u
form a triangular profile buttress normal to the between 1950 and 1959 the measured
faces. The dam therefore consists of a series of movements in 1966 were 32 rom settlement and
4 m wide buttresses separated by a 150,mm,gap 18.rom deflection. r-I ,
filled with gravel and drained at the base. The On the other hand, Dr Gentile of Italy con­ L-J
. , -I

, ! r·
.: I' '
 249

centrated on the omission from the dam of many to stresses resulting from the construction
items that impede construction and increase cost. procedures--whether these be due to overhang
At Alpe Gera Dam 13 he adopted earthmoving of the structure or heat generated by hydration
procedures to place concrete continuously in thin of the cement and the subsequent cooling.
layers across the whole valley. Contraction joints The dam can also be loaded as a strut between
were later cut with diamond saws, Fig. 17.9.
Maximum headwater
10.2 Design Concepts and Criteria
Basically a gravity dam shall be:
Safe against overturning at any horizontal plane
within the dam, at the contact with the
foundation or within the foundation, and
Safe against sliding at any horizontal plane
within the dam, at the contact with the foun­ MQ~lmum
dation or along any geological feature within tailwoler
5
the foundations;
So proportioned that the allowable stresses in
both the concrete and the foundation shall not
be exceeded. This is not often applicable since v,
the concrete can be specified to meet re­
quirements and the sites for gravity dams are
normally selected for the quality of the rock
foundation.
Fig. 10.04 Loads on gravity dam
The loads that may act on a dam are shown in
Fig. 10.04 and include the following: the valley walls, due either to tectonic stresses as
Horizontal Loading in the Sierra Nevadas of Western America or in
Hydrostatic pressure on the upstream face:--H1; the Himalayas or to swelling of the rock mass
Excess fluid pressure due to silt against the after saturation"''', Fig. 10.05. Secondary
upstream face:--H,; stresses may also be induced from defortnability
Ice load against the upstream face:--H3; of the foundation (tilt) and both defortnability
Impact of waves, seiches and reservoir set-up and steepness of the abutment (twist).16
against the upstream face:--H,; Other factors that may cause local stressing
Hydrostatic pressure of tailwater against the and cracking are alkali-aggregate reactions and
downstream face:--Hs attack by aggressive water.
Sub-atmospheric pressure on the crest of an ill
designed overflow section;
Inertia force of water against the dam due to
seismic activity-H6;
Inertia force of the mass of the dam due to
seismic activity-H7•
Vertical Loading
Gravity acting on the' mass of the dam-Vj;
Gravity acting on the mass 'of water on the
upstream face, if inclined- V,;
Uplift forces on any horizontal plane:--V,;
Inertia force of the mass of the dam due to
seismic activity-V,.
Fig. 10.05 Modification of direction, of regional
Besides these loadings, the dam may be subjected compression in vicinity of dam
250

Sliding Criteria should be considered as unique, and receive in­

vestigation appropriate to the size and impor­
The Sliding Factor may be defmed as the ratio tance of the dam.
of the sum of all horizontal forces and com­ Although general practice in the design of
ponents of loadings that tend to ca~~e sliding of gravity dams requires that the resultant of all
the dam on its foundation to the sum of all ver­ forces will intersect the base within the middle
tical forces and components of loading. This ratio third, some authorities have relaxed this require­
should lie within the range 0.65 and 0.75 for nor­ ,1
ment to the extent that they would permit the I
mal loading-with a higher value up to, say, resultant to approach the one-siJ<th point of the • J

0.85 under extreme loading combinations, i.e. base under the concurrent application of all elC­ .
r;H 0.65 to 0.75 for normal loadings
treme loadings. Under such circumstances tensile "1
.,
stresses would occur at the upstream face. The
r; V - :j>- 0.85 for extreme loadings. magnitude of principal stresses must be elC­
amined-relative to the then existing high com­
The actual value permissible at a particular site pressive stresses at the downstream face--to
will depend upon the soundness of the rock, the ascertain the likelihood of cracking and the
slope of the foundation and the keying effect probable extent of cracking.
provided. The. more generally accepted practice of
The Shear Friction Factor may be defined as representing earthquake effects by additional
the ratio of the total resistance to shear failure lateral static forces--expressed as a seismic coef­
within the dam, at its contact with the founda­ ficient-needs modification since it fails to an­
tion or. within· the foundation to the total ticipate the large tensile stresses that can be in­
horizontal load. 'This can be represented by the duced at both faces by resonance of the dam
formula (Chapter 4.2). It is necessary to consider tbe time
history of the forces and from this estimate the
S.F.F. = V tan ¢ + C.A. dynamic response of the dam. One favourable
H factor is the fact that there appears to be con­
siderable increase in the strength of concrete
where S.F.F. = the Shear Friction Factor with increased rate of application of the loading.
V"" the sum of the vertical loads (or
loads normal to the plane)
In 1940 Houk and Keener" listed twenty-five :1
basic assumptions that should be considered
A = the area of the plane of contact relative to tbe design of important masonry
H "" the· sum of the horizontal loads dams. Although some are a little outdated by our
(or loads parallel to the plane) awareness of the dynamic behaviour of struc­
¢ = the angle of internal friction tures and our computer based ability to handle
C"" the· ultimate shear resistance of involved mathematics they still form a very
concrete or rock. useful check list, i.e.
In general tan ¢ will lie in the range 0.6 to 0.75
but may be lowe~ along joints or seams in the·· ·-l;Tbe rock that constitutes the foundation and
foundation. If such are present it is advisable to abutments at the site is strong enough to
make in situ tests of the shear characteristics of carry the forces imposed by the dam with
the infilling in the joints. stresses well below the elastic limit at all
To compensate for the non-linear distribution places along the contact planes.
of shear stress it is not uncommon to adopt for C 2. The bearing power of the geologic structure
a figure about half the measured shear strength along the foundation and abutments is great
of the concrete or rock. enough to carry the total loads imposed by
The Shear Friction Factor should be not less the dam without, rock movements of
than 5 for normal loading and may be acceptable detrimental magnitude.
as low as 4 for the extreme combinations of 3. The rock formations are homogeneous and
loadings. Some Engineers, however, specify uniformly elastic)n all directions, so that
values of 4 and 3, respectively-but each site' their deformations may be predicted satisfac­

f'·',­
I
torily by calculations based on the theory of
elasticity, by laboratory measurements on
models constructed of elastic materials, or by
combinations of both methods.
4. The flow of the foundation rock under the
sustained loads that result from the con­
struction of the dam and the filling of the
reservoir may be adequately allowed for by
using a somewhat lower modulus of
elasticity than would otherwise be adopted
for use in the technical analyses.
S. The base of the dam is thoroughly keyed
into the rock formations along the founda­
tion and abutments.
6. Construction operations are conducted so as
to secure satisfactory bond between the con­
crete and rock materials at all areas of con­
tact along the foundation and abutments.
7. The concrete in the dam is homogeneous in
all parts of the structure. ['Homogeneous'
might well be changed to 'sound' to permit
variation of cement content throughout the
dam-Author.]
8. The concrete is uniformly elastic in all parts
of the structure, SO that deformations due to
applied loads may be calculated by formulae
derived on the basis of the theory of
elasticity or may be estimated from
laboratory measurements on models con­
structed of elastic materials.
9. Effects of flow of concrete may. be ade­
quately allowed for by using a somewhat
lower modulus of elasticity under sustained
loads than would otherwise be adopted for
use in the technical analyses.
10. Contraction joints are properly grouted
under adequate pressures, or open slots are
properly filled with concrete, so that the dam
may be considered to act as a monolith.
11. Sufficient drains are installed in the dam to
reduce such uplift pressures as may develop
along areas of contact. between the concrete
and rock materials.
""1
12. Effects of increases in horizontal pressures
caused by silt contents of flood waters
usually may be ignored in designing high
storage dams, but may require consideration
in designing relatively low diversion struc­
tures.
13. Uplift forces adequate for analysing con­
ditions at the base of the dam are adeqUate
Z" ........ -,~'~ .-.JAb .1;))_" ;;e::s....... utlbi. to;:
251
for analysing conditions at horizontal con­
crete cross sections above the base.
14. Internal stresses caused by natural shrinkage
and by artificial cooling operations may be
adequately controlled by proper spacing of
contraction joints.
15. Interual stresses caused by increases in con­
crete temperature after. grouting are
beneficial.
16. Maximum pressures used in contraction­
joint grouting operations should be limited
to such values as may be shown to be safe by
appropriate stress analyses.
17. No section of the United States may be
assumed to be entirely free from the oc­
currence of earthquake shocks. [fhis applies
to all countries-AuthQr.]
18. Assumptions of maximum earthquake
accelerations equal to one-tenth of gravity
are adequate for the design of important
masonry dams without including additional
allowances for resonance effects. (Although
this should prove adequate in most cases, the
author recommends a close study of possiblev
seismicity at each site. Close attention should
also be given to the shape of the upper por­
tion of the dam to minimize stresses due to
resonance.)
19. Vertical as well as horizontal accelerations
should be considered, especially in designing
gravity dams ..
20. During the occurrence of temporary abnor­
mal loads, such as those produced by earth­
quake shocks, some increases in stress
magnitudes and some encroachments on
usual factors of safety are permissible.
21. Effects of foundation and abutment defor­
mations should be included in the technical
analyses.
22. In monolithic straight gravity dams, some
proportions of the loads may be carried by
twist action and beam action at locations
along the sloping abutments, as well as by
the more usually considered gravity action.
23. Detrimental effeCts of twist and beam action
in straight gravity dams, such as cracking
caused by the development of tension
stresses, may be prevented by suitable con­
struction procedure.
24. In monolithic curved gravity and arch dams,
some proportions of the loads may be carried .

252

by tangential shear and twist effects, as well cording to the porosity of the rock or concrete,
as by the more usually considered arch and Fig. 10.06.
cantilever actions.
25. The distribution of loads in masonry dams
may be determined by bringing the
calculated deflections of the different
1.0,..---.,----==___
..- -­
Approximate meen

systems of load transference into agreement I

I
; of experiments
:,4 1
at all conjugate points in the structure.
It is interesting to note that some research has
i
I
I. ~ j!

been done into possible effects on reservoirs and

dams of sonic bangs. The increase in pressure on
0.6
J~_.
, []
the surface of the reservoir would be of the order ~
0 I I I
of 15 kg/m' and the wave or seiche effects would
be very much smaller than those due to natural
;.;
.:: I I [1\
"~
I
!

causes. 1
'" 0.4 !

I
I ,l]1I
10.3 Uplift (see also Chapter 4) ,

The presence and effect of hydrostatic uplift f !

forces within and under a dam has been the sub­

0.2
I
I
Ul
ject of controversy for nearly a century. Two fac­
tors directly affect the design of a dam-the in­ I~
~

~ ;'jl
:,.
~ U ."

tensity of hydrostatic pressure at various points

0
" [ "
0
i
o
t;
"
() Ul j'
within or under the dam and the area upon 10 20 30 '
which pressure acts. Percentage voids
Although it is difficult to visualize that inter­ Fig. 10.06 Area raCl0r related to voids by
U I
stical pressure can act over the whole area, the W. P. Creager
work .' of Terzaghi,'S Leliavsky,t9 Harza,2°
McHenry" and Creager 22 has demonstrated that It is now accepted for design purposes that
']'
:.

it can act over practically the whole area ac­ uplift pressures act on the full area of the section.

~--:..

Waler surface

Reservoir h,

,,

:,:

Fig. 10.07 Percolation of water under an impervious dam

", :":'-:~". j i :>.-:, "'.~ ;-'\~r1.]:-_,;'

~~~~~~iltydtlJ~f~~
 253

Top or Dam EL375 m

Reseryoir water 381 ,----,~._. . -.,-f-.,-_,-,

surfoce ~''=--h

RcSetvOlf
, --.-
~350
wafer
surfoce

~
&
~
290
•e '\
260
I \
<
.2
g
•
iii

,Tail woler
~

17o_~~E===!:::j:~d::::t::i
30.5 0 305 61.0 91.5 122 152,5
Distance from axis (metresl
Uplirt pressures,
meoSurements mode

during 1947

Fig. 10.08 Uplift pressures at foundation of Hoover Dam,

U.S.A. (From Kenneth B. Keener, 'Uplift Pressures in Con-'
crete Dams', Trans. ASCE, 116, 1218, 1951)
The second factor of intensity of pressure may make provision for a curtain of cored vertical
best be understood by reference to Fig. 10.07, holes 150 mm or more in diameter at 3-5 m ,
which represents the ideal case of underflow con­ spacing and located 3-4 m from the upstream
ditions for an impermeable dam with a straight face. A gallery, running from end to end ,of the
base on a homogeneous isotropic foundation of dam, is provided some metres above the founda­
unlimited depth and horizontal extent. lion and above tail water level. Drainage from the
Headwater and tailwater depths are holes is led away via open gutters, in the
represented by h, and h" respectively. The con­ galleries-measuring weirs being installed as
centric semi-ellipses represent lines of flow of necessary to record the' flow.
water passing through the foundation. The
hyperbolas, drawn normal to the lines of flow at
R.W,S. during normol
all points, represent lines of equal hydrostatic operafion
pressure within the foundation and at the base of
the dam. This network of flow lines and pressure
lines is called a flow net. For simple conditions its
form may be detennined mathematically." For II ~
more complicated conditions other means are 27451'''' \
available.24
The idealized flow net, Fig. 10.07, indicates an
~
G; 2440
E
J "':......."

I \ "
~
1\
,....

Design. assumplion

dud n9 normol
almost linear distribution of pressure on the base,
and this is the distribution for which the stability I 213
! .:: I
5Il~~?l'."red
..A
'-, ~
r"Ser>loif operation

of a dam should be checked if no drainage is W 18'30 i~ ,('Toil woter

provided or in the unlikely event of all drains ,
being blocked. 1525H r iI
o 30,5 6<.0 91.5 122
The earliest system of drainage took the form Distance from axis of Dem (melfes) I
I.
of vertical shafts filled with large rubble. Unfor­
Fig. 10.09 Uplift pressures at foundation of Shasta !I'
tunately these were easily blocked and solidified Dam, U.S.A. (From Kenneth B. Keener, 'Uplift Press­
by the deposition of calcium saits leached from ures in Concrete Dams', Trans. ASCE, 116, 1218,
the cement by percolating water. Later designs 1951)

1O.10(A)

')

'II
II
1
I
(
I'
255

Headwater
'Fig. lO.lO(A) Nepean Dam, Australia-Curved
gravity dam
i
H
II

Provision has been made in most large dams I

1
for measuring uplift pressures. At Hoover I

i (formerly Boulder) Dam relatively high uplift
pressures were recorded, Fig. 10.08. Remedial ac­
tion was taken by grouting and the provision of
additional drains. At the later Shasta Dam much
lower pressures have been recorded, Fig. 10.09.
At Nepean Dam, Australia, Fig. 10.1O(A}-a
75 m gravity dam on sandstone shale foun­
dations--uplift has been recorded 14 since its
completion in 1935, Fig. 10.1O(B). It was at first
thought that the drains had become blocked, but
as this was not so the conclusion has been drawn
that the frequent and extreme fluctuations in
water level between 1936 and 1942 prolonged in­
itial adjustment of the sedimentary foundations.
Additional drain holes were provided in the dam
and the foundation and these successfully
decreased the uplift pressure.
Based on experience it is now general to adopt
a distribution of uplift pressure as shown in Fig.
10.11, the value of the factor k being decided
having due regard to the porosity of foundation
rock and the existence of joints and cracks
therein. The difference between accepting
k = 0.25 and k = 1.00 in the design will be about
10 per cent additional concrete. It is clearly wise
to expend effort and money on a drainage system
that will function satisfactorily over the life of
the dam.
Water Jevel
! the monoliths are 17 m wide between axes--with
100
90 Upfift profile -1964
80
70
~ study the distribution of uplift pressures across
e.­
w 60
.,
C
'i:; 50
Uplift profile
before 1942
Em
0
40
u drainage galleries in the dam parallel with the
30
0.
::> 20
10
0 in Norway and Dhing Mun Dam in China a
~"': 'O.6m )I"O.6m Basoltic
rubble drains
Fig. 10.l0CB) Nepean Dam-Uplift pressures
I
D Gallery
!.--Oroins - h Toilwaler
v.----...)~
wH
+k(H-hl!
Fig. 10.11 Uplift pressure on a gravity
dam
Since small drain holes may become blocked,
attention has been given to larger openings. At
Gries Dam, Switzerland, 1.8 m shafts located
5.7 m from the upstream face have proved most
effective" in reducing the total uplift forces
within the dam, Fig. 10.12.
As early as 1930 Noetzli'6 offered seve~al
suggestions involving open rather than tight con­
traction joints, Fig. 10.13. The Sarrans Dam,
France, was completed in 1933 and had 80mm
gaps between the monoliths. This idea has found
wide acceptance leading to the hollow gravity
type of dam. The 112 m Albinga Dam,~5
Switzerland, 1959, has gaps 5 m wide between
monoliths built 20 m apart.
At 67 m Robiei Dam, Switzerland25 (1964-67)
a 3 m gap along each joint. It was estimated that
a 3 per cent saving in cost resulted despite the in­
creased formwork necessary to form the' gaps.
Three-dimensional model tests were done to
the horizontal foundation.
At Alpe· Gera Dam, Italy-see Chapter
17-Dr Gentile provided special grouting and
abutments to ensure their proper drainage.
Other provisions have been made to avoid
uplift acting within the dam. At Ringedals Dam
separate screen wan was built upstream from the
dam and supported from it by short columns,
Fig. 10.14. At Ceresole Dam the screen wall was
built as a series of arches--with their axes near

440# lOO&l£.. o'Q:

256
Tr{lnS'IefSe section Uplift on section of level 2351

i 23B~~
Average on the secHon
: Z380 0"85H

2370
H

25,Blm

2360

Drainage shoft

Fig. 10.12 Gries Dam, Switzerland--Effect of drainage shaft on uplift

-" "­
I "
-

'f 1f
'­

Fig. 10.14 Screen .t Ringed.ls Dam,

Fig. 10.13 Contraction joints and uplift (Mter Fred Norway
A. Noetzli, Eng. News Rec., 4th Dec. 1930)

vertical. The thickness of these arches varied
from 1.00 to 1.50 m. Leakage was small, but such
construction would be very eXpensive unless slip­
forming could be adapted.
10.4 Stresses in Gravity Dams
Considering vertical cantilever sections of unit
width it is a simple matter to compute vertical
stresses on horizontal pi anes for the cases of
reservoir empty and reservoir fulL In general,
efforts are made to avoid tensile stresses in
the concrete for normal loadings. Compressive
stresses are not usually high in gravity dams. The
figures in Table 10.01 have been taken from the
Proceedings of the 8th ICOLD Congress, Edin­
burgh, Volume 111, page 47.
 I !

257

Table 10.01. Calculated and Measured Stresses at Some Typical Concrete Gravity Dams in U.S.A.

Vert. compo stress (MPa)

Structural Average concrete
height Dead Dead plus strength at
Project (m) load live load Measured 1 year (MPa)
JohnH.Kerr 43.9 0.96 0.87 22.4 .
Chief Joseph 70.1 lAS 1.17 16.8
Norris 80.8 1.60 1.26 2.07 47.5
Hiwassee 93.6 1.68 1.57 2.45 31.6
Pine Flat 131.1 2.96 2.03 25.7
Fontana 146.3 2.87 2.23 3.18 28.0 :'.'
Shasta 183.5 3.26 3.71 3.10 40.5

The maximum principal stress under normal downstream third of the concrete was taking a
loading is therefore unlikely to exceed the figure relatively minor part of the load. It will be noted
of 7 MPa given as a design criterion by some also that the maximum shearing stress occurred
; :­ authorities. near the downstream face in an area of minimum
\ For the usual analysis stresses normal to vertical pressure. The average factor of safety
horizo!)t!!! planes are assumed to have a linear against shear fl'iction failure for the dam as a
trapezoidal distribution. That this is far from the whole would not be representative of the shear
actual state of affairs is illustrated by the founda­ friction safety in this area.
tion pressures measured under Shasta Dam, Measurements made at Grand Coulee Dam
U.S.A., on 1st January, 1954, Fig. 10.15. At that showed a quite different pattern, Fig. 10.16.
time the reservoir was nearly full. The measured Finite element analysis of a 213 m high dam
maximum stress was 4.1 MPa at a point near the showed the stress distribution of Fig. 10.17. It is
centre of the base. The reduction to about 1 MPa significant that the maximum 'stresses do not
near the downstream face shows that the occur at the downstream toe and that there may
I be tension instead of compression at the
upstream heel. Despite variations there is some
f---"'t-'<--El.306m (approx) similarity between the measured distribution of
'1, , I

stresses and that calculated by the finite element

R.W.S, El393m Ii
~~
f\
i'\
;1 r- .~ Apptox"
,
I
1
!
OiSiofll;6 from upstream face - metres MP, ~ !" ~ i
8. 7 I' J:>V
I I" ! MP,
+1.4
0
II
30.5 61.0 91.5 122 !!!!II +LII
.2B
~."<!
I
I
!
+1.4
MPo 0
,...+t.4
f!iliill!iiWI!@i'!li1ffii1DUIl!I@... +g·7
--0.1
Fig. 10.16 Grand Coulee Dam-Measurements July.
Fig. 10.15 Shasta Dam (William T.Lockman, 1, 1952 (William T. Lockman, 'The Structural
'The Structural Behavior of Shasta Dam', U.S. Behavior of Grand Coulee Dam', U.S. Bureau of
Bureau of Reclamation, Tech. Mem. 656, Fig. 6) Reclamation. 15 Year Report, Tech. Mem. 652, 1955)

I
258

method. Further development of design methods
is to be encouraged to indicate to the Engineer
how his structure should respond to various
loads. The fact that it does not always do so
simply emphasizes the need for more intensive
studies of the behaviour of prototype dams, and
warns us not to accept the design of dams as an
eJ'Bct science.
,,;
can be calculated" but it is often difficult to
apply these to the day-to-day variations at the
site.
There is at present a trend to varying the
cement content in the concrete--and hence its
strength, to suit the stresses in particular zones
of the dam. At the 218 m Dworshak Dam,
:, '~
U.S.A., the strength of concrete at various
elevations was specified" as in Table] 0.02.

Table 10.02. Dworsbak Dam

Elevation (m) Concrete strength (MFa)
274-305 20.6

305-335 15.2

335-381 10.3

381-492 8.3

The idea of zoning the dam is by no means

new. The original purpose was to provide rich
concrete adjacent to the faces to resist frost ac­
~ f>,_c-~--:;;,---..,.l: tion and provide better impermeability and then
.. 0 ::E
l "--..c.::::!=-o:::::::
-_JI "-i to place lean concrete in ·the heart of the dam for
As computed by economy, Fig. 10.18. Such a procedure was
trapezoidal low
As computed by
adopted in the 80 m Komaki Dam in Japan29 in
finite element mel hod 1933, the face concrete containing 270 kg of
Fig. 10.17 Gravity dam. (After cement per cubic metre and the hearting from 210
Davis and Sorensen," Fig. 33, to 240 kg per cubic metre. Richer concrete in the
pp. 9-32) lower sections of gravity. dams was provided in
the 96 m Chavanon Dam, 30 the 112 m Sarrans
It is important to check the distribution and Dam" and the 88 m Chambon Dam," all in
intensity of stress around galleries and other France, about 40 years ago.
openings in the dam and to provide adequate
reinforcement to prevent the propagation of
cracks from points of high stress concentration.27
Finite element analyses will quickly reveal how
r~ntrant shapes or blockouts induce stresses
often greater than the strength of the concrete.
Simplicity in gallery shape is therefore essential
With normal concreting procedures the
temperature of concrete may rise by about 20°C
m
above placing temperature. Artificial cooling is
introduced during the first few days to limit this 1.5m
temperature rise. Since crack formation depends
upon temperature gradients it is essential to
maintain day-to-day engineering control of the Heorting concrete
-[eon mass or
cooling system. However, a drop in temperature - plum concrele or
of 25°C from 3 p.m. to midnight in the middle of -displocer concrete
summer-as is possible at some sites--can upset
the best cooling programme. The only way to
combat such occurrences is to provide surface in­
sulation-a procedure that is cumbersome,
costly, and time-<:onsuming. The thermal stresses Fig. 10.18 Zoning of concrere
n
, ,

259

In more recent times the practice was adopted alternative methods of construction that might
for the Bemposta Dam l3-a 95 m high cupola avoid the high thermal stresses that occur in the
dam in Portugal-and the Alpe Gera Dam34 in more usual procedures. The VagaI'juna Sagar
Italy, Fig. 10.19 (see also Chapter 17).
I,
Dam-123.5 m high-was built in India mainly
I by hand labour to suit local conditions. The
result was less shrinkage, no cracking, and less /"
seepage. Maybe there is a lesson to be learnt!
Should a gravity dam be subjected to an earth-, ii
q' 'ke very high tensile stresses can occur-par­
ti,'"larly at an abrupt change in section such as is
ca;:<mon near the crest of many gravity dams.
;, mdies of earthquake stresses in Koyna Dam36
% ha:e shown the stress patterns of Fig. 10.20 with
10
I
I ~3_1
'>" a c',aximum tensile stress of 8.6 MPa. Application
of lhe same seismic pattern of loading to Pine
i'
"i;;t Dam, U.S.A., revealed less severe tensile
I :;;;'esses, Fig. 10.21. The transition in slope of the
J
150 kg/m 3 ,hwnstream face substantially decreased the
stresses; however, the maximum tensile stress of
1985,;..1­
1982,2
5.5 MPa would exceed the tensile strength of the
1970,61
concrete with consequent cracking.. The above
1965,5

results were substantiated by studies of

Fig. 10.19 Alpe Gera Dam, Italy-Zoning of
I ij concrete
The effect on stress distribution of concretes
1\ of varying strength throughout a 'homogeneous'
structure must be queried on theoretical
grounds, although tests at L.N.E.C. Portugal
!i have indicated that there is small difference in
strain at failure for concrete of different
strengths. 3$ In Chapter 17 reference is made to
Kolkewadi Dam in India. 37
To minimize cracking under seismic loading it
is essential that abrupt changes of section be
avoided and that crest designs be modified to
avoid a concentration of a large mass of concrete
merely to provide a roadway, Fig. 10.22.
Analyses of dynamic behavio\}r of gravity
dams-made possible by the computer .and the
finite element method-have revealed that ten­
sile stresses are seriously underestimated by

D--"'O.7 MPa
". (fA-v
. ·.. ·3.5
; i

~ I

·1

'i
!

-oj 4.425 sec 01

Fig. 10.20 Koyna Dam, India-Maximum principal stresses

during earthquake MPa (After Chopra and Chakrabarn")

, I
I
~_ J
 /5,5 mQ).imvm

'.-j

i
i

ot 3.775 sec Of 3.B25 sec

Fig. 10.21 Pine Flat Dam-Prin~ipal stresses during earthquake

MPa (After Chopra and Chat:ra?~rti")

than this. It is, however, essential to locate the

joints to best advantage relative to the shape of
the abutments. The protrusion of a rock ledge
(0) (b) into the monolith, Fig. 10.24(a), would almost
(bod) (poor)
certainly result in a crack in the concrete; the
arrangement in Fig. 10.24(b) would be more
satisfactory. If it is necessary to adopt the joint
location as in Fig. 10.24(c) then the shaded area
of concrete should be placed separately, and
cooled or allowed to cool to rock temperamre.
The monolith is then started from the base AB as
a cold joint.

1
i
'j
(c) (d)
(better) (desirable)

(0)

Fig. 10.22 Crest treatment for gravity dams

.~imple beam analysis using equivalent static

'loading. A 8

10.5 Contraction Joints

(b I (C I
10.51 Transverse Joints
Fig. 10.24 Location of contraction joints
It is good practice for nonnal methods of con­
struction to provide contraction joints in gravity Although each monolith--or slice--of the
dams, Fig. 10.23. These are usually spaced about
15 m apart, experience having shown that cracks
are likely to develop in monoliths much wider Fig. 10.23 Typical contraction jOints-1952
10.23

....................,. .......................... ........,..................., . .......................______i

-"~I1""'!"'.'''"'go;
 .__--.:.================_.
. . . ._.-.-.._._-_. "-'--'-,1

,.
600mm '"
'"
'"
Masonry crest.
E\.458 A

Contraction
joints
H
'~~ m !It J
:mnw: I [)"" EI.445 l'ype Aseat
,. " Ou. ! •
Lop weld
ISOmm
Contraction jOint5 = ~ 37mm S
keyed and grouted f iI Const,uetio~
"1
Formed below this line o
200 mm UfUIII~-.I Excavation '-' A o
Type C
1. I
jolnt

mm
line at o~is E revofion
(looking upstream)
sear l
I t56 1.52

=r
-
225mm-1
Elevation

Cbntraction joint
,L\ ..

9IS ;,p:~.~f.jH:~~'~_~{~·;~·~~:14~~~~~" ;.;~~

.....~ • .' ...l". """"'~f.ii
............
g.5mm
j •!,.,15mlt!···l~ ." ,.,~.~\,.:mm··~:.1·
......!': #~.. (mil'll
'• ';":'ISl?mm
·~"*otm.d w'Ii~', ", n~Omm"·.,;~;· ;;/.
silo '~i \ .: ~l
.. -,
Section D·D
gallery
1.8x2.4m
Point this surface only,with
asphalt emulsion after final bend
P.-.!'., ..... ·t.~'!.~ ... ~
Contraction
'n Cseol at all horizontal G,out Grout joint
Upstream "construction ioints header outlet
foceofDa~m~~.r-.~~~~~~J.2~~~~~~71
'~~~~~~~~ Bend into place
Just befo'e Chamf.,
second pour
Horizontal cons1ruction joints
Grout Second pour
slop (Omit in spillway)
Section B-B Type B seal

Fig. 10.25 Contraction joint, Hiwassee Dam (From Cecil E. Pearce, 'Design of Hiwassee Dam', Civil Eng., July 1940, p. 433)

If,,,.... -_ .. "'; .,
r:= ~ [;~:;J
...... =
~~ ............ r ..
~
. .. ~.~-----------------
r.::,:.)

·:>~ ($~, -".~ ..,.:.'.:'.....
~
~
~
r:······"'"
~J r'~'iJ
........ -"'1
:~~ ...,...J
,W."~"· ,

!..-:...':-"'"
"'H_'_~,1

! .....­
t· .." ";,

\
 V'
"" :r
··1
dam is designed to be stable, there appear to be
!
:j
advantages in having a structure that can derive
strength against ultimate failure from its three­
dimensional shape. To achieve this it is necessary
to inject cement into the contraction joints after
the dam has been cooled to a few degrees below
mean ambient temperature. For satisfactory
cement grouting the gap should be not less than
0.7 mm wide. It is common practice, and makes ,
the work simpler, to provide metal stops across
the contraction joints at intervals of about 15 m,
and to arrange for grouting to be done in these
15 m vertical stages, Fig. 11.67.
On the assumption that all joints are grauted
solid, and the abutments are rigid a straight
gravity dam in a narrow gorge can act as a
horizontal beam. Calculations may indicate ten­
sile stresses that would crack the dam, but in
practice the contraction joints would open and
redistribute the load. If the seals remained intact
1 then the only damage likely would be that caused
C'
I'
;
'I
by spalling of concrete near the joints due to ex­
cessive compression.
It is theoretically possible to introduce
prestressing during the grouting operation;
however, this is rarely acceptable in the design
due to ultimate relalCation of the prestress due to
creep in the concrete.
('I Although not required in the design it has
been customary to provide keyways in the con­
I' traction joints. In practice, wrongly proportioned
keyways can induce very high local stresses
:.,11 during differential shrinkage or deflection of
I adjacent monoliths. The depth should not eKceed
200 mm, with ends sloping less than 30 0 to the
plane of the joint. At Chavanon Dam in France
(1926) the joints were left plane 'to prevent
cracks due to non-uniform shrinkage'.'·
At Hiwassee Dam, U.S.A.," keyways approx­
imately parallel to the directions of principal
stress were provided but only in the bottom third
I of each joint, Fig. 10.25. In Fontana Dam only
l!
the bottom quarter of each joint was keyed and
grouted, the balance being plane and ungrauted.
It is significant that the recently constructed
150 m high Guri Dam in Venezuela has com­
pletely plane and ungrouted joints.
LI However, many Engineers still feel that with
grouted and keyed joints there must be some ad­
I
'I
ditional factor of safety against ultimate failure.
'I On this basis they justify the additional cost and
).1i '
] ;
,
-,.~ iUiCW.4.1. .n h&'
263
time involved-an example of the Art overruling
the Science.
For medium sized dams it is unlikely that
serious secondary effects would be in troduced,
but ifit is proposed to grout contraction joints of
a large dam it is desirable to analyse the possible
stress distribution by the Trial load method or
preferably by a three-dimensional finite element
study. At least this will indicate the distribution
of loading and of any dangerous stresses that
maybe induced in the dam.
Following the philosophy that a dam should be
built in monoliths that will shrink on cooling,
attention has been given to other means of mak­
ing a tight joint. One procedure that has proved
successful in several countries is to provide a gap
wide enough to permit the erection and dismantl­
ing offormwork. The coat of this double forming
is, of course, a disadvantage but the method has
the advantage that the gap (say 1.5 m wide) can
be ftIled at a time convenient to the construction
schedule after the monoliths have cooled. Normal
slipforming techniques can expedite this work,
the inciusion of expansive or at least non­
shrinking additives to the concrete being an ad­
vantage. It is also practicable to use a grout­
intrusion process for fllling the gap. Typical gap
joints are illustrated in Fig. 1O.26-Vargforsen
Arch Dam, Sweden; Fig. 10.27-Cruachan,
Buttress Dam, Scotland, and Fig. 10.2s-:..
Mareges Dam, France. .,.
10.52 Longitudinal Joints
When the Hoover Dam was conceived, great
attention was being given to thetmaleffects in
dams due to heat of hydration. For such a large
structure the problems of cooling large masses of
concrete were enormous. It was therefore con­
sidered necessary to limit both dimensions of the
monolith-resulting in columns about 15 m
square, keyed on all sides. Similar procedures
were followed at Shasta Dam, the 137 m
Warragamba Dam, Australia (1948-62), Fig.
10.29, and the 285 m Grande Dixence Dam in
Switzerland (1953-61).
In order to lower the cost of gravity dams and
with some doubts as to the fmal behaviour of
dams built in cohimns, there is now a tendency to
decrease the number of longitudinal joints or
even omit same.· o
) : ;
 264

" ;
The Hungry Horse Dam, U.S.A., is 172m Fig. 10.26 Vargforsen Dam, Sweden-Slipformed
high-of arch gravity type with crest length monoliths and cooling slors
640 m, and base thickness 100 m. Only one
longitudinal joint was provided. The concrete Fig.l0.27 Cruachan Buttress Dam, Scotl.nd-Gaps
was cooled and the joint was grouted; however, left between buttress monoliths
field measurements have revealed that the two
Fig.l0.28 Mareges Dam, France--Contracrion joint
sections of the dam separated by the joint act to slots
some extent as two contiguous rings."
At Fontana Dam, U.S.A.," the three Fig. 10.29 Warragamba Dam, Australia---Trans­
longitudinal joints have been located at 31.5, verse and longitudinal joints
62.8 and 88 m from the upstream face of the dam .
and there appears to be some independence of Fig. 10.30 Alpe Gera Dam, Italy-Continuous
action between the parts of the dam. placing of concrete
In recent large gravity dams like Detroit Dam,
Dworshak Dam and Libby Dam longitudinal
joints have been omitted.
As described in Chapter 17.9, both transverse . l
• 1
and horizontal joints have been omitted from d
some large Italian dams, Fig. 10.30 shows the un­ quite high local stresses with consequent crack­
conventional construction methods adopted at ing of the concrete. Narrow galleries can be quite
Alpe Gera Dam, Italy. functional-that at Morrow Point Dam, U.S.A.,
being only 0.6 m wide. At the Gordon Arch Dam,
Australia, the gallery is 0.9 m wide. In each case
the gallery is widened and reinforced where
necessary for instrument stations and special
10.6 Galleries drilling positions.

Galleries are normally provided in gravity

. dams; in fact it is reported" that galleries were
. . . included in two dams built near Paris in 1895.
The size and location of the galleries will vary
with their purpose and the importance of the
dam. In special circumstances they have been
provided at the base of the dam across the
rock-<:oncrete boundary. In the concrete dam at
the Grosser Muhldorfersee, Fig. 10.31, the
gallery was so built in order to minimize uplift
forces on the dam, and hence decrease the quan­
tity of concrete required, as well as to observe
structural behaviour.
The normal function of a gallery is to provide
access for inspection purposes, to monitor Fig. 10.31 Grosser Muhldorfersee
behaviour of the dam, and to carry out remedial -Typical cross-section of the
work if required. It must therefore be of suf­ gravity dam and detail of slab facing
ficient height to permit easy movement of per­ on the upstream side
sonnel and. minor equipment--cr>mmonly
2.13 m-but varied to suit construction When galleries are provided at different levels
methods, i.e. 2.28 m if that is the thickness of the they can conveniently be connected by relatively
lift in the dam. small circular shafts. A spiral staircase for access,
The width of the gallery has often been ventilation, pipes for drainage and electrical ser­
1.5 m-but it should be related to the function vices can be accommodated in quite 1\ small
of the gallery. Wide rectangular openings induce shaft--1lay 1.3 m diameter.
 .J

'l:"ii'

'j

1
, :1
!

I
!

iI
'.J

u
 "'1
,I
" , 1

I
;OJ

lj

'1
;i
~l
j

10.28 '"-" iJ
.'

,J
L
-,
1

-I

,I

Q
I

- - ,I

lJ

268 :l,
:
,i
The shape of the gallery is important from the Fig. 10.32 Warragamba Dam, Australia-Grouting
point of view of stress concentrations. A circular

or oval shape is most desirable, Fig. 10.32. This

from a gallery in the dam

;]

Fig. 10.33 Liapootah Dam, Australia-Precast gal·

would require a removable floor covering the lery and steps
-drains; it would involve greater height, more ex­
pensive forms, and delays in the normal con­ Fig. 10.34 Tamangara Dam, Australia--45 m high ,I

creting programme. A rectangular shape, which

is easy to form; will generally require reinforce­
ment above and below in order to -stop the
propagation of cracks. It is fairly common prac­
tice to roof the_ gallery with precast concrete stabs
placed in the bottom of a normal pour. It should,
however, be mentioned here that the use of com­
plete precast units of gallery, Fig. 10.33, prevents
the use of the gallery for one of its most impor­
tant functions-inspection of concrete quality
and observation of seepage.
Galleries should be well lit and well ventilated.
Fig. 10.35 Warragamba Dam, Australia-137 m
high
Fig. 10.36 Warragamba Dam-Upstream approaches
to spillway openings
to spillway openings, Fig. 10.36, add further
complications. One method of avoiding high
training walls is to build the overflow section
upstream of the flanks of the dam, Fig. 10.37.

If they extend into the abutments and are un­

lined, regular tests should be made for explosive

or noxious gases. At Gordon Dam, Australia,

ventilation is provided in such abutment

galleries-so interlocked that access is not nor­

mally possible until the fans have been running

for a prescribed time.

10.7 Appurtenant Structures

The designer must be fully conscious of the ­
full significance in cost and time of each feature

that he adds to the dam.

10.71 Spillway
Fig. 10.37 Spillway section located upstream

The gravity _dam is often selected for sites from dam axis

where it is desirable to pass flood waters over the

dam, Fig. 10.34. Although overall economy may

be indicated it is very easy for the actual cost of 10.72 Power Station

details to exceed the estimates. The placing of

high-quality concrete to correct profile for an At many sites a power station is embodied in
Ogee spillway is slow and expensive, especially the structure of the dam-see Chapter 17. This
above the limit of forming. If gates are to be in- _ is attractive from the aesthetic point of
stalled, then the placing of reinforcement, and view--especially if the spillway discharges over
aligument of hinges, can cause serious delays in the roof of the station. However, the- designer
the normal concreting procedure. The spillway should be aware of the likelihood of vibration
discharge will pass down the face of the dam at being induced into the power station through the
iI
. high velocity. It is essential that the surface be roof as well as of the interference likely to be
. smooth and of high-quality concrete--;I further caused to -construction of the dam. The
restriction on normal practice. possibility of tilt of the turbo-generator axis
The construction of high training walls on the should not be overlooked. Any complicated con­
dam, Fig. 10.35, and streamlining the awrl:!lICheS<""'Sti'Uction" mixed with what would otherwise be :' 1
1~

:
" , :
,~'(.<i&.'!1~1~,-<;;m.:g~'~b*~~'1:;';':·
o
", '>.,jl",,~~,,"'M¥~rii4\'

,..... _

. .~R. ,
 I
,I

I
J

.J

:I
I
10.34
10.35

: .J!

'J
10.36
272

straightforward repetitive work, must add both Fig. 10.38 Catagunya Dam, Australia
time and cost to the project. The Hoover Dam
Fig. 10.02, is an excellent example of separatio~ stocks on the downstream face
Fig. 10.39 Roxburgh Dam, New Zealand-Pen­
of such works, for the benefit of both. ..
On the other hand, there are considerable ad­
vailtages in having conduits of minimum length
supplying the turbines and these may outweigh dam of features that could-at little extra
the disadvantages to the civil Engineer. The cost-be made external to the dam. With this in
arrangement at Catagunya Dam, Tasmania, is . mind certain projects now assemble all appurte­
interesting, Fig. 10.38. Satisfactory hydraulic nant structures at one location-remote from the
conditions for power station operation were dam workings. At Djatiluhur Dam, Indonesia, a
provided, extra head downstream from the dam 90 m diameter tower houses the overflow
was utilized-interference with dam construc­ spillway (3000 m'/s), irrigation intakes, bottom
tion was almost eliminated and a simple central outlets and a 180 MW power station. The
spillway was provided on the dam. hydraulic behaviour of the various waterways in
the tower was the subject of extensive testing on
models by SOGREAH, Grenoble.
10.73 OUIlels
The installation of outlets near the base of the 10.8 Prestressed Gravity Dams
dam has been discussed in Chapter 5.8. Although
Credit is given to A. Coyne'" for the flISt
often necessary, the installation of steel conduits'
application of stressing by steel cables to improve
through a dam is expensive. Care must be taken
the stability of concrete dams. The original Les
with the concrete surrounding the pipes or voids
Cheurfas Dam was built in Algeria in 1882-85.
will remain. If water can move through these
In the ensuing years it suffered damage by floods
voids, external corrosion will ensue. With empty
on various occasions; in 1927 a crack was dis­
pipes there can be considerable buoyancy during
covered between the original masonry and that
concreting. Solid anchorages are necessary if the
added later. It was considered that the section
pipes are to remain in correct position, and such
was too thin and the crest was lowered 2 m. Over
anchorages impede effective consolidation of the
the period 1931-35 grouting of the foundations
concrete; If the pipe is pressurized during con­
creting, then it is probable that when emptied it was carried out together with strengthening of
will shrink away from the concrete again leaving the dam by prestressing: s Fig. 10.40. Each cable
was composed of 630, 5 mm hard parallel strands
water passages for corrosion.
Attention must be given to construction 229.25
details; if the air temperature is likely to be very
c'1ld shortly after concreting it is wise to seal
both ends of a large conduit to minimize chilling cables
of newly placed concrete by heat loss through the
steel.
Where it is necessary to have conduits through
the dam they should be designed and. located to
cause least interference to construction­
preferably in one monolith, preferably horizontal,
and where possible with their valves external to
the structure of the dam. At Roxburgh Dam,
New Zealand, the penstocks were built on the
.downstream face of the dam, Fig. 10.39.
Simplicity in the dam will result in a faster o .0 20 30 40 50",
construction schedule and lower cost: Each dam t ,

is, of course, a separate entity, but it is essential Fig. 10.40 Les Cheurfas Dam,
for the design Engineer to avoid inclusion in the Algeria
n
, ,

!
!1 t

..i
 -- -----

274

Axis of 00"--'1

305m I
F l. of tendons
68Srnm

TOp ot'lcnoroge
reinforcement

Twenty-eigM 28mm dio.H.T.S. bors

lensiooe:d to.37t eOCh

Bors in
temporor}'
open shoft

mesh steel fabric

.r " .. ,",,0 ground surface

Couplers

H,T.S.bors wrapped
, to prevent bond
Granite foundation

o t,.,_ _ _
5
.J.,_ _ _-,I10m

Cross"'$eelion ot
anchOfoge shaft

Fig. 10.41 Cros....ection of Allt-na-Lairige prestressed

concrete darn

and was stressed to 1000 tonnes. It is interesting
to note how loss of tension decreased with time:
1936--38' 14.5 tonnes Per year
1939--42 1.2 tonnes per year
1942--45 0.4 tonnes per year
Since that time many dams throughc?ut the world
have been strengthened by post tensioning-but
only a relatively few new dams have been
designed and built as prestressed dams:9 Possibly
the 46 m Catagnnya Dam in Australia is still the
highest so designed. The Allt-na-Lairige Dam,
Fig. 10.41, was designed as a prestressed dam'·
and built in Scodand 1953-56. It is 22.2 m
high-founded on granite that was tested at
depth for the anChorages. The prestressing was
applied via high tensile steel bars wrapped to pre­
vent bond. Groups of bars were spaced at 6.4 m.
Each group consisted of twenty-eight 28.6 mm
bars, each bar being tensioned to 37 tonries. An
inspection gallery was provided in the dam with
a~.cess to the bars for regnlarly recording of the
.' .'/:i."~' -;,: ,~:;ii;:J;/'~<'I".-'\'
stresses therein. A special study was made of the
stress concentrations at the anchorages:'
The reluctance to use cables in a new desigu
has undoubtedly been related to a lack of
knowledge concerning the corrosion of steel
cables when embedded in concrete. Engineers are
accustomed to thinking of the rusting of steel in
air where the ratio of the surface area to the mass
of metal is important. It is, however, generally
agreed that steel does not rust when embedded in
high-quality concrete or in cement grout in
Fig. 10.42 Meadowbank Darn, Australia-Trial
grouted prestressing cable e>'posed by excavation from
calyx drilled shaft (Photo by Quartermaine)
Fig. 10.43 Meadowbank Dam, Australia-Exposed
trial cable, mortar removed to cbeck grout between
wires (Photo by Quartermaine)
Fig. 10.44 Catagunya prestressed gravity dam,
Australia-Sbowing prestressing beads
 · i "',

10.42


which there are no cracks or interconnected
voids. For Tasmanian conditions this was
verified by exposing samples of the reinforcing
steel in a multiple-arch dam built at elevation
1000 mover 50 years ago. The concrete cover to
the steel was only 37.5 mm from the air face.
The main objective in groutmg the cables is to
ensure a complete coating of grout around each
wire in the cable. At Meadowbank Dam,
Australia,48 it was convenient to install an ex­
perimental cable in a normally drilled hole adja­
cent to a 1.22 m Calyx hole that had been
previously drilled for foundation exploration and
in situ shear testing. Excavation from within the
Calyx hole revealed the efficiency of grouting the
cable hole, Fig. 10.42. The minimum space
between the parallel wires of the cable was 1 mm
and the excellent intrusion of the grout between
the wires is seen in Fig. 10.43.
If prestressing is accepted in the design then it
is prudent to make provision for retensioning'if
required, replacement of bars or cables, or the in­
stallation of new cables. Serious corrosion of
cables can be detected by the regnlar measure.,
ment of their electrical resistance. As temperatur.l
variations in the dam can cause significant vari­
ations in the cable resistance it is necessary to
include in the installation a precalibrated resist­
ance thermometer extending the full length of the
cable. The safety of a prestressed gravity dam will
rely on it being impossible for the cables to pull
out from the foundation or bodily lift a portion of
the foundation.
Prior to the design of 46 m Catagnnya Dam,
Australia:' Fig. 10.44, two model tests were un­
dertaken in 1956-57. In the first the anchorage
was in a non-cohesive granular material; in the
second and larger model it was in a poor-quality
rock. Eased upon these. experiments it was
decided that it would be' safe--for the dolerite
foundation under Catagunya Dam-to balance
the prestressing load with a 90° wedge of rock,
with its apex at the extreme end of the cable--it
being assumed that the 'wedge of rock was sub­
jected to full uplift pressure.
More recently a complete stress analysis based
on elastic two-dimensional behaviour has been
carried out by Zienkiewicz and Gerstner.'Ot It is
,t From,'· Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book
Company,
277
interesting that the aforementioned model tests
indicated failure patterns somewhat similar to
those assumed in this analysis.
Whichever premise i's accepted for tlie design,
the actual behaViour of the dam will depend
upon the nature of. the foundation rock, any in­
itial stress in the rock and the effect of saturation
of the rock mass. Some conservatism is'therefore
justified. Since the results are comparable it
appears appropriate to accept the rational design
proposed by Zienkiewicz," Fig. 10.45:,
Coble
I
I
I
u, I
r
I \ Unsafe position
I \\for resuUont .
I
I \
c
B
JWz
A
Fig. 10045 Loads on a prestressed dam
From point B, the downstream comer of the foun­
dation, draw an arc AC passing through the
anchorage point A. The position of point C will in
general be outside the upstream foundation corner
D at which the highest tensile stresses tend to exist,
but nevertheless the line AC will correspond
approximately to the possible crack. location.
Assuming this line to correspond to an open fissure,
i.e. allowing full bydrostatic pressure to be
developed along it, compute tbe effective uplift
forces U, and UJ acting along AC and AB, respec­
tively (for calculation of the latter a linear decrease
of uplift pressure between A and B can be assumed).
Computing tbe remaining forces acting on tbe dam
and the portion of the foundation BAC, i.e. the ex­
ternal water pressure on the upstream face UI and
the weigbts of the dam, W" and the portion ABC of
the foundation W" tbe magnitude and position of
the resultant force R acting on the section AB Can
be detennined. Clearly if tbis falls outside the point
B reliance must be placed on tensile stresses acting
along AB and stability is therefore endangered. The
only possibility of resisting the overturning forces
entirely by compressions is if this reaction R falls
278
within the length AB, even so admitting a certain
amount of cracking along this length if the reaction
is close to the point B. To ensure,' certain factor of
safety it is necessary to arrange the anchorage at
such a depth that the reaction R passes well within
the section AB. If the stresses occurring in the sec­
tion AB are computed according to some reasonable
assumption, such as linear distribution, and the
maximum value of the principal stress is found to
fall within permissible limits for the foundation
material, an adequate factor will be assured. In this
calculation, no allowance should be placed on ten­
sile stresses and the section AB should be permitted
to crack as far as is required.
For a reasonable stress distribution the depth
of the aneborage should be not less than the
width of the base of the dam. An anchorage is
often 3-4 m ofgrouted cable at the bottom of the
hole. Whether the depth of the anchorage is
measured to the bottom of the hole or to the mid­
point of the grouted portion will be decided by
the Engineer having regard to the nature of the
foundation.
For prestressing, either small-diameter high­
tensile wires or high-tensile steel bars can be
used. The advantages of wires over bars are:
The allowable working stress in high tensile
wires is usually greater than in bars;
Wire cables can be fabricated on site in one
length, avoiding ,the use of couplers th~ are
necessary with bars and are a source of
trouble;
Cables can be accommodated in drilled holes
whereas barS with couplers usually require
larger pits.
In Catagunya Dam each cable is 80 mm
diameter and is composed of 102 parallel wires
each 5 mm diameter. The cable is capable of
carrying a working loa~ of 200 tonnes. Each
cable, weighing about 1 tonne, was fabricated on
a bench 9n the right abutment, and wound on to
a 5.5 m diameter 'homing' wheel; the wheel and
its stand were lifted by the cableway on to the
dam and the cable lowered down the 117.5 mm
hole, Fig. 10.46. Each reinforced cable head was
loaded by" three coupled hydraulic rams,
Fig. 10047. Creep was reduced in the cables by
four preliminary tensionings up to 234 tonnes
and released to a small residual load. Between 2
and 4 days after stressing the cables were tested"
by being jacked off their packers and the residual
tension was calculated. To pass the test the ten­
sion was to exceed 213 tonnes. After testing the
holes were grouted with a cement mortar grout,
mixed in a high-speed mixer. A methyl-cellulose
additive 'Methocell' was added--as 0.2 per cent
of the cement weight-to prevent shrinkage and
breaking of the grout column. To avoid any sense
of false security, grouting of cables should only
be done by specialists.
Cementation Co. of England has pioneered
devel»pments in both stressing and the design of
cables. One system now available includes multi­
wire cables coated with polypropylene and
anchored in a rapid setting plastic compound.
With such attention to detail it appears
reasonable to assume that the life of a modem
prestressed dam will compare favourably with
that of other types of dam.
10.9 Special Gravity Dams
10.91
The Penzance Dam," 22.5 m high, in
Cornwall, U.K., is founded for the greater part of
its length on sound granite, but in the middle of
the valley, near the original river bed, excavation
revealed a zone of decomposed granite, about
30 m long, which was considerably larger than
anticipated. It was completely decomposed in the
central 20 m, consisting ofwhite China clay with
residual quartz grains intersected by numerous
quartz veins in near vertical directions. These
were believed to be the result ofpneumatolysis-­
the injection from below of volatile gases into
cracks and fissures fonned in the already solidified
rock when cooling.
Bearing tests on 300 by 300 mm and 600 by
600 mm plates gave resistances of 275 kPa,
whereas the cross-section of the dam had been
designed for a maximum pressure of 480 kPa.
Over a length of 36 m the section of the dam was
modified to extend the 18 m base by 9 m in an
upstream direction. This lowered the maximum
Fig. 10.46 Catagunya prestressed gravity dam,
Australia-'Homing' wheel
Fig. 10.47 Catagunya Dam, Australia-Stressing a
cable
, !

!
I

Eel( . , i " Ii
-------_.. ,\"e
: ~ ~
l' -1 :

f."l
280 ,!

pressure to 214 kP.. Over this length the radius of 213 m, reliance was placed on arch 11
monoliths were built 4.6 m ,wide instead of action to counteract significant sliding. U
15.2 m as used elsewhere for the dam.
A very deep cut-()ff trench was provided to :"1
decrease the hydraulic gradient, and a carefully
10.92 i~
: - j

designed filter was provided under the tailbay Varkhotov!3 reports an interesting form of

apron, Fig. 10.48. Since the dam is curved to a construction to save concrete. Precast concrete

panels were assembled on site on precast or cast [1

in situ bases to form concrete cells 3 by 4 m and 4
,-,:
by 5 m. These cells were then filled with earth to fl
provide the necessary weight. The sealing of Ji
joints would be a major problem but this prin­
Normal profile of dam ~'"l
ciple might well be adapted to small dams in wide ; .t,
valleys; the rectangular shape of the cells might ~J
Subsoil relief well be modified to interlocking shapes.

n
;JIves
F.;
Special filler
10.93
92m 17.7m ,'-'1I
Gravity dams are often curved for aesthetic " J
Cut-off french reasons and to provide an additional factor of
I . safety against ultimate failure. A radius of 250 m
:r.,1 ,
t.-Grout curtoln
I,' ,30m deep
I
will increase the crest length by about 10 per ,
cent; for an overflow dam this could represent a j

valuable increase in discharge capacity and could ,-,

Fig. 10.48 Penzance Dam, U.K. result in overall economy. ;1
",J

:] ,
) J
References
n
1. 'Some Dams of the Ancients', Eng. News Rec., 6th New York, Section 10-0. C. Zienkiewicz, 'The U
Oct., 1921­ Finite Element Method'.
2. M.Mary, Barrages Voules-Hiswrique Accilknls el 11. (a) Loc cil, Section 9-C. V. Davis; 'Concrete
Incidents, Dunod, Paris, 1968. Dams, Basic Principles of Design', pp. 9.16 and ;:r,'l
3. D. C. Henry, 'Stability of Straight Gravity ~J
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"1
U
Dams of the Power Division A.S.C.E., 1951, 13. (0) G. Gentile, 'Study, Preparation and Placement
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,.J
1949, pp. 193-289; Discussion by R. M. Riegel, (b) A/po GeM Dam, Rassegna Technica ENEL,
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I,; 22. uplift in Masonry Dams, Final Report of the Sub­
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'Concrete and Earth Dams in Switzerland Today
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27. G. 1. Brooks and J. H. A. Bratz, 'Stresses and
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r
(
Concrete Dams', U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Tech.
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I 28. D. L. Houghton, 'Concrete Volume Change for
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'I I
,'.,1 6825; Proc. A.S.C.E., No. PO.2, Oct. 1969,
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281
35. 1. Babusha and L. Mejzlik, 'Calculation and
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36. A. K. Chopra and P. Chakrabarti, 'The Earth­
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I
Concrete Gravity Dams', Earthquake Engineering
and Structural DynamiCs, Vol. I, pp. 151-164,
Joim Wiley, New York, 1972.
31. S. S. Saini, J. Krishna and A. R: Chandrasekaran
ci4
'Aseismic Strength of Kolkewadi Dam', loe.
pp. 225-240.
38. 'Chavanon Dam" Le Genie Civil, 20th Feb. 1926,
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39. G. E. Pearce, 'Hiwassee Dam, Basic Design Con­
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p. 340, and July 1940, pp.433--436. j.
40. B. W. Steel, 'Height Limits of Dams without
Longitudinal Joints or Cracks', Proc. of Sym­
posium on Mass Concrete, A.C.l. SP16; 14th and
15th March 1963, pp.65-7.6.
41. Hungry Horse Dam, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,
Engng. Mono. No. 24. .
42. Ca) 'Fontana Dam', A.S.C.E. Civil Engineering,
July 1943, p. 306; (b) 'Measurement of Structural
Behaviour of Fontana Dam', Tennessee Valley
Authority Tech. Memo 69, 1953.
43. J. D. Van Buren, 'Notes on High Masonry Dams',
Trans. A.S.C.E., 34, Dee. 1895, The Discussion
quoted from Annales des Ponts et Chaussees,
June 1895.
44. A. Coyne, 'Perfectionnement aux barrages-poid.
par I'adjonction de tirants en aeier', Le Genie
Civil, 97(8), 186, 1930.
45. M. Drouhin, 'Consolidation de barrage des
Cheurfas par tirants metaliques mis en tension',
Annales de; Pants 81 Chaussees, 105(8),253, 1935.
46. J. A. Banks, 'AlIt-na-Lairige Dam', 51h [COLD
Congress, Paris, 1955, 11, R.68, pp. 341-357, and
Proc. [.C.E., 6, March 1957.
47. C. Jaeger, 'Stresses around Anchorages at AlIt-na­
Lairige Dam', 7th [COLD Congre;s, Rome, 1961,
111, Q.)6, R.6, p. 173.
Conference, 1972, A.S.C.E,' Special Publication
Eeonomit ConslrueJion of Concrete Dams. '
49. G. T. Colebatch and J. K. Wilkins, 'Design of
Catagunya Prestressed Dam', 7th [COW Con­
gress, Rome 1961,3, Q.26, R.17, pp. 261-288.
50. O. C. Zienkiewicz and R. W. Gerstner, 'Stress
Analysis and Special Problems of Prestressed
Dams', Proc. A.S.C.E., 87, Jan. 1961.
51. C. V. Davis and K. E. Sorensen, Handbook of
Applied Hydraulics, 3rd edn., 1969, McGraw-Hill,
New York, Section 16--0.C. Zienkiewicz,
'Prestressing in Dams'.
52. P. B. Mitchell, 7th [COLD Congress, Rome, 1961,
111, pp. 56-59. .
53. T. Varkhotov, 7th [COLD Congress, ROllle, 1961,
111, pp. 90-93. .
 (1' l:~.
:.:: ,
282

Bibliography

J. H. A. Bratz, 'The Stress Function and Photo pp. 47-64, and Warer Power, 12, No. 12, Dec.

Elasticity Applied to Dams', Trans. A.S. C.E., 101, 1960, pp.463--469.

1936, p. 1240. J. K. Wilkins, M. D. Fitzpatrick and R. Marshall,

J. H. A. Bratz, 'Pressures Due to Percolating Water 'Catagunya Prestressed Dam-Structural Model
and their Influence upon Stresses in Hydraulic of Anchorage', Journal I.E. Ausr., 34, 1962,
Structures', 2nd ICOLD Congress, 1936, 5, p. 43. pp.275-281.
K. B. Keener, 'Uplift Pressures in Concrete Dams',
Trans. A.S.C.E., 116, 1951, pp.1218-1264.
L. N. Jamieson and E. V. Ockenden, 'Post Ten- .
sioning-Hume Dam', I.E. Aust. Civil Engng.
'1
, J

R. W. Carlson, 'Permeability, Pore Pressure and Tram., 4, 1962, pp. 1-10.

Uplift in Gravity Dams', Trans. A.S.C.E., 122, O. C. Zienkiewicz et a!., 'Comparison of Analytic.l '...:.CO.]
1957, p.587. and Experimental Results in the Design of a ;
R. Sabljak, S. Trsic and O. Dalkir, 'Le Systeme de Hollow Gravity Dam', 9th ICOLD Congress, Istan­
drainagedu Barrage-poids', 10th ICOLD Congress, bul, 1967, Comm. C.15, V, pp. 533-553.
Montreal, 1970, Communication C.12, V, E. W. Lane, 'Security from Underseepage', Tram.
A.S.C.E., 100, 1935.
1.'...]
i
.

pp. 633-651.
Prestressing Technique in Dam Building', South
African Mining and Engineering Journal, 73, No.
3641, 16th Nov. 1962, pp. 1137-1138.
J. K. Wilkins and J. Fidler, 'CatagCnya Prestressed
"nam', I.E. Aust. Civil Engineering Trans., 1, 1959,
R. S. Sandhu, 'Shear and Normal Stresses in Straight
Concrete Dams', Civil Engng and Public Works
Rev., 57, No. 667, Feb. 1962, p.213.
B. Nath, 'Coupled Hydrodynamic Response of •
Gravity Dam', Proc. I.C.E., 48, Feb. 1971,
pp.245-258.

. .'

. t:
 CHAPTER 11

Arch Dams

i.
I!
n.t. History
Writing from the Antipodes, r am conscious of
the risk of making statements regarding history
of the 'old world'. However, in the course of my
research, some interesting information has come
to my notice and I think that it is worth record­
Ii'
ing, as some tribute to the pioneers in dam
\ ~
building.
. 'I .It seems probable that the Romans applied the
'U
~~ I principle of the arch to dams, but what has been
termed 'the first historically proven arch dam'
was built on the Turkish-Syrian border during
the reign of the By-~antine emperor Justiman
(A.D. 527-565). It was built for flood control and
water supply. I
The Almansa Dam, Spain, Fig. 11.01, is
described in some detail by Smith;' according to
i
l ,--: the ICOLD World Register of Dams, this was
i 1 probably built. in 1384 (but it could have been
.I :
i ' J
1584). The Ponte Alto Dam> in Italy was another
very early arch dam, probably commenced in
1537, first raised in 1611 and on several oc­
casions over the next 3 centuries.'
Probably the earliest arched dam in North
America is at Jones Falls,> near Kingston,
Canada. Built in 1832 and still operating, it is
19 m high, 6.5 m thick at the crest and 8.4 m '"
thick at the base; it is curved to a radius of 54 m. t~':
It is of special interest in that, on its upstream
~
I
side, the masonry dam is backed up to its full
height by an earth embankment.
The Zola Dam' was the first arch dam in ;l
France--built between 1843 and 1854; its max­ ;;,"
imum height is 42.5 m and crest length 66 m. ,;
The thickness of the dam at its base is 12.8 m
and at the crest 5.8 m. The radius of curvature is
48 m. The maximum compressive stress in this
dam by the cylinder formula is 1.5 MPa.
One of\the earliest arch dams in. which the
combined action of arches and cantilevers was
mentioned was Bear Valley Dam, U.S.A., Fig..
11.02, built in 1884.' It is interesting to note that'· ...;
when, in 1931, serious seepage occurred in the
'\

i,
Ii Outlel
II;

,t.. channel !
f

r,
U o SOm

Fig. 11.01 A1mansa Dam, Spain

!! ;1 283

i 'J
':L__

284
multiple-arch dam that had been built
downstream from the original dam and the reser­
voir was lowered for repairs, the old dam was
pressed into emergency service.
E and no repair work was done between 1938 and
o
'"
I, 6"7
--12.13 L­
Med low Dom 8eor Volley Dam
AustroHo U,S. A.
Fig. 11.02 Early arch damll~
Some time prior to 1898 an arch dam was
built in South Africa" of height 37.6 m and crest
radius 84 m. The crest thickness was 2.13 m and
the base thickness 11.1 m.
In 1899 Bachmann7 calculated deflections of
arches and cantilevers in an arched gravity dam.
In the same paper it is reported that Lieckfe1dt
showed that the proportion ofload carried by the
carch in such a dam was particularly small.
In the years 1896-1900 nine thin arch dams
were built in Australia. s Another five were built
in the following 6 years. These were designed by
the cylinder formula. The cross-section of one of
these--Medlow Dam--Fig. 11.03, is compared
with that of Bear Valley Dam in Fig. 11.02. It is
to be noted that the upstream face of Medlow
Dam is vertical, whereas the downstream face of
Bear Valley Dam is vertical for its upper 14 m.
Due to the different radii the maximum
(cylinder) stress in Medlow Dam is 1.3 MPa com­
pared with 5.3 MPa in Bear Valley Dam.
In Discussion on the" Australian dams," Sir
Alexander Binnie commented that 'to look at the
cross-sections (without the plans) produced a
Fig. 11.03 Medrow Dam, Austraiia-1906
Fig. 11.04 Tamworth Dam, Australia-1898
Fig. 11.05 Cootamundra Dam, Au.tralia-1898.
Upstream face--1973
blood-;:urdling sensation'. However, these dams
are still storing water and as regards the Medlow
Dam it is reported* that 'no cracks are visible on
the concrete surface, although there are deposits,
... there has never been any discernible leakage
1970'.
In many of these dams vertical cracks
appeared. The 19 m high Tamworth Dam, Fig.
11.04, was completed at the end of a summer,
freezing conditions occurred in the winter with
very little rain and it was reported: 'there was a
crack 10 mm wide running from "the top nearly
to"the bottom. Some of his (c. W. Darley, their
originator) officers were alarmed and
recommended grouting, but he refused to have
grouting done and ordered the crack to be
covered so that nothing could get into it, believ­
ing that as the water rose the crack would close.
When rain came he went to see the full reservoir,
and as he had expected, it was absolutely closed
with no indication of weeping. Later on it got
tighter, all pores becoming closed'.
Four points are of further interest concerning
these early thin arches:'
1. A deflection of 18 mm was measured at the
Cootamundra Dam, Fig. 1 L05;
2. Pennycuick queried the shearing and sliding
factor of thin arch dams;
3. The interaction of arches and cantilevers was
mentioned and Schyler expressed the opinion
that 'gravity and arch action must go hand in
hand';
4. de Burgh favoured contraction joints in arch
dams.
The Upper Otay Dam, U.S.A., a thin
cylindrical arch dam, 25.6 m high, was com­
pleted in 1901,'·9 Fig. 11.06. It was only 1.22 m
thick at the crest and 4.25 m thick at the hase.
'I ts strength was increased by the lavish use of
* Private communication from Council of the City of
Blue Mountains, dated 2nd March, 1973.
 287

. --------n;lr
2.74
3.05
3.05
o
'"
l(j
2,44

4.88'

7.92

I 1
1.63 -t+,
2.10 -+-+­
3.05-W
, 1 o
I " I I I-
5 10m
!
3.35 1 I
3.66 I, Ii
4.27 I I

Fig. 11.06 Upper Otay Dam, U.S.A.-1901 (After M. Mary;

reproduced by permission Dunod, Paris)

iron wires at the base-the first example, it

would appear, 1 of a concrete dam being rein­
forced.'
In 1900 Lake Cheeseman Dam was probably Radii to I,lps!reom
9.4 m and downstream faces
the first dam in U.S.A. to Ix: designed by a load varies with elevation,"
distribution method; it was completed in 1906. 10 appro•. 20.6 and 17.6 m.
Ithaca Dam, U.S.A., 11 was designed in 1904 for a
height of 28 m, but local opposition limited the
height to 10 m, Fig. 11.07. The distinct overhang
was supported on buttresses. 5.5m
The U.S. Reclamation Service (the predecessor
of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation) came into ex­
istence in 1902, and almost immediately com- Fig. 11.07 Ithaca Dam, U.S.A.

..
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· ,
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Fig. 11.08 Ridgeway Dam, Australia-1914-1918
II meneed the design of an arch dam by a load­
distribution method. n Due to similarity of sites
the design was applied to the 65 m high
I Pathfinder and the 100 m high Shoshone (now
j Buffalo Bill) Dams (1903-1910). Wisner and
. j
Wheeler" at this time showed a clear comprehen­
sion of the structural behaviour of arch dams in
their design by the 'arch and crown cantilever
method'.
The Roosevelt Dam, U.S.A. (1906-1911), was
investigated to determine the load on the can­
tilevers, whilst the Halligan Dam 14 was similarly
analysed. This dam is of maximum height 28.6 m
with crest thickness 0.61 m, tapering to 8.2 m at
depth '22 m; the radius to the upstream face is
100 m: These were followed by the 107 m high
:1 Arrowrock Dam in 1910-1915 and many others.
At this time (1913-14) theCorfino Dam, Italy,
I was designed by the cylinder formula. IS This dam
is 37.5 m high, of crest thickness 1.5 m and base
thickness 7 m.
In the years 1914-18 the Ridgeway Dam,
Tasmania, Australia, Fig. 11.08, attracted atten­
tion as a thin arch built between gravity
abutments, and designed by the cylinder for­
mula. l6 Its maximum height is 61.3 m, crest
I
.f thickness 1.83 m, base thickness 173 m. The
length of the arch is 71 m and the radius to the
upstream face 61 m, Fig. 11.09. The arch was
'{
~
II 'reinforced' with 27 kg steel rails to form a mesh
at 1.8 m centres at each face. An extra four rails
ran the length of the dam below the coping.
;1
..
I
>
61m
Fig. 11.09 Ridgeway Dam, Australia-Main dimensions
J
II
I: "
L ~
289
From 1918 onwards many arch dams were
built; Camarassa Dam in Spain 100 m high
curved to a radius of 140 m; Montsalvens Dam
in Switzerland of height 55 m and crest length
155 m. The Montejaque Dam in Spain" was
built 1923-25; it is a variable-radius arch of
maximum height 83 m, crest length 81 m, crest
thickness 1 m and base thickness 5.1 m. It is in­
teresting that steel forms-for 1.2 m lift-were
used for the upstream face of this dam. In Brazil
the de Pedra Dam was completed in 1926 to a
height of 51 m with crest length 173 m.
Interest in arch dams was SO great that the
Stevensons Creek Dam was built in U.S.A.
purely for investigation of the behaviour of,thin
arches.'8 It was built 18.3 m high, for later rais­
ing to 31 m when it was expected that distress
would appear. It was 2.28 m thick at the base,
tapering to 0.61 m at a height of 9.2 m and
0.61 m thick from there to the crest.
Grimsel Dam, Switzerland," was built in
1928; it is of the constant-radius type 114 m high
with radius to the upstream face 90 m. The crest
length of the arch between forked abutments is
177 m. The upstream face slope is 1 in 10 and
the downstream face 1 in 2. The average stress
by the cylinder formula was only 1 MPa,
although the design was by the trial load method.
The dam was designed with transverse joints
only, but due to cracking, longitudinal joints
were included resulting in columns about 15 m
square. Gaps 1 m wide were left at the contrac­
tion joints and these were filled later and
grouted.
The early 1930s marked the general accep­
61m
II.
"
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16.4
,1.
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c'.. "I;.
.,>'
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ij

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[1 i
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 ,' '.1

291

tanee of the trial-load method of analysis. 19 •21 As T.W.L.417m

its name implies, it is a method of trial in dis­
tributing the load between the arches and can­
, tilevers until the deflections of common points
i are in agreement. At this time, small-scale model
tests for arch dams were initiated by the U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation and the Aluminum Com­ 90m
pany of America, the ~.N.E.C., Portugal,
I.S.M.E.S. of Italy, and others.
Up till this period many quite large dams had ~Props cos! 10 foce
been designed by the thin-;;ylinder formula with
average arch stresses from 2.5 to 3 MPa, i.e. the
119 m Diablo Dam, the 95 m Ariel, and the Bose
Gronite
113 m Pacoima in U.S.A. The average stress in
Mareges Darn, France, was between 3 and 4 Fig. 11.11 Mareges Dam, France--Maxi­
MPa, whilst it was as high as 6 to 7 MPa in the mum section
Salamonde Dam, Portugal. This higher stress an alternative to the arch dam at Mareges-a
was accepted over the next 20 years in such dams series of thin arch dams," of progressively less
as the 83 m high Rossens Dam in Switzerland, height in a downstream direction, Fig. 1l.12(A).
the 180 m high Tignes Dam and the 61 m La
Palisse Dam in France. The outstanding thin
dam by Coyne was Le Gage wherein the average
cylinder stress was 10 MPa.
In 1937 Coyne discussed" the probable
behaviour of arch dams in wide valleys, with
special reference to the cofferdam, built in 1924,
for St. Etienne Candales Darn. The cofferdam (A) ( B)
had a height of 15 m and a crest length of95 m,
Fig. 11.12 Laminated dam-Proposed by
i.e. a ratio of over 6 with a very wide river bed. Mesnager (Al; Noetzli (B)
This exceeded by far the ratio of 3 to 4 for other
arch darns of that era. His idea was to fill the intervening spaces with
Coyne also proposed decreased fixity at the water so that the thin arches would be under
base of arch dams in order to minimize tension at approximately uniform load. Noetzlj23 suggested
the base of the cantilevers; this was directly op­ that the arches might be in contact, as a spring
!. posed to increased fixity that had been in­ leaf, an idea that has been again proposed by
(:
troduced at the Jogne Dam in Switzerland and Komendant,z4 I do not know of such a dani hav­
11 the Diablo and Pacoima Dams in U.S.A. Coyne ing been built, although the original studies for
I designed the Mareges Dam (1925-1929), Fig. the 136 m high Sautet Dam in France included
11.10, the first cupola dam in France, of max­ two alternatives:
imum height 90 m and chord length 240 m, with
a maximum upstream overhang of 7 m. The A so called 'active arch' varying in thickness
largest monoliths were supported on concrete from 3.1 m at the crest to 17 m at the base, to
I' .'
props with a dry joint between the prop and the be built of co~ete containing 220 to 270 kg
J foundation, Fig. 11.11. Strain meters placed of cement per cubic metre, backed with a
.j:' . . '! across these joints failed to show any lifting when massive block of poorer concrete (180 kg of ce­
; ~
the dam came under load.·: ment per cubic metre) bracketed into the ca­
Around 1930 many novel types of arch darn nyon walls. The poorer concrete was to be
were suggested. Mesnager (1927) proposed-as deposited in layers 0.3 m thick and con­
solidated by vibration;"
A comparatively slender constant-angle arch dam
Fig. 11.1 0 Mareges Dam, France--ShQwing con­ followed downstream by a smaller arch to
crete props under central monoliths reduce the effective head on the upper dam. 26

"'-, ,< '~",rJ",,,( _ _ _ _....._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

-.:....~- .

292

In fact a gravity dam was finally built at the site. dams approaching the ultimate degree of
Two dams by Coyne were made exceedingly slenderness, viz., Le Gage Dam, France, 1953
thin" so as to provide a full-scale check on the and Tolla Dam, Corsica, 1959, Fig. 11. 13(A). In
validity of theoretical analyses when applied to order to retain the latter dam in service, after
severe cracking had appeared in the haunches, a
Cresl lengthH '<i]""",,-.­ massive secondary structure was built against its
120m
Crest length 143m downstream face between 1963 and 1965. Within
71m this mass of concrete an active arch can develop,
rodius to woler j

foce of crest supported by the rock abutments, Fig. 1 L 13(B).

1.3m
The 168 m high Tignes Dam, France, was
35m 85m built on massive quartzite in a gorge of which
2A3m--! the width at top of water level is only twice the
85m max.thickness depth. It is a constant-radius (150 m) arch dam
radius to water
face Crock with vertical upstream face, Fig. 11.14, and was
completed in 1952.
Possibly the outstanding thin arch dam of re­
-1 "I 2.6m
cent times is Vaiont Dam, Italy (1946-50); of
LE GAGE Franc, lI953J TOLLA Corsica lI959 J
(strengthened loter)
maximum height 265.5 m its crest length is only
190.5 m, Fig. 11.15. It is founded on massive
Fig. 11.l3(A) Two of the thinnest dams built
dolomitic Jurassic limestones, Fig. 11.16. The
RN. 560 remarkable strength of the cupola dam was
560 demonstrated by the remarkable overtopping
550
described in Chapter 3.
Slrengthening
Original
In 1958 the Institution of Civil Engineers ap­
540 arch pointed a Research Committee to consider the
relative merits of different methods of analysing
530
522.70 arch dams,zs these included shell theory, finite
520
., .~.-.!.- differences, finite elements, dynamic relaxation
and models, whilst the Bureau of Reclamation
510 collaborated with full details of the Trial Load
Method of analysis.
500
In 1964 a symposium was held at the Univer­
490 sity of Southampton, England, and the thirty-six
papers were edited by J. R. Rydzewski and
480
published as Theory of Arch Dams by Pergamon
470 Press, Oxford, 1965.
o
I
10
!!
20m
j Several arch dams about 100 m in height have
been built in Europe siece 1970, whilst in 1974
the highest arch dam in Asia was completed."
This is the Idikki Dam in India, a thie double­
curvature parabolic concrete arch 165 m high,
7.6 m thick at the crest and 23 m thick at the
base. The Gordon Arch Dam, Australia, was
topped out in November 1974, of maximum
height 140 m, crest thickness 2.7 m and max­
imum thickness 16.3 m, Fig. 11.17.
An outstanding arch dam under construction
is 'Auburn Dam, U.S.A. Its maximum height will
be 207 m, whilst its crest length of 1066 m will
make it the longest arch dam in the world,
Fig. n.13(B) Tolla Dam, Corsica-Strengthening Fig. 11.18.
 1

293

TWL 1790m 04
/

(a ) ( b )

1655m

(I
~r'-'
~,.~

0.1625 m ...J..=-.-:...,;;;.

~.
...
... -,-.'.;..:0:t.._
.L.
I
I o 50m
Left
/ To new Tignes village
I
Fig. 11.14 Tignes Dam, France--1946-1952
1
I.
Right Left

T.W.L722.50m

\- .
,
,?
;:
"
I,
"

' ..
010 30 50m ,,
_f ! ! 1, ! 1 t /
.,0 I Plug
J; ( .1
!

462.00m
Cross~sect!on longitudinal section
(Downstream view)

Fig. 11.15 Vaiont Dam, ltaly-1946-1950

294 ''1
., "
,j

Under the auspices of the International Com­ That water load on the reservoir walls does not
mission on Large Dams a symposium has been cause differential movements at the damsite;
arranged for, 1975 on the subject 'Design Criteria That foundation deformations are independent
Assumptions for Dams, using Modern Methods of the shape of the foundation;
of Design' and this should summarize design That tensions are relieved by cracking so that all
methods to this date. loads are carried by compression and shear in
the uncracked portions;
That the dam acts as a monolith, i.e. that con­
11.2 Design Concepts and Criteria
traction joints or slots have been tightly
The earliest concept for the arch dam was that grouted and that all shrinkage of the concrete
the load would be carried to the abutments by has taken place before this.
horizontal arches; so long as a conservative value
Since none of these is strictly true, the effect of
was adopted for the permissible compressive
such assumptions should be understood before
stress in the thin cylinder formula then the dam
one accepts the design of a large dam. In par­
would be safe. This stress has been increased
ticular, designers should be aware of the shape of
from 1 MPa to 7 MPa since 1900. In a few cases
the stress-strain curve after the elastic range is
it was as high as 10 MPa,
passed; if increasing strain is associated with
Although the distribution of load between the
decreasing stress, then catastrophe would be im­
arches and cantilevers was suggested at least 70
minent; it is wise, therefore, to be far enough
years ago, the method of distribution appears to
within the elastic range to feel confident of an
have been developed by Stucky in Switzerland30
adequate factor of safety. Where deflections (or
and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation at about the
deformations) are small, and care has been e!<er­
same time (1922). With realization that the
cised both in treatment of foundations and in
problem was three-dimensional came various
construction procedures, the assumptions are
methods of distributing the load-the arithmetic
sufficiently accurate to be accepted for arch dams
process being iteration until the deflection of
of average heights. Each should, however,
conjugate points on arches and cantilevers were
receive consideration by the Engineer in its
in agreement. The introduction of the digital
relevance to the particular dam.
computer has changed a method of analysis into
Turning then to the design, we have certain
one of design; it has also made possible fmite ele­
parameters that will control decisions. Apart
ment methods of analysis of dome structures
from the actual geometry of the shell, these in­
with varying degrees of ftxity.
clude:
Lest we should become over-confident in the
results of mathematical analyses, the assump­ The loads on the dam, i.e. anything that may

tions that an; usually made deserve close con­ affect the state of stress in the structure;

sideration, viz., The degree of ftxity to foundation and

abutments;
The concrete in the dam and the rock foun­
The properties of the component materials of the
. ,dations are homogeneous and isotropic;
dam and the foundations.
Stresses are within the elastic limit for both con­
crete and the rock formations, and that stress Because none of these can be allotted a defmite
will be proportional to strain; value, it is obligatory upon the Engineer to un­
That plane sections hefore bending remain plane derstand the effects of any simplifYing assump­
after bending; tions that are necessarily introduced.
That direct stresses vary linearly between the
upstream and downstream faces, in both arch
and cantilever elements; Fig. 11.16 Vaiont Dam, Italy
That the modulus of elasticity of concrete and Fig. 11.17 Gordon Dam, Australia-Haulageway
the modulus of deformation of the foundation for access to galleries and valley floor
are the same in tension as in compression; Fig. 11.18 Auburn Darnsite, U.S.A-Artist', im­
That temperature stresses and strains are propor­ pression of completed dam (By courtesy of U.S.
tional to temperature changes; Bureau of Reclamation)
•

Ii
II

.1

11

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 I;:

1
298 r-j'
I •
,i j.
The loads that may apply to an arch dam are curacy of calculations that are based on premises i
similar to those for other dams, i.e. that cannot be defined accurately.
Dead load, including construction loads; Although the ICOLD definition includes as ~ '. 'Ii
Water, ice and silt loads; arch dams all curved dams where the base
Uplift in foundations and maybe in the dam; thickness is less than 0.6 times the height, more
Shrinkage of concrete; specific definitions might be:
Temperature rise and fall-due to internal and
Thin arch-thickness less than 0.2 h
external causes;

Earthquake;
Medium arch-thickness 0.2 h to 0.3 h JI

Effects of grouting contraction joints.

Thick arch-thickness greater than 0.3 h
Arch-gravity-thickness exceeds 0.5 h.
The effects of these, especially in a thin arch
dam, can be significantly different from those on It does not appear necessary to provide face. I
massive dams. This applies particularly to reinforcement in arch-gravity or thick arch
temperature effects, whether they be internal,
related to the quantity of cement and to con­
dams. On the other hand, I favour its use in thin
dams; each case must be examined but nominal
II 1
struction procedures, or external, due to daily or reinforcement might comprise:
seasonal conditions.
It is assumed that the structure will be
Extrados vertical steel-25 mm bars at
spacing
300 nun Ji
,I
monolithic, i.e. that all shrinkage will have
.:taken place before the contraction joints are
. grouted-but, at the same time, that the process
Intrados vertical steel-19 mm bars at
spacing
300 nun
;!
Extrados horizontal steel-19 mm bars at
of such grouting has not introduced prestressing 500 mm spacing
into the arches. In a double-curvature dam, with
pronounced overhang, the mass of concrete will
Intrados vertical steel-19 mm bars at
spacing
500 mm ~
induce stresses during the building operation and
these should be examined carefully for both their Since the provision of such steel in a 90 metre
temporary and permanent effects. high dam might cost a third of a million dollars,
Whether steel reinforcement should be used it could mitigate against the adoption of a thin
near the faces of arch dams is a contentious sub­arch. For the medium arch the decision might
ject. Steel, as reinforcement in place, is expensive
well depend upon the magnitude and location of
whilst the installation, say 150 mm from each tensions indicated by analysis or model tests, as
face, will reduce the working width by at least
300 mm, and interfere with uniform consolida­
well as external factors such as rapidity of
temperature drop or seismic activity in the
tion of the concrete. The first is always relevant,
region. The Art in such cases must be guided but
1\ J
whilst the second can be serious on a thin dam. not ruled by the Science. ~l
One must ask why reinforcement is necessary, Uplift is not usually of importance in thin arch ?1t
and what risk would be involved in its omission? dams, but in thick dams provision is often made
Cracking in the faces of an arch dam may result
from:
for internal drainage, as for gravity dams. If the
design assumes that the concrete will crack if ten­
sions exceed say 0.4 MPa, then it is consistent to
I

Ito
~i

Excessive tensile stress due dam geometry; assume that full hydrostatic pressure can act in
Secondary tension resulting from high com­ such cracks. In fact, care must be exercised in the ;
pressive forces in thin members; location of a gallery; if too close to the upstream
Secondary tensile stresses at the arch haunches face cracking may result from high stress con­
and parallel to the abutments; centrations, and this could lead to serious leakage
'Hang up' of concrete adjacent to a near vertical into the gallery.
11

abutment; I t must be the aim of designers to eliminate

Temperature effects--either due to hydration of tensile stresses in the dam, i.e. the arch thrusts
the cement or climatic conditions. should approximate to the arch centre line and
dead weight should counter cantilever tensions.
'1

With these must be considered the overall inac­ This is not always possible since an irregular II
I

I
i

 299
i'

cross-section can generate local stress con­
centrations, and necessary. excavation of
abutments beyond the design limits will alter the
geometry of the dam, and possibly affect. the
assumed degree of fixity.,/ ...
I' Although the components of the concrete are
known, the properties of the concrete are not
.,
necessarily finite or uniform, Le. concrete in the
bottom of the dam will be older and have a
different strength and modulus of elasticity from
that in the upper parts when the dam comes
under load, and the increase in modulus with age
is not always proportional to the increase ,in
strength.
The rock formations are rarely in accordance
with pf.edictions; the effects of long-term loading
and of saturation, as well as the magnitude of in­
ternal rock stresses, may quite seriously affect
the stress distribution within the dam.
A particularly important design criterion is the
angle which the resultant of arch stresses makes
with the surface of sound rock in the abutments.
In some cases this fS'-specified as the minimum
angle, 0:, between the tangent to the arch centre
line at the abutment and the surface of sound
rock. Values qll.9.~~ are usually about 30°, but
some authoritil:;s differentiate between elevations
in the darn, i.e. a minimum angle approaching
together downstream a dangerous situation
might develop" especially when related to tile
dipping resultant thrust. The presence of seams
or joints could further' en~l!g~r such' an
abutment, but waviness in the joints (in sound
rock strata) ~ay' improve their frictional
resistance and should be examined. '
1t is fairly common practice t~ specify that the
abutmeni:-'snall be excavated to provide a radial
surface of contact with the arch-''-the line AB,
Fig. 11.20. More correctly the surface should be
normal to the resultant thrust, the line AC-but
this would be unduly conservative. Provided that
there is no posSIbility of sliding along the contact
surface, then a non-radial abutment, towards the
position AD, will reduce rock excavation and
concrete volume and usually result in lower
stresses or thinner arches for the same ,intrados
arc.31 Each case must be analysed having due
regard to the type and quality of the rock
abutment. If the angle between the line of thrust
and the normal to the rock face is too great, then
high shear stresses will be generated in an area
close to tlj.e-rock surface where there is little con­
fining pressure to ensure adequate shearing
resistance. The stability of the abutment must
therefore be checked at zones of calculated high
stress and ,at zones of potential weakness.

) I
40° is required near the crest of the darn. More
correctly, the specified angle should be related r
to the direction of thrust-the angle p,
."0"
I.'.','
j \
,I Fig. 1l.19(A). The rock contours must be in­
I,
,I vestigated thoroughly, since it is. not uncommon
,

for an arch darn to abut a spur of rock,

1
Fig.ll.l9(B). Should 7oC'k contours corne
,:

i
•
,, '

i
I f
r;
!
-1
,
I
j
Fig, 11.20 Non-radial aburment-The
line AD
•
I
j Stress Criteria. The allowable stresses in arch
" dams do not vary greatly between. countries and
would approximate to values in Table 11.01.
(A) ( B) In a few darns t/le maximum principal stress
has exceeded 8 MPa-but at this date this would
Fig. 11.19 Arch abutmerirs--Indination of arch be the exception rather than the rule.
thrust to sound rock contours Fixing the ratio of the principal stress (tension)

"·
.

I ,i
.. )
 TEFS

300 . , '1
;;-~

Table 11.01. Arch Dams-Stress Criteria at the upstream face to that (compression) at the
Stress Allowable value downstream face is not universally adopted, but
is one method of minimizing the depth of
1. Maximum compression based propagation of a crack that may occur at the
on strength of concrete'
-Normal loads . upstream Tace.
0.20 to 0.25 f"
-Abnormal loads 0.30 £" Many authorities accept vertical tension at the
upstream face as high as 700 kPa without analys­
2. Arch stresses
Compression ing secondary (cracked) cantilevers when the cor­
Without temperature loads 6MPa responding compression at the downstream face
. With temperature loads 1MPa does not exceed 3500 kPA. Horizontal tension at
Tension the upstream face may be as high as one-third
Without temperature loads 100kPa of the corresponding compression at the
With temperature loads 1000kPa
downstream face without considering secondary
3. Cantilever stresses arches-so long as the sum of the tension and
Compression compression numbers does not exceed 4200 kPa.
Without temperature loads 6MPa
With temperature loads 1MPa In order to improve tb.e stress distribution the

Tension-Up,tream faa! shape of the dam may be modified-an increase f1

.. "j ": ..
Max. water level without· in thickness towards the abutments or the in­ "---,.I

temp. 100kPa troduction o(fil!ets_ between concrete and rock.

Max. water level with For the latter to be· effective both the topography

temp. 1000 kPa

Reservoir empty without and geology must be very definitely defmed.

temp. 100kPa To counter by dead weight thevenical tension

in cantilevers due to water load, dams are shaped
Reservoir empty with
temp. 1000 kPa to give both upstream and downstream !
j ,
Tension-Downstream face overhangs; this has the effect of decreasing the
Max. water level without
temp. 100 kPa -·base thickness and rotational stiffness. Although
Max. water level with the Mareges Dam did not lift off its pads, there is
temp. 100 kPa a present-day tendency to incorporate a horizon­
Reservoir empty without tal joint at the- base ~f a larg~ -;rch dam. This
temp. 100kPa would tem:!i_nJl-.!~ at a gallery and would be sealed
Reservoir empty with
temp. 1000 kPa near the upstream edge by one or more metal
seals, Fig. 11.21.
Principal stress under maximum
conditions--<:ompression 8MPa
Rati" ofprincipal upstream tension
to principal downstream com­
pression 0.35
Sliding on foundation-tangent of
the true angle between the
resultant force and the normal Shall not exceed
n
to the surface 0.75
.J]
Shear-friction factor within
Dry
foundations
-Assuming a value for
cohension Not less than 5
-Adopting measured values Fig. 11.21 Dry joint at base of arch dam
for cohesion and angle of
shear Not less than 4
......~------------ The provision of a pad or pulvino under the

dam, Fig. ff:22, will spread the load from the

ror
* The strengrh of concrete this purpoSe is usually thestress dam on to a poor foundation. Such a pulvino can

'at failure of 150 x 300 mm cylinders at the age of 91 -days. the be constructed well in advance of the dam-so

concrete having been taken from the mixer, or after placement on

the dam-and with aU aggregate exceeding 37 rom wet~reened simplifying the programming of the dam proper,

from the mix. Fig. 17.07,_ Often the joint between the dam and

 I,
301

less than 3, then an arch deserves first con­

sideration. An exceptional site is Vaiont, Italy,
-j Downstream where the crest length of the dam is 190.5 m and.
Arch . face
the height 265.5 m, i.e. a ratio of 0.7. .'
Mrantinje Dam, Yugoslavia, has a ratio of 1.2
and Gordon Dam, Australia, 1.4, whereas Glen
Pulvino: Canyon, U.S.A., Mia, Italy, and Santa Eulalia,
Spain, have the ratio about ,2. ,Mareges Dam;
France, and Tumut Pond Dam, Australia, Fig.
Fig. 11.22 Simple perimetral joint
11.24, have the ratio 2.5. A review of most of the
world's arch dams e~ceeding 60 m in height
shows the commonest ·value for this ratio to be
about 2.5, Fig. 11.25. Naturally this ratio is only
filler block
Hinge
an index; the actual decision· must . depend
upon the geology. The-Warr-agamba Gorge,
Australia,Jl has a ratio of width to depth of 2.5
for the selected full supply level. Like the Glen
Canyon the basic rock is sandstone-but the
characteristics of the rock formations are v~I
, different. At Warragamba the deformation
I ~.",-,-
Sealmg
jOlilt •
IOmm d,a. modulus varied from 1800 to 3400 MPa, the
compounds lower values applying below river bed. Assuming
,1 that strains might increase by 50 per cent under
~ ")
- Coppe, ,.e.,s
IOmm thick
sustained load it appeared that the' effective
modulus might be as low as 1200 MPa; this was
!'I considered inadequate to support a 100 m high
arch dam and a straight gravity dam was built;
II Fig. 11.23 Lumiei Dam-Details of the peri­
metral joint Fig. 10.35.
The 111 m high Ikehara Dam, Japan, Fig.
I, the pulvino is grouted so that freedom to rotate is 11.26, is an example of an arch dam with the
• restricted. On the other hand, a 'hinge' bas crest length to height ratio of 4.2. The cross­
! sometimes been built into the pulvino in an section of the gorge is almost symmetrical-a
j I:}.1deaY.Q!!.r to reduce base fixing moments to wide U~haped valley, Fig. 11.27. The bedrock is
zero, Fig. 11.23. very hard mesozoic sandstone. Non~ymmetrical
curvature with four centres was adopted to
reduce the volume of excavation at the right
11.3 Valley Shape
abutment, Fig. 11.28. The dam was analysed for
The influence of the valley shape in the selec­ 'cracked' conditions in the cantilevers and
tion of the type of dam was discussed in Chapter designs were checked with both statically and
5.62. That was, of course, a first approach based dynamically loaded models.
primarily on general topography. The second The Kariba Dam, Rhodesia, of maximum
step can only be taken when contours are height 125 m has a crest length of 615 m or a
available of rock considered to be adequate to ratio 4.9. This dam is of the constant-radius type
sustain the thrusts from an arch dam-accepting with a central angle of 128 0 38', Fig. 11.29; the
that 'dental' or other local treatment will quantity of concrete was only 60 per cent of that
probably be necessary, Chapter 17. The decision required for a gravity dam.
to build an arch dam can therefore only be made The 42 m high Repulse Dam, Australia, has
when the geology of the site is known and under- the same ratio, 4.9. It is an overflow dam­
stood. flanked on the right. side by an earth' embank-
If the sound rock cop,tours provide a V-shaped--ment and meeting a forked abutment on the left
profile and the ratio of crest length to height is bank, Fig. 11.30. , .....

I
..1

,...
 qua
,
J1 !!
"
302 ,
r
;1"1 i

"
,~
,,/ The Auburn Dam, u.s.A., now under con­ Fig. 11.24 Tumut Pond Dam, Australia-Height "...;
struction will have this ratio slightly greater than 86 m; Crest length 218 m (By courtesy of S.M.H.E.A.) " 1
-. i :
;:..J
5, Fig. 11.18.
Fig. 11.25 Arch dams-The ratio crest length to
The Pieve di Cadore Dam, Italy,)) of height height for dams exceeding 60 m '-"1,
34 m, has a ratio in excess of 5; it is of particular
interest in that the arch was built on a pulvino to Fig. 11.26 1kehara Dam, Japan . :.:
ensure arch action in such a long dam. Bangala
Dam" built in 1961, of height 45 m, has a ratio Fig. 11.27 Ikehara Dam, Japan-Wide V-shaped T"1 !
valley ,
of crest length to height of 6.7.
Perhaps the outstanding arch dam in a wide Fig. 11.28 Ikehara Dam, Japan-Ratio of crest
valley is the H~Il.driIi'\rerwoerd Dam in South
Africa, Fig. 16.13(E), of height 90 m and com­
length to height = 4.2 (From Dams in Japan, 1970) (1
,
:
Fig, 11.29 Kariba Dam, Rhodesia-Ratio of crest
pleted in 1963; this dam has a ratio of 11. It is of length to height = 4,9 1;-"'"
interest that the circular arch cofferdam at this :~
site had an extreme value of 16 for this ratio. Fig, 11.30 Repulse Dam, Australia-Ratio of crest (j
Advances in the application of arch dams to length to height = 4.9
wide valleys has been prudent-the ratio of crest
length to height increasiliii'"from 5 to 11 over a
period of 40 years. The effect of valley shape on
Fig, 11.31 Valley profiles and dam cross-sections
'1

dam profile is well illustrated by two dams i1I

designed by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, earthquake furces here cause stronger reac­ iJ
presumaQly to the same design criteria/' Fig. tions;
11.31. The Hungry Horse site is a wide V-shaped The rock overburden is less-providing less nor­ "j
valley with a shape factor of 4.6 (Chapter 5.6), '1
mal loading on possible sliding planes; " J
w~~!eas< the Yellowtail site is more U-shaped
The direction of the resultant forces from the :-
with relatively steep sides and a shape factor of dam often meet the abutments at less
1
3.5. ,­ ,I
favourable angles. <~J

Due to the downward inclination of the resul­

tant forces, the safety in the abutments of double
:, 1,
11.4 Abutments-Stability and

DeformabiJity
curvature dams is higher than that of cylindrical
11.41 Stability
It is essential for the Engineer to have a clear
understanding of the three-dimensional nature of
i
forces acting within and upon the abutment and
of the geological formations that will resist such
forces.
In the rock body the following are involved:
The weight of the rock;
Forces having their origins within the rock
mas&--either static tectonic stresses or
dynamic stresses due to seismic action;
Hydrostatic thrusts and buoyancy after filling of
the reservoir;
Forces transmitted from the dam.
Minimum safety is usually found in the upper
part of double curvature dams because:
The upper zones of the valley are less tight, and
LJ
dams.36 However, the actual direction in which
the resultant will act is of vital importance, [1
(j
remembering that it will be Inclined both
downstream and downwards from the tangent to
the arch centre line.
At one site it was necessary to place backfill
:1
i:;j
:
concrete which extended into the arch abutment.
The state of stress in and adjacent to this backfill
was determined by a finite element analysis, Fig.
11.32. The effect of eccentricity is marked in the
resulting distribution of compressive stresses,
whilst the ~.t.ent of tensile stresses upstream
from the dam is important relative to possible
cracking of the abutment and.entry, of reservoir
water. This is a factor rarely disclosed in
literature but one to be considered'in de;;igmug
the layout of the grout .curtl!in and drainage
system.
For Gordon Dam, Australia, fmite element
analyses were made of the stress distribution in n
the dam and abutments. This was used as a guide 'I
~j
 "'
I
E 25
0
<.S)
...
<I> 20
>
0
.i
J '"E
-
0
0

J 0
<I> 10

-...
01
0
c
'J U
<I>

<I>
CL
00 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

J
Ratio _ crest length
height
1 1l'.25

. ;
I---------~------'.'--.__l

13,0
I

9,500m 3 /s

11.29 I

I
I
I
I
•

·'
.;

',>,
"" '·,'1
".

i,
// ~l.,
~/ 'J
--. Hungry Horse
Ui

~'
i

11.31 Yellowtail Hungry Horse

UI

 307

I
.I

Tensile

Arch fhrus1
Dipping 22°
!:

Principol slresses
Tension shown ~.1-, ---..,

Compression shown "'- - - -..

Fig. 11.32 Backfill at abutment-Finite element analysis of stress

distribution

\ :
Rock plug in occess ad it n01 10 be
excav«ted lIntii required for
tunnel plLlg construction
Adit 6

... :
i

Drainage
odits

c:= New drain lJdits

r---- Exisling lnvesHgolion edirs i,
~:E( Graul 'ChamMrs:
It-~~,- Backfill concrete

Fig. 11.33 Gordon Dam-Arrangement of drainage adits, investigation aruts and access tunnels

.·_~··'t""~_ _ _ _ _ W'_ _~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _"'_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

 -----"'~

308

for the location of the drainage system that in~

corporales a comprehensive screen of 75 mm
'holes drilled from and between a system of 3.1 by
dam, Fig. 11.35. Design criteria will normally
limit the maximum inclination for the resultant
from the normal to the rock contact surface.
:; 1
L1
.
2.1 m drainage adits, Fig. 11.33. However, one must be prepared for unforeseen
Lande" has pointed out conditions arising due to misinterpretafiono(
geological evidence.
'that the in situ permeability of a rock mass (that in­
cludes discontinuities) can be drastically altered by
the load applied at the surface, such as the thrust of
an arch dam. The practical consequence is a new
At one site it was known that a 150 mm wide,
partly open joint existed behind a large mass of
rock about 50 m high just downstream of the
-
n
~: _ I
L
I

approach for the design of grouting and drainage
curtains in finely fissured rocks' (Fig. 11.34).
spillway apron"and approximately parallel to the
river. Excavation of the river bed revealed an ex­
tensive overhang of the c1iffs~Thi;;;;as baCkfilled
with concrete-post-tensioned into sound rock
of the 'iIlside. ~
'.

Vertical section Horlzonfol se<:'ton n

I Graul curtain 4 Arch dom , U
2 Drainage curlain 5 Zone made wolerlight by
dam !htll$j
3 Seepage flow farces

Fig. 11.34 Typical arrangement of grout and []

drainage curtains in rock abutments (As pro­
posed by Londe")

It has also become evident that frequent varia­

tion of loading on a fissured foundation-by I OAse Tefrahedron limited by planes PI' P2' P3

2 W Weight

rapid emptying and filling of the reservoir-may

3 Q Thrust of Dam

lead to a continuing increase in l?ermeability. 4 U!' UZ'U 3 Woler farces

Continuous monitoring is essential under such

conditions. Fig. 11.35 Three-<limensional analysis of

stability of arch abutment

Percolation of water under pressure may affect

the strengthof a rock abutment:
Saturation frequently decreases the strength of
rocks, probably due to infiltration of
'.' microcracks; ..,
Natural rock stresses will be· modified by the
water pressure, and
Shearing resistance may be decreased.
Later excavation of the right abutment at mid­
height of the dam revealed a vertical clay-filled
joint about 1. 7 m inside the line of the intrados.
This joint had been identified on the surrace;-~i: 'Cl
was assumed to follow a safe direction into the i..'Ij
hillside. Fortunately test openings were driven
and these revealed thllt the joint turned in a
downstream direction to be almost parallel with
"j
:
:-
,
:i

Although the subject of water movement in

the valley and only a short distance under the : I
micro- and macrocracks is not fuUy understood,
it is now considered a factor that favours the
provision of drainage of the abutments"'of arch Fig. 11.36 Abutment-Devils Gate Dam
i'll'
, '

dams. The presence of water under pressure Fig. 11.37 Devils Gate Dam-Treatment of joint
within the abutments, when combined with !
loading from the dam, may lead to their in­ Figs. lL38(A) and eB) Hegset Dam, Norway. (A) ;J
stability." Particularly in jointed or bedded General arrangement; eB) Photograph (By courtesy
of T. Moxness) ,,
abutments IDetic.ll~ studies should be made of
wedges of potential failure downstream from the Fig. 11.39 Tori Dam, Japan-Massive left abutment
iLJI
'~;'
 I

11.36

Plan view

~b/'
~<$'/

ltA I

f,l/
I

I~
"

.p~/
"I
21

R "
·~r
;/­ Overhang
{lj
",I, \ ~-,
~

Ii'
,I
" .
,I
J ,
,""
\ .._-----",
-"-A-dif---'

II
I

::1

I
i
 o
N

11.38(A)

 .;;
,j'
, '.
,",
•
•• ~
~

,
•
"
,

t -~_'
312
surface; it was probably a continuation of the
open joint at the lower levels. Two adits were
driven at different levels to intersect and follow
the joint to the abutment, Fig. 11.36. The
upstream ends of these adits and the ~P9~re, of
the joint in the excavation were plugged with
concrete to permit concreting of the dam to
proceed. The adits were left open to drain the
joint and the abutment. The spillway apron was
then constructed over the abutment slope
downstream from the dam. Instead of providing
normal anchorage to withstand impact from the
nappe, prestressing cables were passed through
the apron and homed in massive rock beyond the
joint. After the cables were stressed the joint was
grouted. For a small irl~!emental cost con­
siderable additional ~urity was obtained, Figs.
11.37 and 8.37.
When the line of thrust would meet the abut­
ment at an unfavourable angle it is common
practice to provide a .forked abutment, Fig.
11.30. A wing wall is constrilcted from the arch
to the valley wall to !,lieve the abutment block of
water load. The resultant arch thrust is then
tangential to the arch centre line and can be
carried down into the abutment through a
gravity thrust block. If necessary this block can
be prestressed into massive rock. The grout cur,
tain is turned to follow the line of the wing wall'
into the hillside.
At Hegset Dam, Norway-a very economical
arch 52 m high was made possible by the con­
struction of an exposed thrust block-with a
curved gravity wing wall built to accommodate
the gated spillway, Fig. 11.38. - . . ..
The 101 m high Tori Dam, Japan, is in a steep
V-shaped valley (Ilk = 2.2) of hard andesite.
However, the upper part of the .Ieft abutment
flattens out and geologically the bedrock is
sliglitly weathered creating a problem in the
acceptance of arch thrust. It was decided to con-
I duced in the darn by the variability of foundation
struct a large thrust block to reduce stresses on
the rock and at the same time to make the dam
symmetrical, Fig. 11.39. Concrete paving was
used to protect the abutments durIilgspITlway
discharge. .
11,42 Deformability
The important thing to remember is that the
modulus is not simply a mathematical figure. It
has an imponant geological significance. In all
stages of investigation and design every effort
should be directed towards understanding why
cenain values of deformation modulus are ob­
tained-the effects of micro- and macrocracks, .[1j ,
f-<>
i.•
1
of joints and of the infilling in all discontinuities.
i
The deformation medulus of a rock mass will
usually increase with vertical depth, particularly 11·'
Li
.
in a gorge where relief cracks parallel the river.
These are usually -open at the surface, probably
fIlled with detritus of erosion, but are closed at
depth. However, -'in a horizontal direction in
abutments the extent of relief cracking will de­
pend upon the age and depth of the gorge and
the nature of the rock. In many cases there will
be minimal improvement in modulus with dis­
tance excavated horizontally. It is therefore es­
sential to determine the modulus of deformation
"],L
in the direction of the forces that will be applied .
by the dam.
The deformation of the foundation and
abutments will affect both the magnitude and
distribution of stresses within the dam.
Variability of the foundation may accentu~t~ the
o
non-linear stress distribution and may-cause high
local stresses that could exceed the strength of
the concrete. It is therefore essential to under­
stand the site geology-preferably to a depth
comparable with the height of the dam.
Geophysical methods are most useful in assess­
ing variability within a rock mass. At Niedzica
Dam, Poland,3s such methods were used to
produce a contour map Qf foundation moduli.
Many low values of modulus coincided with
known boundaries of rock strata and decompQsed
zones. It was therefore possible to seleCtfrOm the
contour map all areas that warranted detailed in­
vestigation and treatment. Based upon the
measured values of modulus, finite element
analyses were carried out to assess the stresses in­
moduli.
As mentioned in Chapter 19, model studies
were made of the effect of a very weak zone
under Repulse Dam. A portion of the left abut­
ment around mid-height was progressively
or
removed and stresses were measured on the
! .
model-for water loading only. The changes in
stress pattern were examined for the removal of
13.4 and 26.8 m of the foundation. The most
noticeable effect occurred immediately over the
n
~J
 "'-.-------..--.. -"-2:71::'l:2'-"-'-% _-,:teK t 7''':
= &"}$ Y ?Xu....

h
,I

313

foundation defect. In the 26.8 m case a biaxial increased. This latter is in agreement with
compression0ff.7 MPa and 0.5 MPa changed to Swaminathan,l9 who stated 'large stress increases
uniaxial tension of 3.3 MPa; there was also an in­ at the c!o,.yu near the crest when yielding oc­
crease in biaxial tension normal to the major arch curred in the foundation near the quarter point'.
axis. There was comparatively little change in
stresses for the removal of 13.4 m of the foun­ 11.5 Shell Geometry
dation. The thickness of the dam at this level is
The simplest form of arch dam is that with a
about 5.5 m. Rocha has suggested that a dam
vertical cylindrical upstream face and a uni­
could span one-and-a-half times its thickness--or
formly inclined downstream face, i.e. the
8.2 m in this case.
constant-radius arch, Figs. '11.40 and 11.53.
I If the ratio of E. (modulus of elasticity of con­
Although this type of dam was 'the most common
i crete) to Er (modulus of deformation of the foun­
in earlier days it lost favour when it was shown
dation) is constant at less than 2 and only varies
that considerable savings in concrete resulted by
slowly along a foundation, it will have little in­
changing the geometry. However, for' wide
fluence on the stresses. If the ratio exceeds 10
valleys this type of dam is still competitive and it
then conditions could be dangerous for an arch
appeals to construction personnel by virtue of its
I dam and alternative designs should be con­
simplicity, especially the possible use of slip for­
I sidered. Between these values detailed studies
ming.
should be made--mathematically or by models
Two other shapes gradually evolved, the cons­
(see Chapter 19). Studies at Kariba Dam showed
tant angle-arch,'o Fig. 11.41, and the variable­
a considerable change in tensile stresses in the
radius arch, Fig. 11.42. However, each of these
dam when the assumed ratio of E. to Er was
can produce dams of complicated shape. For ex­
changed from 1 to 4, i.e. the indicated tensile
ample, Letaj Darn in Yugoslavia, Fig. 11.43, is
stress decreased from 4.5 to 0.6 MPa. This tends
35m high with a crest length of 78 m. It was',
to agree with work done on a long arch dam in
designed as a constant-angle arch dam. Its base
, i
j
Australia which indicated that when the, ratio ex­
ceeded 3 there was a decrease in tensile stresses
near the foundation ~trado~. However, tensile
thickness is 4.5 m and crest thickness 1.5 m. I'i
'Its middle portion is strongly inclined downstream
stresses along the intrados near the crown were for better adaptation to the abutments and with I,
J I
.)

':1
i
J

,
!
I
----
-------- --_
--.j
'I

1
- 1-­ --­
--­ ------ ---­

Sec1ion on £.

Fig. 11.,40 The, constant-radius arch dam

 '11 nnT S FER

314

Seclion 3-4

Fig. 11.41 The constant-angle arch dam

Pion

Section on £.
Fig. 11.42 The variable-radius arch dam

.considerable ~avings in concrete. The foundation i. a

model studies so that the mode of failure can be
'.' calcareous rock of high strength and compactness.
understood. Although there may appear to be.
The six bays of the overran spillway can pass
175 m'Is.'4! ample factor of safety against final collapse it is
.
possible that initial fracture may occur at much
."
Dams of extreme overhang such as thir-and lower loads. The prototype dam may also be sub­
Moogerah Dam, Fig. 4.08-should be subject to· jected to sudden temperature changes that could :.II·
~J, "
 315

.-~'

curtcin
centre line

1. Oem
2. Spillwcy
3. Gctehouse
4. Grout curtoin

,
'-,

Fig. 11.43 Letaj Dam, Yugoslavia

induce cracking, so that it may not then behave
in strict accordance with the model. Water
pressure in such cracks could produce secondary
effects not reflected in the model tests, with con­
sequent reduction in the factor of safety.
The double curvature--or cupola-type of
dam is of more complex shape; vertical curvature
being introduced so that the weight of the dam
will offset vertical tensions due.to water load. An
I,'
i
I
early example of this principle was the 76 m high
Coolidge Dam-completed as a multiple-dome
dam in U.S.A. in 1928.
Initial determination of shell geometry
depends upon experience since the present
mathematical approach is one of analysis rather
than design. It is usual to study other successful
dams at somewhat similar sites, modifying their
shapes to suit local requirements. Rubber

II .....
,

316
membrane models are also used. These are made
to conform to the valley shape and are then
loaded. The rubber will assume a shape such that
all parts are in tension. Considering the inverse
of this-if such a shape were loaded on the
reverse shape the membrane should be wholly in
compression-is the goal of all dam designers. It
is not, of course, as simple as this since the
membrane does not account for weight or
temperature stresses. It can, however, be a good
starting shape for an assymetrical dam. Horizon­
tal arches are not restricted to single-centred
arcs; the adoption of three-centred circular, ellip­
tic or parabolic arches will lead to reduction in
bending moments and considerable savings in
concrete. 3I ,42-44
The improvement in stress distribution by this
thickening of the arches towards the abutments
is further enhanced by a thickening towards the
base. This has led to the introduction of fillets
between dam and foundation though the possible
benefit therefrom is not universally accepted.
Gehin" has related the savings in arch dams
relative to gravity dams for various valley widths,
Fig. 11.44. Naturally the savings will vary with
time and country but the data emphasize the
economies possible by variation of shell
geometry.
!..Or------------------~
o 100 200 300 400 500
Volle~ widlh 01 cresf (m 1
Fig. 11.44 Comparison of concrete volumes
-Arch and gravity dams. Mean arch stress
5 Mra; slope of downstream gravity dam =
0.8 • face
With large overhangs-both upstream and
downstream-it becomes· necessary to examine
carefully the stresses likely to be induced
progressively during construction. It is essential
. to avoid horizontal cracking of the relatively new
concrete, and reinforcement may be required.
The design of the double-curvature. dam
presupposes that the final dam will act as a
monolith; for this reason the contraction joints
should be grouted. This is not always simple,
firstly the concrete must be cooled to provide a
gap of about 0.7 mm for successful grouting and
secondly the weight of concrete will tend to close
the joints in the upper regions of the dam, par­
ticularly away from the abutments.
On SOme recent dams, therefore, a spacing of
about 15 m between contraction joints has been
maintained from the base up to 30 or 40 per cent
of the dam height. At this level every second joint
is discontinued-with provision to prevent the
joint propagating upwards as a crack.
In a wide valley, with normal fixity to a rock
foundation, the cantilevers will carry the major
portion of the load. At some modern dams a dry
joint is built into the base of the dam to reduce
cantilever bending moment. This joint usually
extends from the upstream face to a gallery
within the dam which acts as a stop against
further cracking, Fig. 1l.21-adequate reinforc­
ing also being provided. This idea is not new-it
was reported" in 1930 from Ashland Creek
Dam, U.S.A., Fig. 11.45(A). This arch dam is 34 m
high of variable radii ranging from 70 to 48 m.
The crest thickness is 2.1 m and base thickness
7.6 m. The hinge was provided along a length of
60 m in the highest section of the dam. At
Vargforsen Dam, Sweden, Fig. 16.07, a somewhat
similar joint was provided in 1961; two copper
seals were included with provision to grout the
space between them with asphalt.
6m ,n 1
t2m
J'J
I I
I
19mm square bars i I
over downs1reom foce I I !
ond most of upslreom !....1J-1_L~___ _1
I I I ' I I
I-rl-Lt-r-----l
I I I I I I Copper
I I I
seal
I I
I I
Fig.l1.45(A) Ashland Creek Dam-Base hinge joint
 I
317

.' j
-:-1 , "II
i"
"II
•
25mm rise H

+,
Waler stop ~ 25mm drop
---------------~ ~ 1..
'r~---------~-~-.,--·
I' '1 '
. . ,,­
,~
Grophited .
fI
PI
L6m
I
Varies: 1.6 m 1\ Apron Copper
impregn{lled
~ --'­ osbufos sheet

_ ......-.-J,t,
II II
~
.. , \\1"'7<_,,­
/I \\
n ~
.C \\
Typica! sedion
Copper vroler stop

Fig. 11.45(B) Matilija Dam

joints Perimelrol joint

El430-Cres1 1

i
d
Pi lot holes ...

o, 20
, 40 60 eo. '00 m
Max:. depfh 40m I ! I

Fig. 11.46 Mis Dam, Italy-Perimetral joint and arrangement of grout curtain (Ref. 65c)
I
I'
i At MatHija Dam, U.S.A.,47 Fig. 11.4S(B) the it to a thickness of 1.6 mm and sheets of
I design endeavoured to eliminate gravity action graphite-impregnated asbestos fibre 3 mm thick
from the arch section. A horizontal shear plane spread on top to form the joint surface. Water
I divides the lower portion, which was designed as
a gravity section, from the upper portion of this
and grout stops of copper were provided to keep
the joint clean and dry.
I arch dam, which is S8 mhigh. The joint is The pulvrno (socleor base slab), Fig. 1.1.46, has
located 10.6 m above the lowest elevation of the been developed to serve many purposes:
dam which is in a U-shaped gorge. In a thin arch
dam-at this site--deflections near the base To avoid vertical tension. at the base of the
could be quite large and could cause an horizon­ upstream face--and any secondary efJ;l;Cts
tal crack to develop. The shear plane allows . that could result from reservoir water ente'ring
movement and is considered to permit relief of cracks that might otherwise occur;
undesirable stress conditions at the base. The To spread the load from the dam to the extent
surface of the gravity section was ground necessary for the particular, foundation con­
t.· smooth, a layer of graphite paste was spread over ditions;

....
.. ­
 318

To pennit early detennination of shell Fig. 11.49 Kurobe (No.4) Dam, Japan
geometry-any additional excavation found
Fig. 11.50 Murray (No.2) Dam, Australia
necessary being made good in the pulvino.
Where a pulvino is not provided, the actual
dimensions of the shell are not known until ex­
cavations have been completed and in some
cases a redesign of the dam might then be
.-.' necessary.
Since the pulvino can be built when convenient,
the concreting of the dam can be planned as a
smooth operation, not delayed by isolated foun­ Mox.imum heigl'll 31 m
dation difficulties.
At Zlalibor Dam, Yugoslavia, such a pad was
provided, Fig. 11.47, to permit construction of
an arch dam on a site where the rock had a com­
pression modulus less than would normally be Woierstop
acceptable for the foundation of an arch dam."
The 186 m Kurobe (No.4) Dam, Japan,
Fig. 11.48, is a very fine example of a double cur­
vature arch dam, modified to suit poor foun­
dations, but without increasing the volume of
concrete for the dam. It is founded on granite; Fig. 11.47 ZlaJibor Dam, Yugo­
there was a large weak zone in the lower left slavia

Moio section and Laterol view : '1:

\ lJ

1269
General plan

1454

1400
~ r-.
~~"9"'

'"
-b

,- . I 11.
usa
-
Upper dr.ilMgc J.~I ery
...
-
J\OWitf O(Q,"uge qallQfy
~"=~"' ,I
~ ,
..
'v
Left bonk

'" 5
,\" Outlet
1'3i5~.5i W o 50m
"
Moitl ill'speetioA 9lJllery ~ t:'~.
+rTT
III
/V
J/ - '--'

1300
., !
.. .­ ;1
y
1269
~"
t - -~
~r

.
Developed elevotion of downstream foce

Fig. 11.48 Kurobe (No.4) Dam, Japan-General arrangement

.. 1
j
'l
.!
d
 i
J

f
i,
,I

!
..1

11.49

11.50

. I
I
,:J
 320

abutment caused by hydrothennal alteration due
to a hot spring. Some 40 000 m 3 of material was
removed and replaced with low-grade concrete.
Both banks had low bearing capacities in the
upper 50 m; in the right abutment joints were
highly developed and chloritization was well ad­
vanced; in the left abutment the rock was sound
but there were many- open joints. The design
modification involved the elimination of arch
action in the upper portions of the dam by omis­
sion of end monoliths, regarding the upper por­
tions of the remaining monoliths as columns of
varying height cantilevering from the lower
three-dimensional shell. Independent gravity
c_c wing walls were provided at each end of the dam,
on the downstream face may be eliminated. With
this in mind several large dams have been
designed with the crest roadway carried on
buttresses built into the upstream face. ,, "'t
". ,
When the upper arches provide significant ..
~
rigidity the effect of vertical curvature of the
dam should be considered. Neglect of this may n I,
account for the fact that model tests usually
denote greater compression at the base of a dam
~~
than that predicted from the normal analysis. A
proper balance between crest and base stiffness
might lead to further economy in arch dams
without increased stresses.
TJ
d
11.6 Methods of Analysis j

Fig. 11.49. The new design took advantage of the

principle of 'plunging arches' within the dome. A
As mentioned in Section 11.1, the earliest rll rI
very interesting feature was the great care exer­
arch dams were considered as portions of thin
cylinders, on the assumption that radial water
d
cised during filling. Storing of water commenced
load would be carried by the circular arches in :1
in October 1960 and the water level was per­
compression. Normally maximum cylinder I
mitted to rise 70 m. Regular _observations and
stresses were less than 2 MPa. Since the concrete
measurements were made of behaviour of the
would probably have withstood 20 MPa in com­
dam and the water level was allowed to rise 10 to
30 m (average about 20 m) per year. Full reten­
tion level was reached in August 1969.*
pression and maybe 2 MPa in tension, it is no
wonder that such dams were successful, despite
I
bending stresses that would have been induced
For the Murray No. 2 Dam, Australia, Fig. by rib shortening, shrinkage and temperature
I
11.50, a two-stage construction was adopted to J
varIatIOns. The problems of concrete
enable the lower portion--complete with three temperature were probably minimized by the
large diversion openings-to be completed
before the commissioning of a power station a
little distance upstream. The first stage of con­
thin sections and a relatively slow rate of con-
struction.
J
There have, however, been engineers in recent
struction included all foundation excavation for
the second stage. In the upper right abutment ~]
~

this excavation exposed a sheared zone striking

at about 90 0 to the crest of the dam and dipping
towards the stream bed. Poor material was ex­
;11
LJ I

cavated and backfilled with concrete. This con­

crete was built up to form a socle to maintain q
symmetry of the arch foundations and gravity :J
abutment blocks were added in line with
recommendations made f.om structural model
tests at LNEC, Lisbon.
The upper portion of an arch dam should
receive as much attention as the base. Often the
provision of 'a roadway or spillway profile will
cause unwanted stiffness in the top arches that
nonnally sustain no water load. If excessive
stiffness can be avoided vertical tensile stresses

'* Private communication from Japanese Committee on Fig. 11.51 Dam as Independent Rings--by
Large Dams. Boeuf49

u
: 1 1
 ~
.' ~
, 321 d
, .i
I 'k
,.:i if
times who have been enthusiastic on the con­ though without taking any precautions for the i:~i
tinuance of cylinder dams. Boeuf.-around bottom drainage, the dam was submitted, , i,
1921-built a dam 42 m high as a series of in­ through a lateral tunnel, to such extraordinary

j
dependent horizontal rings, separated by lead
plates 20 mm thick, but with no provision for
vibrations that wave measurements of 50 and
80 mm were registered at the crest. Mter treat­
u!
,;.:

release from ftxity at the abutments. This dam ment of the vibration, no damage to the arches :: ~]
j .,
was reported as still satisfactory in 1955. Later was found.' :~ ,,~

on a 40 m high cofferdam was built in twelve The Matka Dam in Yugoslavia" is a rein­
II
T~
I,;
rings e~ch 3 m high, the independence of the forced concrete structure consisting of ten arches J€
rings being arranged by their intermediate sup­ each 3 m high. The thickness of the lowest is.
,'I
j;:
'I, port oncylinders of asbestos cement, Fig. 11.51. 1.6 m and that at the crest 1 m. The various rings li:~
I 'The result was also extremely favourable'" have different curvature to suit the abutments, :11
:~ 1$
I
,::.~
"

I ;iii
,,!,i' ;:
;i!J

I L Dam
2, BoHom outlet
3, Spillwo>,
4, Intoke slructure
,::ii
;:!~

,'I
I ,,' I')

I
I,.

I "
"I""
"I

I I:,I
I!

.i H'
::1
l/f

~Ir
Plan
"
I
J
.>
I:;
~;j
!,:~
j.C;

I i~~:~
f:;
~
H;~
I
1
i morlal
and thin zinc sheet
r
'
,.
"
1:'
1H
,

r lt

'l
1 ~

I:
:~
i;
'Ii
i'
I ,
I;:
~,

"

!I,~j
I Section
oI 5
I
'Om
,I':\
Fig. 11.52 Matka Dam, Yugoslavia f:~
i
",~

''I".
I::

,
I

,
i
:1
 •.~•...
rj'i
·
< I
]. ,
J J

'\
t t· . , '1.0' " ...... ,
"'~"'~~""r4
t ~.. .«

1
i'

1
1
J

:1

11.53

1.1
the central angles being between 155 and 148 0 •
Between each arch are layers of bitumen and zinc
II sheet. Copper water seals are provided between
rings. The upstream face was covered by a layer
of cement monar on wire net fastened to the
II dam, Fig. 11.52. It is interesting that this dam is
only 14 km from Skopje and in an earthquake
active zone.
I! The' constant-radius arch-i.e. cylindrical
upstream face--is the next simplest form. The
downstream face can be defined by concentric
Ij arcs of decreasing radius, in some cases thickened
towards the abutments, Fig. 11.53, or by multi­
centered arcs, by ellipses or parabolas.
II By adopting variable-radius arches and cur­
vature in vertical planes, the quantity of concrete
can be decreased significantly. Overhang of the
323
strain gauges it was impossible with the small
models to obtain true values adjacent to the con­
crete-rock interface of the dam. This has
gradually been overcome--with miniature
gauges, more accurate modelling and the model
representation of the actual foundation con­
ditions. Since the construction of such models is
expensive they have been used mainly as means
of checking mathematical analyses. It is not,
however, difficult to make minor changes to a
model and repeat observations for comparison.
Although the advent of the computer has
revolutionized mathematical methods of analysis,
it is still strongly recommended the model studies
be made of large dams or dams that are hI any
way unique.
The accuracy of results from the trial load

Il dam is incorporated, to counter by weight, the

tension induced in the cantilevers by water load.
method of analysis depends upon the amount of
work that can be justified for the particular"
We are· then faced with a three-dimensional dam. ,0 For preliminary studies it is usual to un­

II problem in the distribution of the loads on the

dam.
dertake a 'crown cantilever analysis', which con­
sists of an adjustment of radial deflections at the
Until recently the 'Trial Load Method of crown cantilever with corresponding deflections

Ii Analysis' was the method most widely adopted in

the design of arch dams. Having been suggested
of the crowns of the arches. For this analysis it is
usual to assume a uniform distribution of radial
by several Engineers more than 70 years ago it loads from the arch crowns to their abutments
was developed in Europe and America around and neglects tangential shear and twist. For small
11 1930. For the design of such a structure as the dams, and for dams in narrow V -shaped valleys,
Hoover (Boulder) Dam considerable expenditure this may be adequate, it often being simpler to
was justified to guarantee its safety and to arrive use construction materials inefficiently rather
IJ at an economical solution. The U.S. Bureau of than undertake more refined designs. However,
Reclamation published many Reports at that
time--in particular Part V, Technical MOJ:imum conlileller element
11 Investigations Bulletin No.1, 1938. This publica­
tion has formed the basis for the method
throughout the world.
Realizing the complexity of the three­
dimensional analysis, several centres have
specialized in model representation, the load
Arch
I'] being applied by either mercury to small models i·r. ;,
or by hydraulic jacks to larger models. Firstly
only the water load was considered, then the
p;
U weight of the dam was included. More recently
temperature effects have been added and the
Section
geological formations of the foundations have (crown cantilever)

IJ been represented. Earthquake stresses have also

been studied by subjecting the models to
'1
•
ArCh element

vibrations. Due to the relatively large size of

Plcn

Fig. 11.53 Clark Dam, Australia-Constant-radius Fig. 11.54 Trial load analysis--Arrangement of
arch arches and cantilevers

\ ;
326
InspeCliOl'l
gallery
E!evo!!on
o 50m
L '_ _ _- "
Fig. 11.S6(B) Gordon Dam, Australia-Valley profile and sections
have pointed out the difficulties in applying shell
theory to the boundary conditions of a dam.
They undertook studies by methods of finite
differences and fmite elements. The extension of
this latter method from tw<Klimensional to
three-dimensional studies has been made possible
by the modern large digital computer." The
structure is represented by a number of 'building
blocks' of finite size connected to each other at
points called nodes,* Fig. 11.58(C). The number
of elements must be sufficient to represent the
boundary adequately and to allow a good in­
terpretation of the deformed shape; the loads are
applied at the nodes of the elements and conse­
quently there must be sufficient nodes to allow
for distributed loads to be represented by point
* Private communication from Dr S. Giudici.
Heillhl
cl Dom 10.2 "'
137m
.7.r.!
CrOU_$ecliQI'I
loads without losing too much realism. Essential
steps in the analysis are.:
Making the 'model'; that is, representing the real
structure by a combination of elements so that
all essential features are included. This phase
is the most difficult, requiring judgment and
experience to know just how crude or fine the
representation must be;
Formulating the response characteristics of an
individual element when loaded through its
nodes-known as forming the element
stiffness matrix. The formulation will deter­
mine the characteristic of the element, i.e.
whether it is elastic (specified by modulus and
Poisson's ratio) or whether it can accept non­
linearities with respect to material properties
or rates of loading; I.I
Combining the element properties to give the
" -',~ ',-, .: ~>.. ;:"'.:":' -~\ ',,;.,
~ .---~~" ;~-"'
"C • __ - ,

Crown cantilever m Crown contile~et

~
-'\ I
T T

7­ ! .1­
2184

2161
~-------~-------'.

~st
i r­
--; .! 1-­ 2138

,,_' t '_I 2115

·~-t-
---+\~~T7(

1~/

2092

2069

Principal stresses on upstream face ~ Earthquake effects not

2042
l~=+=-pl

Principal stresses on upstream face ~ Earfhquake effect by Zanga,s

included. method inchJdec1
Profile on altis looking downstream (de~eloped) Profile on alti$ looking downstream (developed)

'--_ _ _.r.
T
Crown contile~er

~,

I
I0-----<Il Compression
-----M­

."
2184

2161

2138
.s:~

\
- \....
Crown <tlever

r
+
~
C
z
I

+ ~
J •
t=-.-i-=..-­
2115
;:=-~

2092
~+~

~~i~~--
2069

2042

Principo! stresses on downstream face- Earfhquake effects nof

included. Principal stresses on downstream face- Earthquake effect by

Prafl!e on a~is looking downstream (developed) Zangars method included.

Profile on axis looking downstream (developed}

5t...s scale f 10 MPo

I Lineal scole 0 mu S 8 R
-U.S.A. . ...

Fig. 11.57 Morrow Point Dam-Principal stresses

.'.
..,
w

"

•• '.,_ ••••> ••• " . .•....,'"'.. ". .,-,',',-""" ',,,'

;

328

It is therefore possible to include:

, All construction stages of the dam and filling
\ stages of the reservoir;
\1
The influence of temperature variations;
Asymmetry of the structure; and
~ ~ Anisotropy, viscoelasticity, heterogeneity and
(ol (b)

discOl"inuities in foundations, etc.

Cylindrical shell Double curvoture shell

rectangular elements triangular elements

On the other hand, with the finite element
method in its present state of development, it is
not such a useful design tool as the Trial Load
Method. This is due to the fact that the usual
'packages' give results in the form of stresses in
the x, y and z directions, whereas Engineers
more easily visualize thrusts and moments in.
Typical element
orthogonal directions. To produce results in this
of 2.0 nodes form would make the programmes much more
(e)
lengthy. At this time the Trial Load Method is
Double curvature Dam
Solid elements proven for arch dam design, its accuracy being
,j dependent solely on the capacity of the computer q
Fig. 11.58 Finite element representation of an available. The Finite Element Method in its pre­ . J:,
,
L

arch dam sent application to arch dams is mainly for the

response of the structure as a whole to the
loading; i.e. ensuring compatibility and
equilibrium with the boundary conditions im­
posed.
Algebraically, the process means the solving of
a large number of linear simultaneous equations
having as unknowns the deformations of the
structure. Loading conditions may be static or
dynamic. Once a particular element has been for­
mulated the second and third steps are repetitive
and hence suited to the computer. Most com­
puter bureaux have finite element 'packages'
from which the user may choose the elements he
wishes to use to construct his model; the coding
researcher who wishes to delve more deeply into
theoretical stress distributions.
Some details of two very different double cur­
vature arch dams are of interest.
The Repulse Dam, Australia, Figs. 11.30 and
11.59, is 36.6 m high, founded on fractured
weathered dolerite in a wide valley. Even after
improvement by cement grouting, the modulus
of deformation of certain areas of the foundation
was very low-from 2000 to 4000 MPa or a ratio
of Ee to Er of between 5 and 10.
The concrete arch is flanked on the right by an
earth embankment and on the left by a forked
Cresl of ,.''''".__~t:,;,'f

.,of the model being through pro-forma charts. spillway

Among the principal advantages of the finite

element method are:
The possibilities it gives to include quite complex
shapes in an analysis;
Prestressing
U
The variation of element size to cater for areas of

,1r l'
cobles
stress concentration-such as around drains
or re-entrants in a gallery; Length of arch eresf (t) =153m
Maximum height {h 1 ::: 3S.6m
The flexibility of loading patterns. possible in the l/h=4,2
one analysis;
Since the elastic properties of elements can be
individually different, discontinuities of
Length of Dom cresl
lLl' 210m
u
materials-such as the concrete-rock inter­
face--present no difficulty.
Fig. 11.59 Repulse Dam, Australia­
Cross--section [J
f1J
U
!
 I

329

Repulse Dam stress analysis

Thin damj Ec lEt = 5; Allowable tension -0.7 MPa.

100year flood, 3°C temp. drop, Grouting temperature 9.5 0 C

El.125m

,':
113
4.6m

102
I El. 89.4 m

Arch stresses Extrados MPa (Tension shown negative)

1.25 3.67 4.25 -4.89 3.90 3.68 1.23

-0.78 1.93 3.26 3.75 3.09 I. 88 -0.76
-0.57 1.53 1.99 I. 52 -0.65
-1.54 1.44 -I. 57

i Arch stresses Intrados MPa

j
2.92 2.84 3.53 2.86 3.70 2.70 2.97
2.59 2.06 2.39 2.16 2.53 2.16 2.52
1.82 0.90 0.81 0.74 2.06
I. 76 -I. 28 1.75

Cantilever stresses Extrados MPa

I 0.68
-1.69
0.93
-0.54
1.05
-0.63
0.81
-0.63
0.63
-1.76
-2.08 -1.86 -1.91
-1.95

Cantilever stresses Intrados MPa

:j ,l
0.09
2.98
-0.08
2.03
3.84
!
Fig. 11.60 Repulse Dam stress analysis---Thin dam
abutment. The first design involved 15 300 m' of
concrete in the arch. Analysis of the section by
the Trial Load Method-including radial and
I tangential adjustments-revealed the stress dis­
i tribution shown in Fig. 11.60. High tensions
were indicated at the bases of the arches along
the extrados and over a large area of the
upstream face of the cantilevers. The stress
criteria permitt~d 0.7 MPa tension but values
were up to three times that. Although model tests
indicated a factor of safety against rupture of 8
the zones of tension were considered to be too ex­
tensive.
The dam was thickened generally by about
1.6 m, increasing the concrete quantity to
30 000 m'-but with the stress distribution
shown in Fig. 11.61. Although tensions were still
-0.20
2.20 .
-0.04
2.08
0.14
3.04
3.53 3.69 I"
3.96 i:
!,I.
.,
present they were within the criteria and
probably would not occur in the actual dam.
When the ratio of Ee to Er was increased to 10
the cantilever tensions approached zero. The
temperature of the dam for joint grouting was
also reduced to 6.6°C to improve the stresses
further. Although the joint grouting pressure
was 0.2 MPa at the top of each zone, it was con­
sidered that any prestress effect from this would· ,.
be dissipated by shrinkage and creep.
Devils Gate Dam, Australia, Fig. 17.18, is
84 m high and the maximum thickness is 4.6 m,
except near the base and abutments where it is a
little thicker. The ratio thickness to height is
therefore 0.055-i.e. a very thin dam, Figs.
11.62 and 11.63. The ratio of crest length to
height is 1.6, the abutments are generally sound
330

Repulse Dam stress analYSIs

Thick Dam, Ec/E, :::5) Allowable lension -O.7MPa
Moximum flood, 3°C temp. drop. Grouting femperature 9,5°C
Joint grout pressure 0.20 MPa
EL 125m

113 m

EL.89.4 m

A reb stresses - Eltlrodos MPa (Tension shown negative 1

n'
; j

0.77 2.18 2.86 3.26 3.02 2.34 1.41

-0.61 1.05 2.02 2.54 2.05 1.15 -0.78 "I
-0.57 1.15 1.41 1.07 -0.34 d.
-0.72 1.66 -0.81

Arch stresses Intrados MPa '·1

L ,

2.70 2.03 1.89 1.60 1.82 1.95 1.83

1.92 2.09 1.26 0.87 1.24 1.25 2.17
1.85 0.23 0.12 0.38 lAO
1.73 -0.75 1.78

Cantilever stresses Extrados MPo

C [1
j

0.03 0 a a 0.03
0.11 0.32 0.43 0.37 0.11
-0.28 0.15 -0.21 -0.22 -0.25
0.20 -0.16 0.22
-0.06 ·, ,!
d
Cantilever stresses Introdos MPo

0.06 a o o 0.06
,];:. .

060 0.42 0.31 0.39 0.61 L

1.50 1.47 1.64 1.58 1.48

1.78 1.86 1.70
1.97

Fig. 11.61 Repulse Dam stress .nalysis-Thick dam

except under the left abutment which was
therefore prestressed to sound rock. Due to the
overhang of the upper parts of the dam the con­
traction joints were only grouted up to 33'm
permitted tensions of 0.7 MFa under normal con­
ditions and 1 MPa under special loading. The
tensile stresses at the bases of the cantilevers ij., ,i
, i

were considerably in excess of 0.7 MFa, whilst

'above foundation. This was done with the con­ high tensions were indicated in the arch extrados
crete 3°C below mean annual temperature. For near the abutments. : I

stress calculations it was assumed that the in­ Model tests were conducted by the Hydro
·,
'.
• I
L!~,
". 'I'

trados would follow the air temperature whilst
the extrados would be at water temperature. This
led to a temperature differential through the dam
of 14°C. The combination of weight, water at
crest level and temperature drop. gave maximum
stresses shown in Fig. 11.64. The stress criteria
Electric Commission with two plaster diatomite
models made to scale 1 to 192, and ratio Ee to Er
Fig. 11.62 Devils Gate Dam, Australia-Left abut­
ment
Fig. 11.63 Devils Gate Dam-Plan and section

!J,
 11.62

I
"
,I·
Crest length 134m
Height 84m

};' L/h = 1·6

/..,:
I ~

4'6m
;g
r .¥~~
~~l
~*: 11.63
:~0; Spillway apron not shown

I .1
I Vii
I S"H-t-ConSOlidOlion grout holes
I .
I"L----Drain holes
I 1'-...... Curtain grout holes
 c77i'

332

Loading - Weight 1 woter at crest leve! I temperature fall

Arch stresses Ex.trados MPa

Elev, I 22m -0.80 -0.23 0.77 0.91 1,47 1.82 2,00

110 -0,80 0.49 2.19 2,94 3,92 4.60
94,6 -1.64 1.37 3.20 4.08 4.96
77,7 -1.28 2.14 4.56 6.rO
62.3 -1.06 2.80 5.92
48,2 -1.69 2.59

Arch stresses Intrados MPo "1

122 0.48 1.28 1.76 1.76 1.00 -0.06 -1.10 i. 1
110 1.77 2.71 2,80 2.17 1.36 1.36
94.6
77.7
62.3
3.73 2.94
4.49
2.52
3.26
4.18
1.57
2.40
2.02
1.02
1.92 UI I,

48.2 2.51 -1.88

Cantilever stresses Extrados MPa

0 0 rl!
122
110
0
°
-0.17
0
1.03 0.79 0.91 °
0.76
°0.53 :jl
{.' l
.94,6 -1.14 0,82 0,78 0.87 0.87 I
77.7 -2,02 -0.23 -0,29 -0,25 ?~I
62.3 -1.38 1.31 1.60 ::~I'
':,'
u.
48.2 -0.36 2.51
44.2 -0.73

Cantilever stresses 'J nlrodos MPa

0 0 0
122
110
0
°
0.65
0
-0.44 -0.13 -0.30 -0.14 °
0.13
94,6 2.21 0.52 0.76 0.85 1,00
77.7 3.71 2.26 2.83 3.17
62,3 3.42 1.49 2.21
48,2 3.38 1.62
cO
44.2 5.33

Fig. 11.64 Devils Gate Dam-Stress analysis

of I, The results supported the arch dam
programme results but indicated lower tensile
stresses which were thus less severe at critical
points. When combined with own weight stresses
from the programme all stresses were within the
H.KC. criteria. The extrados was completely in
compression for water at crest level and the max­
imum intrados xension was only 0.30 MPa. Since
strain gauges could not be placed on the model
little effect on the stresses in the dam. As a
precaution, the two central monoliths were built
on a separate plinth with a copper water seal near
the upstream face. Under the indicated stresses
the criterion was met that a principal tensile
stress at the upstream face should not exceed 0.4
times the principal compressive stress on the r " 1
: I
downstream face for dead load and maximum
flood level or 0.5 for dead load, plus the 100 year
it ,,~

closer than 2m prototype measurement, higher flood, plus temperature load. :I

tensile stresses may have been present near the
boundary. Due to poor rock under the left abut­
ment the model foundation was drilled out, Fig.
19.21, to provide a ratio Ee to E, of 7. This had
It was also considered that horizontal tensile
stress along the arch extrados--if real-would
.J
be relieved by opening of the contraction joints
which were provided with copper water seals.

The reservoir was first filled in 1969, has been
overtopped by floods many times-see Fron­
cispiece--has deflected in accordance with
calculations, and is in excellent condition after 6
years.
In order to assess the safety of a dam, provided
foundation conditions are satisfactory, it is
.\ ' I necessary to know:
i is unknown.
The stresses in the dam, and
The ability of the concrete to resist such stresses.
I Conditions may sometimes exist which prohibit a
in the contraction joints of arch dams. This has
I
meaningful evaluation of stresses by
probably been done to provide a factor of safety
mathematical methods. In such cases the stress'
against ultimate failure. Provision of the keyways
relief approach suggests a solution"
adds to the cost of formwork,makes more dif­
'This method is based on the relatively simple
theoretical relationship of the deformation of a drill
hole in an isotropic elastic body to the cor­
responding change in stress. If a small volume of
the body containing the drill hole is cut away from
the main body, it may be assumed that all stresses
are relieved in the cut-away portion and the change
in stress is numerically equal to the stress existing
in the main body. This method was applied to three
Salt River Dams in Arizona, U.S.A." A borehole
gauge was inserted into a 37 mm drill hole, and in­
itial readings obtained. This hole was then over­
cored to relieve stresses around the gauge and the
resulting deformation determined. Principal
stresses ranging from 0.1 MPa to 5 MPa were
measured.'
11.7 Contraction Joints
It has been normal practice to provide radial
contraction joints in arch dams at approximately
15 m spacing, Fig. 11.65. This 'dimension has
evolved from experience since cracks often
appeared in monoliths of 20 m or more in length,
where full control of concrete temperature was
either impracticable or uneconomical; cracking
occurred particularly at sites subject to sudden
and large falls in ambient temperature. For
constant-radius arch dams the joints are radial
and plane (usually with rebates), whereas for
double-curvature dams they are frequently
warped; in some cases they are formed to leave
the rock almost normal to the contact surface.
Since monolithic action is required in the arch,
provision is made for the injection of cement
grout into the joints after the concrete has cooled
to mean temperature, or has been artificially
cooled to a little below mean temperature in
~.- j , _,"'_A ¥.
333
order to introduce some compression into the
arches.
A warning is necessary against assuming, for
design purposes, that prestressing by the
grouting pressure is simple; the random settling
of the cement can easily upset any assumption of
uniform pressure distribu tion across a joint, and
long-term creep of concrete and foundation rock
Following what has been general practice for
gravity dams, rebates have usually been provided
ficult the installation of the grou t injection
system since this must make provision for
washing out the joint prior to grouting and for
escape of air as the gap is filled with water and
then grout, Fig. 11.66.
Each joint is usually divided by horizontal
grout stops so that zones from 10 to 15 m high
may be grouted progressively to ensure stability
of the completed sections against inadvertent
overtopping by floods, Fig. 11.67.
The following excerpts would be typical of a
specification for Joint grouting.
Typical Procedure for Joinc Groucing
The Grou ting schedule shall be furnished by
the designers and shall include:
The maximum levels to which the various blocks
of the dam may be constructed prior to
grouting a particular grout zone.
The sequence in which the grout zones shall be
grouted.
The concrete temperature for each grout zone at
the time of grouting.
The concrete temperature for zones above and
below the zone to be grouted at the time of its
grouting. . .
The maximum grouting pressure for each joiin
in every grout zone--usually not exceeding
700 kPa.
For each block within each grout zone, the
calculated change in radial deflection cor­
responding to the maximum permissible grout
pressure.
For each joint within each grout zone, the
calculated increment of joint opening and dif­
ferential radial deflection between adjacent
 [1

~1

,~,~ ']
, '
,

q
: i
;J

11.65
 335
Top of gfout lone -:Hq..~

Grout slops

@
I
I
J
Venlgroove heodersy-:;.­
"..//' rp I
I
I
I
I

I
I I
"",,=i=+I:;:'-~ J
Groul oulle's:-'
( in contraction joint surface) I I
I I
~I I
I
I 1 I I
,~

Woier stop-+""I ~
1 I I
I I
~ ~ I
I I
I
Grout risers -=t=1if==I:----J
I I
I I I
0
I @ ,
1

I
I•
@
1
I
I ,
I I
I
I
BoUom of gfout lone
@ I

Lift join1s
,,,I
I

Groul supply and 'II­ Wash groove

return headers .,:. of?

~"';-:;."''''' (Vent groove not shawn in lower lone)

//

Wasil groove heoders

/
ISOMETRIC VIEW
\ nol 10 scole 1 :':

Fig. 11.66 Typical contraction joint features-Rebates not shown

blocks, corresponding to the maximum per­
missible grout pressure.
Guides as to cooling water temperature and the
time required to achieve certain temperature
falls.
Each contraction joint shall be washed out and
water tested along the following lines:
Immediately before any zone is grouted it shall
be tested with water. The conditions set out in
the Joint Grouting Schedule must be satisfied
before water testing of a grout zone com­
mences.
Each joint in the grout zone shall in turn be
filled with water and washed. During washing,
Fig. 11.65 Gordon Dam, AuStralia-Water seal,
grout stops and rebates on contraction joints
the pressure as measured at the bottom of the
grout zone shall not exceed 200 kPa. Air shall
not be injected into a contraction joint, except
under extreme circumstances, where blockages
cannot be cleared with water within the per­
missible pressure.
Following joint washing, all joints within the
grout zones shall be injected with water and
the pressure in each joint in turn shall be in­
creased in two or three increments until the
specified grouting pressure is reached.
At this stage additional washing may be carried
out on those joints which exhibited unusual
characteristics while being washed in accor­
dance with the second paragraph above. At no
time during such washing shall the pressure
'anywhere in any joint fall by more than
200 kPa from that existing before washing
commenced.
u

"

::]

, .

.- j

~u'
"
J

Following such washing, the joint pressure shall
De restored to the specified grouting pressure
and this pressure shall be maintained in all
joints while deflection readings are taken and
measurements are being made of joint
openings and' pressure drops through the
joints. The difference in pressure, measured at
the bottom of the zone between any two joints,
shall not' .exceed 200 kPa at any time during
joint water testing.
"'i During the course of joint water testing, all leaks
I
i shall be detected and sealed where possible.
Water pressure may be released and the joint
drained if necessary.
Joint grouting procedure will vary with the
equipment available and design requirements for
the particular dam. However, the following
would be indicative:
At least 24 hours before grouting commences, all
joints within the same grout zone shall be
filled with water.
Immediately before commencing grouting, the
pressure of the water in the joints shall be in­
creased to the specified grout pressure, and
this pressure shall be maintained in all joints
during grouting operations and until the grout
has been injected into and has hardened in all
joints within the zone.
The difference in pressure, measured at the bot­
tom of the zone, between any two joints of one
zone, shall not exceed 200 kPa at any time in a
grouting operation until 24 hours after
grouting of all joints in a zone has been com­
pleted.
I
r-. I
The grout supply and return pipes shall extend
close to ihe supply and return headers of the
zone being grouted and shall have a connec­
tion to each supply and return header respec­
tively. Each such connection shall be regulated
by a valve.
The grouting of the contraction joints in any
zone may be done singly or in groups.
Grout shall not be admitted to any joint so
rapidly that the grout will not settle in the
joint. In no case shall the average rate of fill­
ing of the joint exceed 0.6 m/min vertically.
: -j
L!
Fig. 11.67 Monar Dam, Scotland-Water seal, grout
stop and rebates on contraction joint
I I,,·ii.',:
I i
.--).:...J Of.. . ,j .,1_. .0,,1,,"_­ A4
337
This may be estimated by pressure gauge and
the quantity of grout injected.
As soon as a joint is first filled with grout, water
shall be circulated in the same joint in adja­
cent ungrouted zones through the wash
groove in order to detect and remove any
grout leaking past the common grout stop.
Such water circulation .shall continue
throughout the grouting operation and for a
minimum of 12 hours after the completion of
grouting that particular joint, following which
this water shall be drained from the joint.
If grout leakage occurs into adjacent ungrouted
zones, the zones shall be thoroughly washed
out until all grout has been removed. The
headers and outlets of such zones shall be
tested and shall be clean before the joint shall
be considered to be thoroughly washed out.
Grouting shall commence by injecting No.2
mix* into the grout supply header of a joint
and maintaining the specified grout pressure.
The volume of the joint shall be estimated by
measuring at the vent header all the water dis­
placed by the No.2 grout. Whell grout issues
from the vent header at the top of the grout
zone, the grout mix shall be stiffened to the
No.1 mix, and a quantity of grout not less
than the quantity of No.2 mix already in­
jected into the joint shall be injected. This
shall be followed by the injection of No. 0.8
mix until grout of the same consistency flows
from the vent header. If grouts thicker than
the No. 0.8 mix are required to seal leaks, then
they shall be injected in succession until grout
of the same consistency flows from the vent
header.
No. 0.8 mix shall then be injected into all headers
except one of the vent headers. All headers
shall then be closed and the joint pressure
observed. Water or grout shall be bled from
the vent header, and injections of No. 0.8 mix
shall be made at the specified grout pressure at
10 min intervals, until grout can no longer be
bled from the vent header.
Where required to control leakage into the grout
zone above, grout containing bentonite may
be injected into a vent header, provided that
No. 0.8 mix grout has already been injected
into the joint.
* A No. 2 mix is one composed of 2 parts of water to 1
part of cement by volume; a No. 0.8 mix indiCates a stiffer
mix of 0.8 parts of water and 1 part of cement. :':
'! .:".~'
I, iI'!"~
1'1
:'I:·.·.···
".~
:;i
338

Cement should be of high early strength and
of fineness such that 100 per cent passes the
0.15 mm screen and 95 per cent passes the
0.08 mm screen. The temperature of grout when
it leaves the mixers should not exceed 35°C.
Grout should be mixed in a colloidal-type mixer
operating at 1500 to 2000 r.p.m. In general it
should not be mixed for more than 1 min after
which it is passed through a OS 8 mm screen into
an agitator tank. The agitator is usually of the
shown. At Gordon Dam, the successive thicken­
ing procedure was discontinued for joint
grouting following tests with anti-shrinkage ad­
ditives for the grout. Methocell-a methyl :"'''1 '
~ ~ ;
cellulose product-was added in the proportion Ji :
of 1 part by weight of Methocell to 500 parts of
cement, together with W.R.D.A. in the propor­
tion 1 to 200 by weight of cement. It was found
that thin grouts could be injected into joint
openings as small as 0.4 mm; for openings

Joint-I

/
/
Reference
pi : j I
Pion surfoce .~ I
i
nl
U

r]

I "' J M,WL 790,6Q' R.B L,a,

U1
790 34,311
785
10 '1 i

780 ~~;=Z-""~===I"=''''='1o-4Y~, IJ ;'

775
'"
770
765
" '} ;,'..
:
...

760 ~~ :
755
750
745
740
735
730
725

Crown section. Downstreom vl&w of joints

(projection on the reference sutfoce)

Fig. 11.68 Guara Dam-Contraction joints

rotating-paddle type. The grout pump should be
of the screw type and capable of running for at
least 12 hours under load. It is most advisable to
have a spare pump available. For satisfactory in­
jection of cement grout a gap of at least 0.7 mm
is required.
The success of grouting usually depends upon
the experience of the operiltors and, the initiative
0.75 mm to 2 mm the No.1 mix was used, whilst
for openings greater than 2 mm grouting was
commenced with the No. 0.8 mix.
It is not usual to provide for a second injection
of grout into grouted joints; however, a reinje<:­
table type of grout outlet is sometimes installed
in large dams where maximum temperature drop
may extend over a long period (or a long time

,I
L!

'I
LJ_

I after completion of the dam) or where long-term
I
I
'··1
creep may occur·in the abutments.
Arch dams are usually sufficiently flexible to
deflect measurably under the forces exerted by
joint grouting; the effectiveness of the grouting
can therefore be assessed by comparing measured
with calculated deformations. To prevent harm­
ful overstress regular observations should be
made during grouting on joint meters embedded
in the concrete across the joints, on dial gauges
fixed to the upstream and downstream faces· of
the joint, on clinometers on faces of the dam and
galleries and on plumbobs and survey targets as
convenient. 58
In some recent dams every second joint has
been discontinued, after grouting of zones to that
level has been completed. Joints are needed near
the foundation to allow for length changes of
concrete due to temperature variations different
from those of the rock mass. Serafim" quotes
several dams designed on this principle, where
joints are 12 to 18 m apart at the base and double
those figures at the crest. He also mentions Por­
tuguese practice of starting contraction joints
normal to the foundation rock, Fig. 11.68, i.e.
where cracks have been observed in prototype
and model dams.
Since the forming of contraction joints is ex­
pensive and the division of the dam into small
I working areas is restrictive, attention is being
given, for economic reasons, to the necessity for
contraction joints. Concurrently, observations on
many dams that lean downstream in the upper
part have failed to reveal the opening of joints in
that zone--only near the abutments do they open.
The conclusion is therefore drawn that contrac­
tion joints could be safely omitted in the upper
!
central parts of double-curvature dams. Each case
must be investigated and in thicker dams reliance
must be placed on strict control of concrete
1
temperature. For internal temperatures this is
possible provided there is continuing measure­
ment of temperatures, computing of stress effects
and issue of and adherence to directions as to
cooling procedures. The 'great difficulty is to
combat sudden falls in ambient temperature; this
can only be done with efficient insulation, when
required, ofall exposed surfaces of relatively new
concrete. The placing, removal and maintenance
of insulation is expensive and not favoured by
construction personnel.
"""_ _"..._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. ._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,,_ _..._ _ _
:;.A""~""-'-'···?
339
11.8 Foundation Treatment
As discussed in Section 11.4, the foundation
should be adequate to resist loading from the
dam and should be stable under any possible con­
ditions of saturation by water under reservoir
pressure.
An arch dam is capable of spanning
+
appreciable weak zones-l times the base
thickness suggested-without undue effect on
the stresses in the dam. Any known weaknesses
should be removed or treated if at all possible,
although the provision of a pad or pulvino can
provide a means of spreading the load.
To minimize local stresses in the dam when a
pulvino is not used, all severe irregularities in the
foundation should be removed. The depth of
general excavation will depend upon the site, but
it is reasonable to provide for the removal of
between 5 and 10m of surface material. The
properties of foundations at that depth should be
tested-geophysical methods are particularly
useful to determine variations in rock properties
and any anomaly should be investigated
thoroughly.
Most foundations will require 'dent ai'
treatment, i.e. the removal of decomposJd
material from faults or seams and replacement by
concrete--Chapters 8 and 17.
The general foundation can often be improved
by cement grouting and in special cases by the
washing out of seams and their refilling, in part,
with cement grout-Chapter 8.
It is important to realize that the 10 to 20 m of
rock immediately beyond the dam foundation in­
terface is the critical zone. Extreme care should
be exercised to minimize damage beyond the
foundation line, i.e. patterns of drilling and the
size of explosive charges should be planned IP
avoid damage to or loosening of rock strata. At
least the last metre to foundation line should be
removed by hand methods.
Consolidation grouting is normally carried out
over the entire base area of an arch dam-holes
being 10 to 15 m deep, and arranged on a grid to
suit the rock formation. The grid interval may be
about 7 m for primary injections with in­
termediate holes drilled and grouted as indicated
to be necessary by loss of water or excessive con­
sumption of grout. Each hole should be in­
dividually sited and inclined to suit seams and
joints in the area.
,.,.,,""'''''"_-~
.L

340
;,
n
~ .

A grout curtain is normally provided-follow­ induce vertical compressive stresses upstream at ,~]
L
ing the upstream face and into the abutments as the heel of the dam and downstream near the L~

required. The depth and spacing of holes will be
appropriate to the particular site--having due
regard to the hydraulic gradient under the darn
upon filling of the reservoir and the computed
stresses in the rock mass surrounding the dam. If
a grout curtain could form a completely im­
permeable barrier then, in certain strata, full
hydrostatic pressure may act on that barrier. One
case is known where the dam and the local
foundation was moved en masse by such forces.
Care~ is therefore necessary in the design of the
grout curtain.60
It is usuai to provide a screen of drain holes
more or less parallel to the' grout curtain and
downstream therefrom. By providing free
drainage to the river or to a gallery within the
crest. Serafun has suggested that this can be
achieved by two processes," firstly by the in­
stallation of flat jacks to force open the end joints
!ll
of the shell which would deflect the dam
upstream and secondly by applying a radial load
at the crest by means of a horizontal cable to :;I
deflect the upper part of the dam downstream.
Muller has suggested61 that 'the same result
might be achieved by creating near the centre of
the structure a rear abutment adjacent to the toe
and applying an external load to the arch such
as to create a controlled deflection of the arch
towards the lake', Fig. 11.69.
n
f1 i
L

dam any uplift pressures can be relieved or

limited. Provision should be made to monitor f.".l·
( :'"
leakage to indicate the necessity for any remedial
~ction.
',' With a high dam the hydraulic gradient can be
!.] ,
;",

great; leakage through igneous rock may not be v~"

serious but any access by reservoir water into the Active joinl qn Clown
conti~e ...ers
bedding of sedimentary rocks may induce uplift ;.] I
:. I
Fig. 11.69 Potential application of prestress­

with the possibility of heaving and decrease of

shearing resistance on such planes. ing to arch dams (After J. Muller) "

Drainage of the abutments is an essential A further suggestion by Muller is that prestress­

precaution to decrease the risk of their in­
stability. Drainage is usuaily provided by adits
driven at relevant levels with curtains of drilled
holes connecting the adits. These should be
located with due regard to the final stresses on
the rock mass, Fig. 11.33.
ing might be introduced in the arch intrados to
create a radial compression 'across the entire
thickness of the dam with a corresponding
beneficial effect on the triaxial state of stress',
Fig. 11.70.

11.9 Prestressing [] .
In seeking further economies in the construc­
tion of arch dams it appears to be necessary to
consider means of applying external loads to the
dam to counteract undesirable tensile stresses J
m
that would otherwise develop. Many dams have
now been built, with compressive stresses up to
8.5 MPa but to increase these stresses would Fig. 11.70 A proposal for radial pre­
stressing (After J. Muller)
most likely not be possible without prestressing
to counteract the higher tensions. The introduction of prestressing to thin arch
'D
;
,',
"
With dams less than 70 m in height in valleys dams will necessitate specialty work. This must
. where the crest length to height ratio exceeds 4 it
is almost impossible to avoid high tensile stresses.
This could be overcome by prestressing-Leo to Fig. 11.71 Almendra Dam, Spain U
In
!

,!
,:1

,ll
1[1

"1

.. ,~,~--
 -:Ill rswwr-
342
be done under expert supervision and it will fre­
quently interfere with the concreting procedure.
The cost must not be underestimated by omitting
to take account of such secondary effects.
Some concern will also be felt as to the per­
manence of the prestress, unless it is both
possible and convenient to maintain regular
observations of dam behaviour and to adjust the
prestress as required.
11.10 Mod!,rn Arch Dams
A few modern dams will be described in order
to understand how site difficulties can be over­
come, to realize how outside influences can affect
designs, and to compare the geometry of the
dams relative to the valley shapes.
11.101 Almendra Dam, Spain, Fig. 11.71
This was completed in 1970. Its crest length is
567 m and the ratio crest length to height is 2.8.
The domed structure is flanked on the left side
by a massive buttress dam 30 m high and on the
right by a massive thrust block and thin asphalt­
faced rockfill structure 31 m high. The maximum
cross-section of this very well-proportioned
dam is shown in Fig. 11.72. The two spillway
chutes converge rapidly to discharge as ski jumps
orientated towards the centre of the gorge.
.V
25
!
50m
!
Fig. 11.72 Almendr. Dam,
Spain-Cross-section
11.102 Contm Dam," Switzerland, Fig. 11.73
This is an outstanding example of clean
r--mnTY­
Fig.11.73 Contra Dam, Switzerland-1965. Height
220 m; Length of crest 380 m
design. The crest length is 380 m and maximum
height 220 m, I/h ratio of 1.73. Six spillway
openings, each 8 m wide, are provided in each
abutment, their chutes terminating in ski jumps,
the flow being directed towards the centre of the
valley by end deflectors. Since most of the dam is
free from appurtenant works it was possible to
place the concrete in the dam in 18 months. The
maximum stress in the dam is 11 MPa and in the
rock about 7 MPa. * The slender cross-section is
shown in Fig. 11.74. A mUltiple-grout curtain is
inclined upstream from a gallery near the foun­
dation contact. The drainage holes discharge to
[.1.1
this gallery.
1.:..1:
Max,470
EI.473,5
'.Lj·
1''
I
Plumb shoft
[1
o 50m
307
Fig. 11,74 Contra Dam, Switzerland-Cross-section
. .'.
;;
-
~,,'
(;,
'~
'
11.103 Mossyrock Dam,') U.S.A., Fig. 11.75
•
This is 185 m high in a wide valley that was
fdled to a depth of more than 80 m with glacial
material, Fig. 1L 76. The design criteria for the
dam fixed the maximum compressive stress at 8.3
MPa and the maximum tensile stress at 1.6 MPa
for the loading case of maximum reservoir level,
* Private communication from Dr G. Lombardi of
Locarno
:.1

.,

i.,']

II,

,.
'I
Iil
r

,; !
,
I

.' _h "'k
n
u
 345
M.ch.,.ic.1 hoi$!

Groul curtain
Section of arct dam and powerhouse

-L:El.240m
r;-",
I I

) rSPillWOYS
I
11
-FlOw ,

Upstream coffetdom

Nolu,ol river bed

, ,
~ownSlre.m cofferdam
I - - -;,.....-.,:-- \. ": :" .. ~---<-
r Glaciol till
J ~ Glaciol till

I : i

~E1.53,3
BedrOCk

I! Section oion9 t of fiver bed

Top of Dom E1.240

11
I -...- .. --".----~.. '--­
I(

I
[i ".

, 11
'I'j,
Diversiontunnels

Section along Dam (lxis looking upslreom

Fig. 11.76 Mossyrock Dam, U.S,A.-Sections

dead weight and temperature, The special case
to cover earthquake permitted a 33 per cent in-
Fig, 11.75 Mossyrock Dam, U.S.A. (By courtesy of
controlled by a 13 by 15.3 m radial gate, can dis­
Harza)
crease in stresses with reservoir 5 m below max­
imum level (i.e, at normal operating level). Four
spillway openings near the crest of the dam, each
charge 7900 m 3/s.

348

2m added in 1963

Fig. 11.80 Mlados! Dam, Yugoslavia

11.107 Place Moulin Dam,"s Italy, Fig. 11.81 joint that extends from the pulvino to 80 m
below the crest. '1ts faces were connected during
This was completed in 1965; it has a crest
the pouring phase with steel bars, and the joint
length of 663 m and maximum height 155 m­
itself was grouted at a later date, after shrinkage
Ilk ratio of 4.3. Its maximum cross-section is
of the downstream semi block.'* This joint was
shown in Fig. 11.82, the crest thickness being
presumably adopted in order to limit the dimen­
6.44 m and the base thickness 41. 94 m. The
sions of each monolith and SO avoid cracking of
arches increase in thickness from crown to abut­
the concrete.
ment. The dam rests on a pulvino--Fig. 17.07,
Drain pipes were included in the dam-these
that extends to the abutment. To avoid the
were almost vertical, 250 mm diameter at 2.5 m
bonding of the concrete of the pulvino to the dam,
centres near the upstream face.
the only precaution taken was that the time
interval was not less than 15 days between the * Private communication from Dr A. Rebaudi
completion of the bearing surface of the pulvino
and the beginning of concreting of the dam
Fig. 11.81 Place Moulin Dam, Italy
monolith.
The unique feature is the centre lonoitudinal
c' 11 82
F'I g.. PI ace Moulin Dam-Cross-section
 .• 1
i

i'i
; I

.-, i

m
n~ !
inC ~I:
1ge

~~r

oi - EI.1970

es!'"I:
• t_.!
1m
c,

Long,lvdPlol
)Oln:

11.81

Two wQler
$COIS
\\ '1. 11.82

350
Galleries for access, inspection and drainage
were provided at about 15 m vertical intervals.
The design was by the Trial Load Method sup­
ported by model testing. The maximum com­
pressive strength is 7.2 MPa and maximum ten­
sile stress 0.66 MPa.
References
1. N. J. Schnitter, 'A Short History of Dam
Engineering', Warer Power, April 1967, pp.
142-148.
2. Nonna! Smith, A History oj Dams, Peter Davies,
London, 1971.
3. F. A. Noetzli, 'Pontalto and Madruzza Arch
Dams', Wesrern Construction News, 10th April
1932, pp.451-452.
4. E. Wegmann, The Design and Construction oj
Dams, New York, 1907.
5. (a) F. Kreuter, 'On the Design ofMasonry Dams',
Proc. I.C.E., CXV, 1893-1894, Pt. pp.63-188;
(b) H. Vischer and L Wagoner, 'On Strains in
Curved Masonry Dams', Tram. Tech. Society oj 23. F. A. Noetzli, 'Laminated Arch Dam with Forked
Pacific Coast (U.S.A.), Dec. 1889, p.75.
6. Engng. News Record, Dec. 1898, p.369.
7. Proc. I.C.E., cxvm, 1899, p.504.
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1909, Pt. IV; (b) E. M. de Burgh, 'Some Notes on
the Construction of Curved Dams in New South
Wales', Concrete and Constructional Engz'neering,
12, 1917, pp. 83-90.
9. M. Mary, Barrages Voutes, Dunod, Paris, 1968.
10. Tram. A.S.C.E., LIII, 1904.
11. Engng. News Record, 9th April 1904, p. 446.
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Paper 2606, Centennial Transactions, Vol. C.T.,
1953.
13. G. Y. Wisner and E. T. Wheeler, 'Investigation of
Stresses in High Masonry Dams of Short Spans',
Engineering News, 10th Aug. 1905, pp. 141-144.
14. G. N. Houston, 'The Halligan Dam', Tram.
A.S.C.E., LXXV, Dec. 1912, p.112.
15. R. E. Glover, 'Arch Dams--Review of Ex­
perience', Journal of Power Division, Paper 1217,
A's'C.E. Proc., 83, No. P02, April 1957.
16. J. C. Ross, 'The Improvement of the Water
Supply of Hobart', Proc. I.C.E., Paper No. 4361,
216, Pt. 11, 1922-1923, pp. 299-313.
17. Engineering News Record, 24th July 1924.
l~. The Engineering Foundation, New York, Arch
Dam Investigations, Vol. 1 1927-'Tests on
Stevensons Creek Arch Dam'; Vol. 2
1931-'Model Tests-including Stevensons
Creek Model'; Vol. 3 1933--'Tests on models of
Gibson, Bull Run and Coolidge Dams'.
19. (a) Engineering News Record, 17th Jan. 1933; (b)
Trans. I.C.O.L.D. Congress, 1936.
~, ,
LI
Holes for consolidation grouting were 15 to
30 m deep whilst the grout curtain extended 90
to 120 m below the pulvino. The grout curtain
consisted of two parallel lines of holes with check
holes sloping 30° from the vertical iowards each
bank.
20. Floris, 'Load Distribution in High Arch Dams',
Trans. A.S.C.E., 93, 1929.
21. U.S. Dept. of Interior-Bureau of Reclamation,
Boulder Dam Project, Part V, Technical
Investigations 'Trial Load Method of Analysing
Arch Dams', Denver, Colorado, 1938.
22. A. Coyne, 'Construction of Large Modern Water
Dams', The Structural Engineer, XV, Feb. 1937. . ,
(A Paper read before a joint meeting of the In­
' stitution of Structural Engineers, the Institution
of Civil Engineers, and the British Section of the
Societes des Ingeneurs Civils de France, lIth
Feb. 1937.)
Abutments', Trans. A.s.C.E., 95, 1931, p.533.
24. A. E. Komendant, 'Economy and Safety of .J
Concrete Dams', Trans. A.S.C.E., 121, 1956, pp.
899-924.
25. 'Sautet Dam', Encng.· News Reami, 30th May
1935.
26. 'The Sautet Dam" Engng. News Record, 21st Nov.
1935.
27. A. Coyne, 'New Dam Techniques', 1. C.E. Paper
No. 6418, Proc. 14, Sept.-Dec. 1959.
28. C. M. Roberts, L. Chitty,. D. E. Crook, 'The
Application of Modern Methods of Analysis to
Arch Dams', 10th ICOLD Congtess, Montreal,
1970, Q.39, R.I0, IV, pp. 167-180. .
29. 'Asia's Highest Arch Dam Just Completed',
A.s.C.E. Civil Engz'neering, July 1974, p.16.
30. A. Stucky, 'Study of Arch Dams', Bull. Tech.
Suisse, Romande, 1922.
31. A. L. Panne, 'Design Considerations', Rapid
ColtStruction oj Concrete Dams, pp. 151-160,
Special A.S.C.E. Publication, 1970.
32. D. G. Aiken, 'Foundation Problems at
Warragamba Dam', 8th ICOLD Congress, Edin­
burgh, 1964, Q.28, R.59, 1, pp. 1109--1131.
33. C. Semenza, 'Arch Dams-Development in
Italy', Journal of Power Division, Paper 1017,
Proc. A.S.C.E., 82, No. PO.3, June 1958.
34. W. T. Minassian and P. Londe, 'How to Keep
Concrete Dams Competitive', Rapid Construction
of Concrete Dam, p. 395, Special A.S.C.E.
Publication, 1970. .
.;, .
35. (a) A. Coyne, 'Arch Dams--Their Philosophy',
Discussion by G. S. Sarkaria, p. 26, Journal of
Power Division, Paper 959, Proc. A.S.C.E., 82,
No. P.0.2. April 1956; (b) F. D. Kim and G. S.
 n
Sarkaria, 'Influence of Canyon Shape on the
Design of Concrete Dams', Civil Engineering and
Public Works Review, London, March 1955. ,
36. L. Muller, 'Safety ofRack Abutments on Concrete
1 Dall1s', 71h ICOLD Congress, Rome, 1961, '125,
I R.9O, 11, pp. 663-678.
37. P. Londe, Dam DeSIgn and INlrumemalien,
Lecture presented in Peking, May 1974.
38. K. Thiel, 'Stability Analysis of Rock Foundations
1 for a Concrete Dam in Complicated Geological
Conditions', PaNIWOW< Wydawniclwo Naulwwe,
;'1 Warsaw, 1971.
..I
39. K. 'W. Swaminathan, 'Structural Behaviour of 56. M. D. Copen and G. B. Wallace, 'Determination
Arch Dams on Elastic Foundations', Theory oj
Arch Dams (Ed. J. R. Rydzewski), Pergamon,
Oxford, 1965.
40. L. R. Jorgensen, 'The Constant Angle Arch Dam', '57. W. T. Moody, Discussion on Paper 'The Borehole
Trans. A.S.C.E., 78, 1915, pp. 685-733.
41. Dams in Yugoslaflia.
42. S. Okamato and I. Shibata, 'A Study in Flatterung
an Arch Dam', 10Ih ICOW Congress, Montreal, 58. A. Warren Simond, 'Arch Dams; Methods and
1970, Q.39, R.3, IV, pp. 57-82.
43. M. D. Copen, 'Design Concepts', Rapid
I Conslruclion oj Concrele Dams, p. 113, Special
j A.S.C.E. Publication, 1970.
44. U.S.S.R. Booldet in English, The B. E. Velie...."
All Union Research Inslilule oj Hydraulic
Engineering, 1968. .'
45. J. Gehin, 'Comparison of Quantities of Arch,
Gravity and Multiple Arch Dams', 71h ICOLD
Congress, Rome, 1961, 111, pp.l00-105.
46. D. C. Henny, 'Dam Design Provides for Deflec­
tion by Horizontal Hinge Joint', Engineering New
Record, 13th Feb. 1930.
47. 'Horizontal Shear Plane Separates Gravity and
Arch Sections of Dam', Engineering New Record, 61. J. Muller, 'Trends in Design and Construction
10th June 1948.
48. D. Milovanovic, 'Quelques Possibilities de
Construire plus rapidement et plus economique­
! ment les barrages en beton', 11th ICOW
Congress, Madrid, 1973, Q.43, R.20, 111,
p.1274.
49. A. Pena Boeuf, 'Barrages Voutes en Anneau', 5th
, [COW Congress, Paris, 1955, Communication
r,
C.43.
50. M. D. Copen, 'Treat Load Analysis and its
Application to Modern Arch Dam Design', Theory
oj Arch Dams, pp. 383-413, (Ed J. R.
Rydzewski), Pergamon, Oxford, 1965.
51. A. A. Stone, 'Trial Load Analysis Confirm Arch
Dam Model Tests', loumal of Power Division,
Paper 5503, Proc. A.S.C.E., 93, No. PO.2, Oct.
1967, pp. 37-49, Discussions PO.2, 1968 and
PO.2, 1969.
52. M. P. Copen and 1. T. Richardson, 'Comparison
, of the Measured and Computed Behaviour of
, I Monticello (Arch) Dam', 8th [COW Congress,
'r' Edinburgh, 1964, Q.29, R.5, 2, pp.73-96.
,;
;' i
53. D. N. de G. Allen, L. Chitty, A. J. S. Pippard and
, r R. T. Severn, 'The Experimental and
~~j Mathematical Analysis of Arch Dams with
JI
.I
I
~,'
.>1:
351
Special Reference to Dokan', Proc. I.C.E., 5,
1956, pp. 198-244.
54. O. C. ZienkeiwiCz and Y. K. Cheung, The Fillite
Element Melhod in Structural and Continuum
Mechanics, McGraw Hill, New York, 1967.
55. H. Streit and H. Hofmann, 'Calculations of
Stresses and Strains for a Concrete Arch Dam
using a Computer Programme for Three Dimen­
sional Finite Element Method, and Comparison
with Results Obtained from Models', 11th
[COLD Congress, Madrid, 1973, Q.39, R.8, IV,
pp. 139-151.
of in-situ Stresses in Concrete Dams" loumal of
Power Division, Proc. A.S. C.E., 97, No. PO.2,
March 1971.
Determination Type of Rock Stress Measuring
Instrument', E. R. Leemen'; International Journal
oj Rock Mechanics, 1967.
Details of Joint Grouting', Journal of Power
Division, Paper No. 991, Proc. A.S.C.E., 82, No.
PO.3, June 1956.
59. J. L. Serafirn, (a) 'Design Improvements in
Concrete Dams', Rapid Construction oj Concrete
Dams, Special A.S.C.E. Publication, 1970,
pp. 371-393; (b) 'Alto Cavado Dam', 7th ICOLD
Congress, Rome, 1961, Discussion Q.36,111,
pp. 31-36. . .
60. M. Rocha et al., 'Influence on the Behaviour of an
Arch Dam of the Hydrostatic Pressure on the
Grout Curtain and of Stresses in the Ground
Upstream', 10th ICOLD Congress, Montreal,
1970, Q.39, R.29, IV, pp. 541-558.
Practice', The ElXJnomical ConstruclionoJ Concrete
Dams, pp. 397-465, Special A.S.C.E. Publication,
1972.
62. J. Lombardi, (a) L'impianto idroekllrico della
nuova Verzasca; (b) 'Some Problems Relating to
Rock Mechanics During, the Construction of
Contra Dam' (French), 9th [COW Congress,
Istanbul, 1967, Q.32, R.15, 1, pp. 235-252.
63. R. P. Wengler and W. Y. J. Shieh, 'Design of
Mossyrock Arch Dam', Journal of Power
Division, Proc. A.S.C.E., 97, No. PO. 1, lan.
1971, pp. 25-38.
64. 'Boundary Dam', Journal of Power Division,
Paper 7012, Proc. A.S.C.E., 96, No. PO.l, Jan.
1970, pp.73-91.
05. (aJ A. Rebaudi, 'Le Barrage du Torrent Buthier a
Place Moulin en Vallee D' Aoste', 8th ICOLD
Congress, Edinburgh, 1964, Comm. C.S, IV,
pp. 791-822. (b) G. Oberti and A. Rebaudi,
'Bedrock Stability Behaviour with Time at the
Place Moulin Arch-gravity Dam', 9th ICOI.D
Congress, Istanbul, 1967, Q.32, R.52, 1,
pp. 849-872; (c) 'Ente Nazionale per I'Energia
E1ettrica', I.e digM di ritenu/a dig/i impianri idrc­
elel/rica, Rome, 1970.
352
Bibliography
'Guide for Preliminary Design of Arch Dams',
Engineering MO'lOgraph No. 36, United States
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado.
'Trial Load Method of Analysing Arch Dams', U.S.
Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Boulder
Canyon Project, Final Reports, Part. V, Technical
Investigations Bulletin 1, 1938.
J. L. SeraIun, 'Stresses on Arch Dams Due to Their
Mass', Theory oj Arch Dams, pp. 655-664 (Ed. J. R.
Rydzewski), Pergamon, Oxford, 1965.
M. D. Copen, 'Design of Arch Dams by Trial Load
Method of Analysis', Tram.A.S.C.E., 127, Part III,
1962.
M. D. Copen and L. R. Scrivener, 'Arch Dam
Design-The State of the Art', Journal of Power
Division, Proc. A.S.C.E., Jan. 1970.
J. R. Rydzewski and R. W. Humphries, 'An Approach
to Analysis of Arch Dams in Wide Valleys', Journal
of Power .Division, Paper 9710, Proc. A.S.C.E., 99,
No.1; May .1973. .
M. Rocha and J. L. Serafun, 'Modern Techniques of
Concrete Dams for Wide Valleys', 7th [COLD
Congress, Rome, 1961, R.G., Q.26, 111, pp.
115-181.
C. F. Groner, 'Arch Dams--Thin Arch Dams
Favoured in Norway', A.S.C.E. Civil Engineering,
April 1957, pp.246-250.
J. L. Serafim, 'The Behaviour of Arch Dams with
Their Foundations', Water Power, 16, No.5, April
1964, p. 199.
H. Link, 'Evaluation of Elasticity Moduli of Dam
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[COLD Congress, Edinburgh, 1964, Q.28, R,45, 1,
pp. 833-858.
M. Hayashi, 'Influence of the Deformability of the
Foundations on Stress in Arch Dams', Theory oj
Arch Dams, pp. 585-622 (Ed. J. R. Rydzewski),
Pergamon, Oxford, 1965.
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1973, Q.43, R.B, 111, pp. 1153-1166.
M. Alonso and G. G. Laa, 'Joint Sealing and
Impermeability of Concrete Dams', 9th [COLD
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BNCOLD News and Views, Nov. 1972.
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Some Concrete Dams in Wide Valleys', 7th [COLD q
. ,
Congress, Rome, 1961, Q.26, R.I0, 111, pp. j
213-228.
A. T. Lewis, 'Auburn Dam-World's Longest Arch
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Comm. C.Il, V, pp.479-493.
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L.N.E.C., Lislwn, 1972, Memo. No. 416.
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R. S. Varshney, 'Predesign Estimates for Arch Dams',
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.1975.
Pierre Londe, 'Dam Design in French Practice', Water
:J
Power and Dam Comln., Oct. 1975, pp. 346-355.
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Project', Water Power and Dam Constn., Oct. 1975,
pp. 362-368.

 CHAPTER 12

Buttress Dams

.;'

I t would appear that buttress dams were high maintenance costs and the difficulty of
developed with Man's need to conserve water in providing an adequate seal with the foun­
regions ;";here materials were scarce or expensive dations--<:f. the failure of Hauser Lake Dam,
but labour was cheap. Firstly, such dams were Chapter 3.
built in regions that needed irrigation-such as It is interesting, however, that this type of dam
'the Meer Allum Dam, I built near Hyderabad, has again been suggested-.using corrosion­
India, Fig. 12.01. This dam-built over 100 years resistant steel or such materials as fibre glass for
ago, is possibly the earliest example of a multiple­ the catenary membrane,' Fig. 12.02.
arch dam; it comprises 21 semi-circular arches of
spans varying from 21.3 m at the ends to 45 m
near the centre with a maximum height of
12.2 m. Secondly for mining purposes, where
timber and initiative were available simple dams
were built, comprised of timber trestles sup­
porting either a facing oflogs caulked wil.h,mud
or asphaltic filler or a multi-layer deck of sawn
timber. As steel became available it was used for
the trestles2 and then for waterproofing the deck.
In due course it was realized that the steel plate
( I ) ConC/e1e buttresses

could be used to better advantage by suspending { 2 ) Spout SpillWilY

il in catenaries between the trestles. A few such { 3 ) Steel Of gloss fibre sfrips

dams were built, but lost favour possibly due to Fig. 12.02 Composite multiple-arch dam
(After Coyne and Bellier) .

The reinforced concrete slab deck was

proposed by Ambursen in 19034 and various
modifications of this have' been develOped since
that time, including the massive head buttress
and the hollow gravity dam. The multiple-arch
dam was dexeloped in order to use concrete in
;; 1 PIon compression'rather than bending and, at the
'! same time, to achieve wider buttress spacing.
At some sites hinges and free bases have been
'-·-1

! '.

12.8m
-L5m

-67m
.
""1
~Jl~ II
f-2.6m

12.2m
included in the arches in order to avoid tension
in the concrete under water load; unfortunately
bending will also result from thermal
hygrometric actions.
As designs have become more sophisticated,
th~ virtues and weaknesses of the buttress-type
Section AA Section as dam have become apparent, i.e.
Fig. 12.01 Meer Allum Dam, India The pressure of water on the inclined upstre~
353

 355

Some buttress dams have been constructed Some examples of the massive head buttress
with the slab continuous over one or more dam are:
buttresses,. Fig. 12.03(B). In this simple form the
Alcantara Dam, Spain, Fig. 2.08, of height 90 m,
negative bending over the support may induce
hollow buttress, slope of both upstream face
cracking in the upstream face of the slab; this
and downstream face of buttresses, 1 vertical
could lead to corrosion of the reinforcement or
on 0.45 horizontal; Almendra Dam, left dyke
deterioration by chemical or frost action. The
Spain, Fig. 12.06, of height 30 m; Salta d;
continuous slab may also be subjected to indeter­
Prada, Spain, Fig. 12.07, of height 85 m, with
minate stresses due to differential settlement of
buttresses spaced at 12 m; Cruachan Dam,9
the buttresses. An alternative arrangement, used
- :-1 Scotland, Fig. 12.08, of height 46 m, with 11
, in Norway: Fig. 12.05, maintains flexibility and
buttresses at 15.2 m spacing. At this dam slots
provides a greater slab thickness over the supports.
were left between the buttress heads; Fig.
10.27-these tapered from 1.83 m wide at the
Support on buttress Copper or upstream to 1.22 m wide at the downstream
end, Fig. 12.09. The slots were filled with con­

mm
crete after most shrinkage had taken place in
the monoliths. The joint seals consist ofP.V.C.
strip 300 mm wide in the upstream keyway
which was bitumen-lined on the downstream
:1 I
[J Butlress thickness (em) side, followed by a 230 mm diameter hole with
=. 30 + 2H where H is in metres bitumen infIlling, and a 150 mm wide P.V.C.
Fig. 12.05 Alternative continuous slab deck strip in the second keyway, Fig. 12.10.
Meadowbank Dam, Australia, Figs. 14.57 and
12.11, is a massive. head buttress type--of
height 34 m with buttresses spaced at 15.3 m,
. : selected to suit the foundations and to provide
...' 12.2 Massive Head Buttress
an overflow spillway on the dam.
To avoid tensile stresses in a thin slab, and
The quantity of concrete in a dam will vary
hence the need for reinforcement, the massive
from site to site, particularly as affected by the
head buttress, Fig. 12.03(D) was developed. In
foundations. For a height up to 20 m a flat slab
1932 Noetzli' suggested the round head buttress
dam may require 40 per cent of the concrete re­
Fig. 12.03(E), on the assumption that wate;
quired for a gravity dam; a massIve head buttress
acting radial!y on the head would cause only
or hollow gravity dam will require 60 to 75 per
compressive stress in the head. The round head
cent; a modern conventional multiple arch may
buttress has in some cases-such as Lednock
require only 30 per cent for dams up to 40 m
Dam, Scotland, Fig. 5.22-been modified using
high increasing to 60 or 70 per cent for dams
three plane surfaces instead of the cylindrical
150 m high. The relative economy of buttress
surface. It is, however, debatable whether this
dams will, however, depend upon the foun­
does decrease the cost. It is essenrial to foresee
dations, the cost of materials, and· the cost and
construction procedures with the massive head
availability of skilled tradesmen at the particular
type of dam--especially the need for support of
site.
any overhanging concrete until it has gained ade­
For dams up to 150 m high it should be
quate strength.
possible to dimension a buttress type of dam so
In 1948 Reinus· showed that the pore pressure
that the first principal stress does not exceed
within an undrained buttress head could act
7 MPa, i.e. a stress comparable with that in a
laterally and induce considerable horizontal ten­
thin arch dam.
sile stress at the face of the round head. To
minimize this, the water stop should be located
well downstream in the joint; drains can also be
12.3 Multiple-arch Dam
provided within the head as at the 83 m high
Gioveretto Dam, Italy (1956). Closely following the Meer Allum Dam, an

!
J

356
Australian Engineer, J. D. Berry, advocated the
multiple-arch dam in 1891, resulting in the con­
struction of the 18.3 m high Belubula Dam.lO
This consists of six buttresses 8.6 m apart vary­
ing in thickness from 1.5 to 3.65 m. The concrete
foundation extends for one-third of the height.
The arches are elliptical, built up in brickwork
0.5 m thick at the crest and 1.2 m thick at the
base. The slope of the upstream face is 60°. The
buttresses were also built in brickwork as arched
columns--a modern concept of load support, 11
Fig. 12.12.
The 12.2 m high multiple-arch dam at the
Great Lake, Australia,12,D Fig. 12.13, evoked
world-wide interest at the time of its construc­
tion, 1918-1920. It comprises 27 arches each
12.2 span, 300 mm thick at the crest and
560 mm at the base. The slope of the upstream
face is 60°. Lateral bracing is provided between
the buttresses.
The Ingleburn Dam, Australia (1934), Fig.
12.14, is possibly the simplest form of multiple
arch. Its dimensions are similar to the Great
Lake Dam, i.e. maximum height 12.2 m aod span
12.2 m. At this site it was decided that no lateral
bracing between buttresses was necessary.
The 88 m high Bartlett Dam, U.S.A.,>' is one
of ,,:the highest multiple arch dams-built
1936-1939.
The Daniel Johnson Dam l4 (Manicouagao 5),
Figs. 12.15 and 5.12, is an outstanding example
of a large and modern multiple-arch dam. The
central arch is 65 m high and 50 m span, whilst
the other arches have a maximum height of 42 m
and span 23 m. At this site either a rockfill with
impervious face or a concrete dam could have
been built.
'To reach the electricity production level required
to meet the demand, water in the reservoir had to
. reach a determined elevation at a predicted date. As
the reservoir was very large, ftIIing had to start at
an early date.
The rockfiIl would have required 23 million m'
of material and it was almost impossible to build
such a dam to meet the required programme--eon­
struction being limited by the cold season. It would
have been possible to meet the programme with a
gravity dam--but only with considerable equipment
and a prolonged season even during the half-<:old
period. It would have required a large quantity of
concrete and prices were very high at this site. The
multiple-arch dam used concrete to better advantage
than would a slab type of dam; it also simplified
Fig. 12.06 Almendra left side dyke, Spain
Fig. 12.07 Salta de Prada, Spain
Fig. 12.08 Crnachan Dam, Scotland
Fig. 12.09 Cruachan Dam-Contraction slot
Fig. 12.10 Crnachan Dam--Sealing of contraction
slot
Fig. 12.11 Meadowbank Dam, Australia
Fig. 12.12 Belubula Dam, Australia-Arches and
buttresses in brickwork
Fig.12.13 Great Lake Dam (Miena), Australia
Fig. 12.14 Ingleburn Dam, Australia
Fig. 12.15 Daniel Johnson Dam, Canada (Mani­
couagan 5)
Fig. 12.16 Faux-la-Montagne Dam, France
Fig. 12.17 Faux-la-Montagne Dam-Braced for sta­
bility and flexibility
Fig. i2.18 Faux-la-Montagne Dam-Pneumatically
applied mortar
spanning the deep river channel (with the large
arch)."
A remarkable multiple-arch dam is Faux-la­
Montagne completed in Fraoce in 1951, Fig.
12.16. Built some 670 m above sea level it is sub­
ject to winter snow; it consists of 14 arches of
maximum height 19 m, only 80 mm thick at the
crest and 140 mm thick at the base. The
buttresses are spaced at 6.6 m centres and are
200 mm thick, Fig. 12.17. The arches are of
cement mortar pneumatically applied over the
two layers of reinforcement, Fig. 12.18. The
buttresses are braced with straight beams and
arched beams in alternate bays to ensure stability
with flexibility. Provision is made for expansion
of the crest walkway and haodrails in the bays
that are braced with the arched beams. It is
reportedt that this dam has given full satisfac­
tion and was in excellent condition at its second
10-yearly inspection in 1972.
* Private communication from M. Yvon de Guise, Com~
missioner, Hydro-Quehec, Canada.
t Private communication from Electriclte de France.
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364

Rabodanges Dam, Fig. 12.19, is somewhat A modern double-curvature arch dam would
similar." Its maximum height is 17 m, the probably be within this same range of
buttress spacing is 6.4 m. The arches are 250 mm cost-illustrating that factors other than cost
thick and the buttresses 700 mm thick. can often govern the choice of type of dam.
2
For La Ville-Hatte Dam, France,!" a very
simple arrangement was adopted-two cylindrical
arches with vertical upstream faces, a spillway
D
being provided over the central buttress, Fig. r'.l
~ I
12.20. The simple arrangement is often feasible L~
in a wide valley with sound rock foundations.
2

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...I. ( 3 ) Normo! wale! leyel
14 lArch LA L
'0.70 ( 5 l 'Woterstop' tubber joint
( 6 ) Toe woll ;;:utoff
{ 7 1 Drain
Fig. 12.19 Rabodanges multiple-arch dam
.
'·'.1
Although pneumatically applied mortar (or l~
concrete) is of high density, strength and im­
permeability, it is e:<pensive and requires very ex­
perienced operators for a. consistent product. The
author does not know of such a dam higher than
Ol02030m
! fl. .,
20m.
The Coolidge Dam," U.S.A. (1928) includes
three double-curvature arches, i.e. a multiple­
( l ) Excavation line
12) Spillway black

Fig. 12.20
(3) Wing W(lll
(4) Thrust block

La Ville-Halte Dam, France

o ,
dome dam of height 76 m. The buttresses are
spaced 55 m apart and vary in thickness from 6.1 Based on special site circumstances, as at the
to 18.3 m. Daniel Johnson Dam, a small multiple-arch dam
An interesting comparison of costs and quan­ is due for completion in 1975 near Mt. Isa,
tities for dams at this site at that time was made Queensland, Australia. * At this remote site two
by C. E. Oldberg of the U.S. Indian Service: factors mainly influenced the selection of type, ;
Relative volume Relative viz., the materials for concrete were very expen­ n
of concrete cost sive and the site is subject to great seasonal L~
Type of dam (per cent) (per cent) floods. The former mitigated against a mass
Multiple dome (buttresses gravity dam over which floods could have been
55 m aparr) 100 100 passed during construction, whilst the flood
Mutiple arch (buttresses
18.3 m apart) 67 102
Arch-gravity 192 120 * Private communication from McIntyre and Associates., [].

Consulting Engineers, Townsville, Australia. _

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-~

Non·overflow
Dam axis
Max; probable flood level Non.overflow crest Overflow section 'section
Nan..overflow and survey control line
RL 267 •
RL267 crest
Low flow . (5) Aeration ,4
Full supply level {FS,Ll Overflow chute Slab¢f' Overflow crest '( opening
RL 255 cr.st Ai7,'
1.5 !
RL255 1
Overflow ~IV flow
Chule 510 b of crest Olock--' chute slob 1'1
support beam ~ I I
Rate of taper of
Arch wallihicknes.. "­
-..."'-'---::>7.:;,-
)
i
11 L~
Chute slob
Turbulence H support beam
II!
Thicknes,s varies •.:.
Dissipa tion ,iIl control wall II lI
610mm minimum
- Oissipationacr slob I! R,L 2'33 I IT7a Erosion
RL 237

Rigid fNC, pipe

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Upsteam head

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buttress
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(I) Transition

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crown
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Primary. holes 3.2m
Secondary h o l e s .
.' Arch barrel Q.l
':; c; -e e ti t

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.- ----- bu ttress :i3 ~
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not shown Plan

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",< Fig.. 12.21 Julius Dam-Details of multiple-arch 0\
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366
protection of a rockfin dam would have involved
a disproportionate cost. As it happened the site
was flooded in 1973 and was submerged for the
extended 'wet' season in 1974. Despite these oc­
currences, work was possible on the abutments
and damage to buttress excavations was minimal.
Based on a maximum probable flood of
14700 m'ls the principal dimensions of suitable
alternative dams at this site are as in Table 12.1:
Table 12.1. Julius Creek Dam Alternatives
Multiple
Rockfill arch
Dimension (m) (m)
Height above river bed (m)
-spillway 26 26
-non-overflow 40.S 32
Spillway crest length (m)
~main 100 220
-auxiliary 287
Maximum flood height
above crest (m) 14.6 9.2
The estimated cost of the multiple-arch dam
was 83 per cen t of that of the rockfill and the
accepted tender was well below the estimate. Fac­
tors favouring the multiple-arch dam at this site
were: '7
Concrete in the arch barrels is in compression
. under all conditions of loading;
It is economical in concrete quantity, although
unit concrete costs are substantially higher
than for a gravity dam;
The sloping water face assists in stability of the
, dam;
Because of the small foundation contact area,
uplift forces are comparatively small;
Foundation grouting can be carried out from
downstream of the arch bases after the reser­
voir is filled;
River diversion costs were minimal.
Particular features of the design of Julius Dam,
Fig. 12.21, are:
The arches are cut off obliquely instead of
horizontally-fully in the non-overflow sec­
tion and to some extent in the overflow sec­
rion, Fig. 12.22, of. Calacuccia Dam ,. and
Grandval Dam; ,.
The construction of triangular arch bases, Fig.
12.23, provides a flat foundation surface nor­
mal to the axis of the arch barrels and at the
same time provides a convenient weir across
the river bed to isolate the bUllress area from
minor flows; P.V.C. seals are used between
each arch and the base;
The arch barrels span between buttresses 18.3 m
apart; the intrados of each arch is of constant
radius (8.2 m) subtending an angle of 150°.
The thickness of the arch barrels which lie at
45° on the supporting buttresses, varies from
0.61 m at the crest to 1.07 m at the base;
Freyssinet hinges are provided at the springing
lines of the arches, heavy steel reinforcement
being necessary to counter bursting stresses,
Fig. 12.24;
The arch barrels are poured in independent rings
of approximately 3 m longitudinal length with
waterproof seals between rings; this avoids
tensile stresses that would otherwise occur due
to cantilever action;
Each buttress head is prestressed with a load of
1000 tonnes to oppose tensions revealed in
both conventional and finite element analyses
of the buttresses;
Buttress reinforcement is sufficient to resist
"I
secondary principal stresses; 1
Contraction joints were proposed in the buttresses , .1
I
approximately parallel to principal stresses,
but for simplicity only horizontal joints were
used;
In the original design of buttress footings it was
considered that the quartzite of the founda­
tion was of adequate quality to provide some
lateral support to buttress walls against
transverse loads. When the rock in the river
bed was exposed zones of poor-quality
shattered rock were more extensive than an­
ticipated and it was necessary to amend the
buttress footing design and widen it from
2.4 m strip footing to a pad footing of 5 or 6 m
width that required no side support;
The technique of omitting concrete downstream
of a plane between the downstream toe of
Fig. 12.22 Model of Julius Dam, Australia
Fig. 12.23 Julius Dam-Triangular arch bases and
excavations for buttresses (By courtesy of McIntyres
Associates)
Fig. 12.24 Julius Dam-Reinforcement to resist
, "
bursting under Freyssinet hinges in arches
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buttresses and the summits of the horizontal
"
I arcs of the arches requires the section between
adjacent arches to be closed with a wall.
Because of the high flood level above spillway
level in Julius Dam a concrete gravity block is
founded on the upstream head of the
buttresses and supported on adjacent barrel
I arches; these in turn support the precast
spillway chute slabs;
The dissipator slab is not less than 760 mm
thick; each 10 m section being stressed with
6/90 t cables anchored 12 m into rock;
A low rockfill wall will be built with excavation
1 spoil-some 120 m downstream-to raise
i tailwater level and assist in the formation of
an hydraulic jump at low flows.
12.4 Buttresses
For small dams the buttresses are usually
analysed as gravity blocks subject to the inclined
water load, their own weight and small uplift. A
buttress can also be considered as composed of a
system of curved beams, each of which transmits
part of the water load and its own weight to the
foundations, Fig. 12.25. The columns can be
~~ '-·1
i
dam of maximum height 88 m. The
I!
buttresses-spaced at 18.3 m-are hollow and
Fig. 12.25 Buttress design-Hypothetical
columns
proportioned to develop uniform compressive
stress and curved to avoid eccentricity ofioading.
This assumes that such columns are free to act
and that no second principal stresses are present.
However, such buttresses are usually built mono­
lithically, reinforced on both faces to resist
thermal as well as the second principal stresses
that do occur.
More precise analysis, either by conventional
statics, by finite element methods or by photo-
369
elastic studies to determine the magnitude and
direction of the principal stresses, confirms that
the water load is in fact transmitted through the
bu ttresses to the foundation as through a series
of such curved columns. Zienkiewicz, however,
has shown'· that the conventional assumption of
linear distribution of stress on horizontal planes
can be wide of the mark if founda tion deform­
ability is significant. This becomes increasingly .:.',
important as the height of the dam increases. !!
In order to avoid secondary tensile stresses, the !:
buttresses of many large dams have been built
with contraction joints following the directions
of the principal stresses, i.e. Possum Kingdom.,
Dam, U.S.A., I I and Grandval Dam, France." At'"
Nant-y-Moch Dam, Wales," a central inclined I···
I
and upper horizontal joint were included, Figs.
12.26 and 12.27.
Inclined joints were provided at the 72 m high
Calacuccia Dam on the, Blue Nile, Sudan. ls The
dam has four arches each of 50 m span; the
buttresses have a constant thickness of 5.5 m,
though the last section downstream is slightly ;,;"
enlarged. The upstream batter is 0.7 and that
downstream 0.6. The buttresses are divided into
12.5 m sections whose faces are parallel to the
downstream face except for the upstream section
which acts as a load distribution stringer on to
the other sections. The .joints were made with
rack teeth 150 mm proud over 50 per cent of the
surface with provision for grouting through re­
injectable valves. The arches are 1.62 m thick at
the crest and 4.3 m at maximum depth, each
built in two sections with three injectable joints.
The Bartlett Dam, U.S.A., is a multiple-arch
include vertical keyed joints." On the other
hand, the Pensacola Dam of maximum height
43 m has hollow buttresses spaced at 25.6 m;
these buttresses were built with construction
joints in two directions at 90°-approximately
following the lines of the principal stresses. The
46 m high Buchanan Dam, U.S.A., has keyed
construction joints-vertical and sub-horizontal
(dipping upstream).
The hollow gravity dam has been developed to
save concrete, since a conventional gravity
dam about one"<juarter to one-third of the con­
crete counteracts the effects of uplift. Dr C.
Marcello of Italy has been responsible for many
"i·"
i,
 i .
370 fl
,j
large dams of this type (Ref. 11, Section 12) such Grandval Dam"'" is a multiple-arch dam 88 m
as Bissina Dam. 23 In this case two construction high with 50 m between buttresses. These have
joints were provided-normal to the first prin­ an upstream and downstream batter of 0.7 and
cipal stress, Fig. 12.28. 0.4, respectively. During initial years of
'1
1.52m
4.62m semi~oxi'S
lJ I

~ariZOnlQr ellipse
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Fig. 12.26 Nant-y-Moch Dam, Wales-Showing concreting details and location ofcontraction
joints (By courtesy of Water Power)
r'l
-,,-" ---­ Concrele 3/2 'It S'Qrh;:
on lift line
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Lift lines

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Typical section normal to 1in 6
lift slope
Fig. 12.27 Nant-y-Moch Dam-Detail of splayed buttress footing (By courtesy of
Water Power)

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 371

tiers of jacks were installed, one above the foun­

1 At Cruachan Dam, a photoelastic glass stress
i meter was built into the interior of a buttress.
Thermal prolection
I
Fig. 12.28 Bissina Dam, Italy
operation, cracks appeared and worsened in the
two central overspill buttresses. In particular,
there was an increasing number of failures of the
keys locking the buttress blocks together.
Measurements taken on the dam itself,
photoelastic studies and theoretical analyses in­
dicated that cracking was caused by high tensile
stress due to the downstream batter being too
low, Fig. 12.29. The dam was reinforced by
lengthening the downstream footing of the two
central buttresses and making use of the stability
provided by the downstream block of each. Two
dations (joint 'A') and the other between the new
block and the dam (joint 'B'). These jacks are
maintained active and were operated twice
between 1966 and 1970 to compensllte for con­
crete shrinkage and creep in both the concrete
and the foundation rock.
Before water load was applied the meter in­
dicated tensile stresses as high as 6 MPa,
emphasizing that thermal stresses in mass con­
crete buttresses can be very serious. Controlled
cooling of such concrete, with properly located
groutable construction joints, therefore appears
to be desirable if serious cracking is to be
avoided. The location of joints is most impor­
tant-and should be decided with relation to the
shape of the buttress, the thermal stresses due to
hydration of the cement, ambient temperature
changes at the site, as well as the directions and
magnitudes of principal stresses resulting from
water load and own weight. Since any joints will
affect the monolithic behaviour of the buttress,
many Engineers prefer to omit joints and rely
upon reinforcement to prevent cracking. Deter­
mination of the pattern and quantity of such
reinforcement is largely indeterminate--unless
access is available to finite element or
photoelastic analysis--and becomes a matter for
judgment by the Engineer-another example 'of
the Art versus the Science in Engineering.

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~

~ Compr.ession
720 ,.............. (fension)

710

.) 700

690

GaO

Fig. 12.29 Grandval Dam-Finite element analysis. Principal

stresses in reinforced buttress under hydrostatic thrust (reservoir
level 742)
372

12.5 Uplift and Sliding near horizontal bands of mudstone between

A major advantage claimed for buttress
dams-including the hollow gravity dam-is
that uplift forces acting on the dam are minimal.
It is usual to adopt a distribution of uplift
pressure, acting on 100 per cent of the area,
somewhat as shown in Fig. 12.30. For this to be
I .
p!IlIllllIDllllIDlJllITlJllITiIlIlIlmmmmmm=j1 Toilwoter
Headwater
Fig. 12.30 Uplift pressure on buttress
quartzite. No trial pits were dug and no in silU
shear tests were made. When the rock was ex­
cavated it was found that the mudstone was con­
siderably weaker than anticipated having a
residual angle of shearing resistance as low as
18°, To have changed to a gravity dam would·
have involved both contractual arrangements
and a much greater cost. It was therefore decided
to provide the additional resistance against
sliding by means of post-tensioned restressible
cables fixed to the foot of each buttress. For a
factor of safety of 1. 5 in shear along the mud­
stone and allowing an extra 25 per cent of cables
it was calculated that 200 cables each stressed to
270 tonnes would be required .. These were in­
stalled, Fig. 12.31, increasing the cost of the dam
by 10 per cent but with no delay to the job.

factual there must be release to atmosphere, Or

tailwater pressure, around the buttress footing. 12.6 Spill-over Buttress Dams
At Gleno Dam, Italy, this was prevented by a
continuous base slab under the buttresses and the Where flood waters are to be passed over
buttress dams the following factors deserve atten­
dam failed-Chapter 3. Should the foundation
be horizontally stratified then uplift could act on
tion:
a layer of rock only a little distance below the The nappe must be adequately aerated to avoid
dam; drainage of such a foundation is therefore vibrations or pulsations that could be
essential. transferred into the dam to cause overstressing
The 31 m high Muda Dam, Malaysia, was or into the foundations to weaken their shear­
designed as a slab and buttress dam}' During in­ ing resistance;
itial investigations, a number of borings showed The nappe should impact on to reinforced con-

Fig. 12.31 Muda Dam, MaJaysia

n

-1
373

crete slabs that are adequately anchored into

the foundations. Erosion behind the buttress
heads or arches should be prevented by provi­
sion of a concrete turbulence control wall or
by suitable paving;
It must be possible to destroy most of the energy
of the surcharge without rupture of the river
bed downstream from the dam. Should ex­
cessive erosion occur the shearing resistance of
the foundation could be lost.
At Meadowbank Darn, Figs. 12.11 and 14.57,
and at Julius Darn, Fig. 12.22, flood waters are
released at crest level. At Vessingsjil Dam,
Norway,26 a ski jump is incorporated on the
downstream face some 12 rn below spillway level,
Figs. 12.32 and 14.07. Many dams are com­
: ,: pletely covered on the downstream side of the
spillway, e.g. Lednock Dam, Fig. 5.22, and Muda
Darn, Fig. 12.31.
200mm
E £L662
"
o
::i
Fig. 12.32 Vcssingsj'" Dam, Norway-Nca
project. Slab thickness: 325 mm + 25 mmlm
vertical; Buttress thickness: 300 mm + 30
mmlm vertical
More sophisticated spillways have been
provided over the buttresses as at Roseires
Dam," Fig. 12.33.

50.00 .1, 50.00 ,I. 50.00 ,I, 50.00 ,I

Plan view

I;
,'.

,i :

Fig. 12.33 Calacucda Dam--Spillway over buttress (By courtesy of Travaux, Sept. 1967)
374

12.7 Prestressing provide the desired increment on the factor of

Since the aim of the designer of buttress dams
is to minimize the total quantity ofconcrete, pre­
stressing is the obvious manner in which to
counteract tensions that would otherwise exist.
Prestressing of dams--or the introduction of
stress into the structure before it supports its
design load-was developed for strengthening
existing dams. In the past 20 years it has been in­
corporated as part of the design of new dams.
However, there is still a tendency to rely on the
prestressing only to ensure an adequate factor of
safety under abnormal conditions, i.e. the dam
may be stable under normal conditions of
loading, but under extreme flood or earthquake
conditions the factor of safety may be unaccept­
ably low; prestressing is then incorporated to
> not to project into the nappe. With a buttress
safety.
Prestressing can be applied in at least three
manners to a buttress dam:
(a) To 'pull down' the upstream face;
(b) To 'jack up' the downstream toe;
(c) To compact the buttress on to the foundation
rock to improve the resistance to sliding of
dam on rock, at the same time tightening
seams to improve the resistance to sliding
within the foundations.
At Julius Dam, Australia, with a free-falling
nappe when spilling, the downstream toe of the
buttress and the innermost position of the lower
nappe had to be reconciled if the buttresses were

!.OOm

"'--~-
-7 !
A L---il----__ . _ E A
'"'"

Cui off
(A) Vetlicol section A-A Seclion 8-B

~_~...;.....(6721
Note : Loads in "mefric tons

W :: Woter lood
1f :: Tolol COncrele ..... eight
R'E: :: Resultont without active thrust and
no water lood
ft',: :: Resullonl withoot active thrust and
mox. woler lood
T Acti\le thrust
RE: ResuHonf with acrive Ihrust ond no
woler loed
RIO ;: Resullant with aclive fhruSf and max.
waler lood

(B) 1-1.~_____---'7~0C!"m'---l-_R_'F_' _61_>0_0°-1.1

Fig. 12.34 Erraguena Dam, Algeria-{A) Typical buttress and barrel arch; (B) Typical load
diagram
rl
: l
profile to suit these conditions analysis showed
that under maximum flood conditions, secondary
principal stresses in the upstream lower section
of the buttresses were tensile. This was cor.­
ftrmed by finite element analysis. The most
economical method of controlling these tensile
stresses was to prestress the upstream head of
each buttress with a total force of 1000 tonnes.
j The Erraguena Dam on the Djen Djen River
in AJgeria has a maximum height of 82.5 m. The
arch barrel thickness varies from 1.07 to 1.70 m,
whilst the buttresses--spaced 35 m apart-are
3 m thick. It represents probably the lightest con­
crete dam of its kind so far built, i.e. the concrete
volume is less than one-third of what would have
been required in a gravity alternative. The struc­
I ture has been in operation for several years and
i r
I has performed extremely well structurally.
Muller" described the method of prestressing
References
1. Normal Smith, 1971, A HislOry oj Dams, Peter
Davies, London.
2. Engineering News, 12th May and 7th July 1898, p.
279.
3. (a) River Developmenl Schemes, 1971, Coyne and
BeUier, Paris; (b) 'Economy by Selecting the Type
of Structure', Report of French National Com­
mittee, 11th ICOLD Congress, Madrid, 1973,
Q.43, R.3, 111, p. 1017.
4. Engi1leering News, 80, No. 19, 1903.
5. E. Reinus, 'Design and Construction of Buttress
Dams', 10th ICOLD Congress, Montreal, 1970.
6. B. A. Berdal and C. F. Gruner, 'Major Dam
Types in Norway', Dams Today, 1970, Japan Dam
Association, Tokyo.
7. (a) F. A. Noetzli, 'Improved Type of Multiple
Arch Dam' Trans. A.S.C.E., 87, 1924,
pp. 342-413; (b) 'The Round Head Buttress
, ·1
, ,:
Dam', Journal A.C.I., 4, 1932-1933, p. 161.
j 8. E. Reinus, 'Effect of Hydrostatic Uplift on
Stresses in Concrete and on The Stability of
Dams', 3rd ICOLD Congress, Stockholm, 1948,
Q.8, R.57.
9. W. Young and R. H. Falkiner, 'Some Design and
Construction Features of the Cruachan Pumped
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35, Sept. to Dec. 1966.
10. 'Belubula Dam Multiple Arch Dam in New South
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1I. Handbook oj Applied Hydraulics, 3rd Edn., Sec­
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McGraw-HilI, New York.
12. 'The Great Lake Hydro Electric Scheme',
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30rh May, 20th June 1924.
375
as 'The buttresses react at their downstream toe
against an abutment with an active joint made of
Freyssinet jacks staggered with reinforced con­
crete wedges. About one-third of the total
hydrostatic pressure is thus transferred through
the active joint to the rear abutment which per­
mits an appreciable saving in concrete volume
whilst ensuring absolute safety of the structure
against sliding and permanent comrol thereof by
adjustment of the active joint', Fig. 12.34(A).
The resultant force on the foundations is
reduced and rotated so as to intersect the founda­
tion closer to the centre of the base and at a
steeper angle, Fig. 12.34(B).
The tore-shaped arches, which are stiffer than
cylindrical arches, further correct the position of
the resultant hydrostatic pressure. Prestressing
was also applied 'vertically' in the heavily rein­
forced arches.
13. A. H. Bastow, 'Construction of a Multiple Arch
Dam al Miena., Trans. I.E. Amt., 7, 1926.
14. 'The Manicouagan-aux-Outardes Power
Development', Water Power, October 1964.
15. R. Lefoulon and G. Morlet, 'The Use of the
Concrete Gun for Constructing Multiple Arch
Dams Less than 20 m High, for Example,
Rabodanges Dam', 7t1. ICOLD Congress, Rome,
1961, Q.26, R.7, 111, pp.201-211.
16, Report of French National Committee, 11th
ICOLD Congress, Madrid, 1973, Report R.S.12,
IV, p.645.
17. J. MeG. Mcintyre, The Julius Dam Scheme, a
Paper presented to the Townsville Group of the
Queensland Division, I.E. Aust., 2nd Sept. 1974.
18, J. A,true, 'The Calacuecia Dam', Travaux, Sept.
1967, p. 51.
19. (a) M. Terrass. and M. Gautier, 'The Conception
of Grandval D.m' (in French), 7,It ICOLD
Congress, Rome, 1961, Q.26, R.3, 111,
pp. 183-200; (b) 'France's Newest Dam bas Novel
Features', Eng. News Record, 6th Aug. 1959,
pp.48-49.
20. O. C. Zienkiewicz and Y. K. Cheung, 'Buttress
Dams on Complex Rock Foundations', Water
, Power, May 1964, p. 193.
21. 'The Reidol Scheme', Warer Power, December
1963, p.495.
22, C. V. Davis, Handbook oj Applied Hydraulics, 1st
edn., 1942, McGraw-Hili, New York.
23. (a) "Malga Bissin. D.m', Dams Today, 1970,
Japan Dam Association. (b) Ente Nazion.1e per
L'energia Elettrica, Le Dighe di rilenuta degl;
imp;anti idroeletlrica italiam~ Rome, 1970.
24. M. Pfarr et .1., 'Cracking of the Buttresses of
 ·t~

376
Grandval Dam and Their Reinforcement with the
Installation of Active Jacks' (in French), 10th
ICOLD Congress, Montreal, 1970, Q.39, R.15,
IV, pp.273-308.
25. C. L. Clarke, 'Prevention of Sliding at Mud.
Dam', ANCOLD News and Views, May 1971,
p.14.
26. T. Moxness, 'Nea Kraftverk', Saertrykk af)
_ l,
'1 ,
j i
!
Teknisk Ukeblad, Nr. 42, 1961.
27. Ca) M. Durand, 'Erraguena Dam--Algeria', 7th
ICOLD Congress, Rome, 1961, Q.26, R.83, Ill,
pp. 613-640. (b) J. MuUer, 'Trend. in Design and
Construction Practice for Concrete Dams', Engng.
Found. Conf. on Economical Construction of
Concrete Dams, Special A.S.C.B. Publication
1972, pp. 397-466.

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~~'i!
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1

(c) M. Rocha et al., Experimental Studies of Buttress

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'.
.~'l"
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H. G. Arthur, 'Pueblo Dam', ASCE Civil Engineering,
i"i
Quantities for Arch, Gravity and Multiple Arch July 197), pp. 70-73.
.,.1

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