SPE
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING AND INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT OF OIL AND
GAS CONDENSATE FIELD USING THE INTEGRATED FORMATION-WELL-SURFACE
INFRASTRUCTURE MODEL UNDER HSE REGULATIONS
Ra’ed Khalil, Petroleum engineer
Copyright 2021, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
Abstract
In recent years, some gas condensate deposits have been
discovered in Peru's Amazonian jungle. A wildcat well dug at
the top of an anticline governed by a north-south reversal fault
tested gas and condensate from the NIA, NOI, and ENE
reservoirs; the commercial choice to develop this gas
condensate field will be strongly dependent on calculating its
hydrocarbon potential.
The EHS Guidelines are technical reference publications that
give examples of Good International Industry Practice (GIIP)
in a variety of industries. When a project involves one or more
World Bank Group members, these EHS Guidelines are
followed in compliance with their regulations and
requirements. These EHS recommendations for various
sectors are meant to be used in combination with the General
EHS Guidelines document, which offers advice on common
EHS concerns that can affect any industry. For large projects,
several industry-sector norms may be necessary.
For development and infrastructure planning, a large number
of producer companies use "Formation-Well-Surface
Infrastructure" integrated models, which allow for high-
precision forecasting of performance factors that include not
only field development and geological aspects, but also the
limitations of surface infrastructure, such as pipelines and
aerial fracking.
The most essential goal of integrated modeling is to accurately
estimate and optimize performance characteristics while
taking into consideration all current reservoir, well design,
downhole equipment, product collection, and treatment system
limits.
The present "Formation-Well-Surface Infrastructure"
paradigm of one of the numerous oil, gas, and condensate
fields is examined in this article under the health, safety, and
environmental standards.
Introduction
As the world's principal fuel sources, oil and natural gas are
key sectors in the energy industry and have a significant
impact on the global economy. Oil and gas production and
distribution processes and systems are very complicated,
capital-intensive, and need cutting-edge technology.
This guide examines the oil and gas industry and is meant to
serve as a research tool for sources all around the world. It
includes an overview of firms and organizations, statistics and
pricing information, and laws, as well as a brief history of the
oil and gas business using the "Formation-Well-Surface
Infrastructure" integrated models.
The applicability of the EHS Guidelines should be tailored to
the hazards and risks identified for each project based on the
findings of an environmental assessment that takes into
account site-specific variables such as the host country
context, environmental assimilation capacity, and other project
factors. The application of particular technical proposals
should be determined by trained and experienced
professionals.
When host country laws differs from the EHS Guidelines'
criteria and requirements, projects must comply with the most
stringent of the two. If less stringent levels or activities than
those indicated in these EHS Guidelines are necessary due to
unique project conditions, a detailed and detailed rationale
must be provided as part of the site-specific environmental
assessment. This justification must demonstrate that the
alternative performance levels selected are not harmful to
human health or the environment.
The Development Methodology
There are four primary processes in the oil and gas extraction
industry:
(1) investigation.
(2) the growth of a well
(3) manufacturing
(4) The site has been abandoned.
Exploration includes geophysical prospecting and/or
exploratory drilling to find geological formations linked with
oil or natural gas resources.
After exploration has identified an economically viable field,
well development entails drilling one or more wells from the
start (known as spudding) to either abandonment or well
completion, depending on whether or not hydrocarbons are
found in sufficient quantities.
The process of extracting hydrocarbons and sorting the
combination of liquid hydrocarbons, gas, water, and particles,
eliminating non-saleable ingredients, and selling the liquid
hydrocarbons and gas is known as production. Crude oil from
many wells is frequently handled at production sites. Natural
gas can be purified in the field or at a natural gas processing
plant. Oil is almost always refined; natural gas can be purified
in the field or at a natural gas processing plant.
Drilling Methods
Drilling horizontally
Horizontal drilling begins with a vertical well that is turned
horizontal within the reservoir rock to disclose a larger open
hole. The longer the exposure period, the more oil and natural
gas is drained and the faster it may flow. Horizontal wells are
appealing because they (1) can be used in situations where
conventional drilling is impossible or prohibitively expensive,
(2) reduce surface disturbance by requiring fewer wells to
reach the reservoir, and (3) can produce up to 15 to 20 times
more oil and gas than a vertical well.
Drilling in Multiple Directions
Oil and natural gas deposits are sometimes found in different
strata beneath. Multilateral drilling allows operators to tap
deposits at different depths by branching out from the primary
well. This significantly boosts output from a single well while
lowering the number of wells dug on the surface.
Drilling with a Longer Reach
Producers might use extended reach drills to access resources
that are far distant from the drilling rig. This can assist
producers in tapping oil and natural gas resources under the
surface in regions where vertical wells are not feasible, such as
underdeveloped or ecologically sensitive locations. Wells may
now be dug up to 5 miles away from the surface, and hundreds
of wells may be dug from a single location, decreasing surface
effects.
Drilling in Complex Paths
To target numerous accumulations from a single well location,
complex well routes might involve many twists and turns.
Drilling several wells can be more expensive and generate
more waste and surface effects. Using this technology can be
more cost effective and create less waste and surface effects.
Benefits of Directional (Advanced) Drilling Technologies:
• Boost oil output and reserve levels.
• Crossing natural cracks that can't be reached by vertical
wells
• Delaying the commencement of gas or water coning (a
phrase used to describe the mechanism behind the upward
and/or downward flow of water and/or gas into the
perforations of a producing well) in order to increase oil
production.
• Increasing output from thin or constrained reservoirs
• Improving waterflood "sweep efficiency," or the capacity to
drive more oil out of a reservoir after initial extraction, in
reservoirs injected with fluids to boost oil or gas output.
Stages of Integrated Model Generation
The integrated model is a single environment in which digital
well models, collecting facility models, hydrocarbon treatment
and transportation facility models, reservoir simulation
models, and economic models are all linked and interact. The
process of creating an integrated model was broken down into
various steps. The creation of a product collection network
model is at this point.
Digital well models, collection facility models, hydrocarbon
treatment and transportation facility models, reservoir
simulation models, and economic models are all
interconnected and interact in the integrated model. The
process of developing an integrated model was divided into
many stages. This is where the design of a product collection
network model comes in.
The selection of a correlation of fluid flow via pipelines and
its adjustment to actual data represented adaptation of the
collection network in such a way that the design pressure drop
in pipelines from wellheads to integrated gas and oil treatment
plants corresponded to an actual pressure drop obtained for the
preset actual fluid flow rates.

The stage of wells digital models generation

Using the Prosper IPM Petroleum Experts software, digital

models of all wells, both new and old, were created and
adjusted to actual measured values. Actual and design well
routes, diameters and depths of tubing running, and
compositional models of reservoir fluids were supplied as
input data for the construction of digital models. The
computerized models were adjusted to include the correlation
of fluid flow such that design pressure declines from the well
bottom to the wellhead corresponded to real values acquired
from gas-dynamic and fluid-dynamic experiments. The stage
at which the reservoir simulation model for the field is being
created. A full-scale reservoir simulation model of the field's
zones A1, A2, and A3 was created in the format E100 and
adjusted to the results of gas-dynamic and fluid-dynamic
studies as well as actual production history using the fluid
model of the Blackoil format with special options Vapoil and
Disgas, which allow for the volume of gas condensate to be
taken into account.
Integration of the collection network model, digital well
models, and reservoir simulation model The Resolve
integrator (software product of IPM Petroleum Experts),
which allows connecting various engineering packages
designed for calculation of different field parameters, was
chosen to unite the wells digital models, hydrocarbons
collection facilities models, and reservoir simulation models
into a single environment.
The logic of the integrated model's prediction computations is
preset using an unique Workflow tool that depicts visual
computational and analytical block flow diagrams. Using the
Workflow, it is feasible to address any parameter value at any
point in any node of the "Reservoir-Well-Infrastructure"
system during the construction of a forecasting strategy. These
vectors might be utilized as variables in the creation of a
strategy. Furthermore, these variables may be combined into
arrays and utilized in cycles with logical conditions
superimposed on top of them.
Figure )2( depicts the stages of the "Reservoir-Well-Surface
Infrastructure" integrated model generation, with Pwhp
denoting wellhead pressure, Pbhp denoting bottomhole
pressure, Pres denoting reservoir pressure, Twhp denoting
wellhead temperature, Qg denoting gas rate, Qw denoting
water rate, and Qo denoting wells oil and condensate rates.
Figure 2—Stages of the "Reservoir-Well-Surface
Infrastructure" integrated model generation
Integrated Modeling's Objectives
Examples of application task optimization using the generated
integrated model will be discussed below in the present article,
which allows significantly improving the quality of the
adopted solutions by covering the limitations and influence of
all production system components "from reservoir to
collection and transportation of hydrocarbons" integrated into
a single model. The integrated modeling's main goals are: 
Efficiency assessment of oil rim and gas cap development
alternatives while taking into account all existing constraints;
Determination of the booster compressor station's (BCS) start-
up date and capacity;
Evaluation of the efficiency of the gas lift arrangement in oil
wells
Condensate production optimization;
Management of production (optimization of process
conditions of wells operation and productive formations
depletion modes)
System of collection optimization (assessment of various
upgrading options).
Environment
As part of a thorough assessment and management program
that tackles project-specific risks and possible consequences,
the following environmental problems should be examined.
The following are some of the potential environmental
challenges linked with onshore oil and gas production
projects:

• Emissions of air;

• Discharges of waste water;


• Waste management, both solid and liquid;
• Noise production;
• Impacts on the ground and the project's footprint;
• Subsoil and aquifer impacts;
• Leaks;
• Contingency Planning for Spills; and
• Resource conservation and energy efficiency
Air Emissions
Combustion sources for power and heat generation (e.g.,
boilers, turbines); reciprocating and other engines of onshore
facilities, including support equipment (e.g., trucks, cranes,
dozers); emissions resulting from flaring and venting of
hydrocarbons; intermittent emissions (e.g., well-testing
emission) are the main sources of air emissions (continuous or
intermittent) from onshore activities.
Carbon dioxide (CO2), which is created by any combustion of
hydrocarbons and may also be present in natural gas produced
from the fracking process, is one of the most important
components of these emission sources in terms of mass.
A storage facility Water vapor (H2O) is present in the
reservoir2 and is produced during the combustion of
hydrocarbons. Nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx),
and carbon monoxide are some of the most common pollutants
produced by combustion (CO). Particulates, which are also
produced by combustion, have the potential to harm both
humans and plants. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), methane and ethane, benzene, ethyl
benzene, toluene, and xylenes (BTEX), glycols, and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are examples of
additional pollutants (PAHs). Mercaptans and mercury may be
present in some cases, necessitating additional precautions.
Halons and chlorofluorocarbons, both Ozone Depleting
Substances, may be found in firefighting and refrigeration
systems (ODS).
Annually, total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from all
facilities and onshore support activities should be measured
using internationally recognized methodologies.
All reasonable efforts should be made to incorporate
appropriate methods for controlling and reducing fugitive
emissions into the design, operation, and maintenance of
onshore facilities, as well as to maximize energy efficiency
and design facilities to use the least amount of energy
possible. The overall goal is to reduce air pollution. Options
for reducing emissions that are both cost-effective and
technically feasible should be considered. The General EHS
Guidelines include additional recommendations on greenhouse
gas management and energy conservation.
Exhaust Gases
Exhaust gas emissions from onshore facilities produced by the
burning of gas or liquid fuels in turbines, reciprocating
engines, or boilers for power and heat generation, or for water
injection or oil and gas export, may be a substantial source of
air pollution. Air emission criteria, as well as the utilization of
extremely low sulfur content fuels and/or natural gas, should
be considered while selecting equipment.
The General EHS Guidelines give guidance for the
management of small combustion source emissions with a
capacity of up to 50 megawatt thermal (MWth), including air
pollution requirements for exhaust emissions. Refer to the
EHS Guidelines for Thermal Power for combustion source
emissions with a capacity more than 50 MWth.
Drilling contracting companies should be required to provide
generators capable of complying with local air emissions
standards or, at the very least, to retrofit the exhausts of the
power units with catalytic converters for emissions resulting
from combustion sources with a capacity of up to 3 MW that
are commonly used for power generation in drilling rigs.
Venting and Flaring
When associated gas is brought to the surface with crude oil
during oil production, it is occasionally vented or flared at
onshore facilities. This practice is now widely acknowledged
as a substantial waste of a vital nonrenewable resource and a
large source of greenhouse gas emissions.
Onshore oil and gas facilities, on the other hand, use flaring
and venting as vital safety measures to guarantee that gas and
other hydrocarbons are properly disposed of in the case of an
emergency, a power or equipment failure, or another facility
upset situation. In such facilities, risk assessment techniques
(e.g., hazard and operability study (HAZOP), hazard
identifications study (HAZID), etc.) should be utilized to
determine the consequences of circumstances of this nature.
When assessing venting and flaring alternatives for onshore
activities, measures compliant with the Global Gas Flaring and
Venting Reduction Voluntary Standard4 (part of the Global
Gas Flaring Reduction Public-Private Partnership (GGFR
program5) should be used. The standard outlines methods to
minimize or reduce natural gas flaring and venting.
Gas use for on-site energy demands, gas injection for reservoir
pressure management, increased oil recovery utilizing gas lift,
or gas export to a neighboring plant or to market7 are all
possibilities. If none of the other choices for using the
associated gas are viable, steps to reduce flare volumes should
be assessed, and flaring should be considered as a temporary
solution, with the objective of eliminating continuous
production-related gas flaring as the desired aim.
Cost-effective methods to minimize flaring that provide long-
term societal benefits (e.g., gas-to-power) should be
discovered and evaluated in partnership with host nation
governments and other stakeholders, with a particular focus on
GHG emissions, for existing facilities.
If flaring is the only realistic option, it should be proven that
flaring can be improved over time by using best practices and
new technology. For gas flaring, the following pollution
prevention and control strategies should be considered:
• To the greatest degree practicable, implement source gas
reduction methods;
• Use flare tips that are efficient, and maximize the size and
number of burning nozzles;
• Ensure the right ratio of assist stream to flare stream by
managing and optimizing flare fuel, air, and stream flow rates.
• Install purge gas reduction devices, vapor recovery units,
inert purge gas, soft seat valve technology where suitable, and
conservation pilots to reduce flaring from purges and pilots
without jeopardizing safety.
• Ensure appropriate exit velocity and provide wind guards to
reduce the possibility of pilot blowout.
• Utilization of a dependable pilot ignition system;
• Where appropriate, install high-integrity instrument pressure
protection devices to prevent or decrease overpressure
incidents and flare situations.
• Use an appropriate liquid separation system to reduce liquid
carryover and entrainment in the gas flare stream.
• Reduce flame lift-off and/or licking;
• Control odor and visual smoke emissions with flare (no
visible black smoke);
• Place flare at a safe distance8 from nearby communities and
manned structures;
Excess gas should not be vented in the case of an emergency
or equipment failure, or when facility upset circumstances
exist. Instead, it should be directed to an efficient flare gas
system. When a flare gas system is unavailable or flaring of
the gas stream is not practicable, such as when there is
insufficient hydrocarbon content in the gas stream to enable
burning or when there is insufficient gas pressure to enable it
to enter the flare system, emergency venting may be required.
Before an emergency gas venting facility is considered, the
reasons for omitting a gas flaring system on onshore
installations should be clearly documented.
Plant dependability should be high (>95 percent) and
provisions should be established for equipment sparing and
plant turn down processes to reduce flare incidents as a
consequence of equipment failures and facility disturbances.
Flaring volumes for new facilities should be calculated during
the design phase (Front End Engineering and Design) and
fine-tuned throughout the initial commissioning period,
allowing for the formulation of acceptable flaring objectives
and the opportunity to alter objectives for future field
development plans. All flaring incidents should have their
quantities of gas flared recorded and reported.
Well Testing
Flaring of produced hydrocarbons should be avoided during
well testing, especially in areas where people live or where the
environment is fragile. The safety of handling volatile
hydrocarbons should be considered when evaluating viable
alternatives for the recovery of these test fluids, either for
transfer to a processing facility or for alternative use/disposal
options. Long-term testing should be avoided in favor of
short-term testing (72 hours or less).
Flow-back fluids from hydraulic fracturing operations should
be routed through a high-capacity three-phase separation unit
to allow for gas separation, liquid hydrocarbon recovery, and
produced water recovery.
If flaring is the only option for disposing of test fluids, only
the minimum amount of hydrocarbons required for the test
should be flowed, and the well-test duration should be as short
as possible. To reduce incomplete combustion, black smoke,
and hydrocarbon fallout, choose an efficient test flare burner
head with an appropriate combustion enhancement system. It
is necessary to keep track of the amount of hydrocarbons
flared.
Effluents from Gas Treatment Units
Other gases or vapors in natural gas may need to be removed
in order to meet commercial gas specifications. Sulfur
compounds, primarily hydrogen sulfide (H2S), but also
carbonyl sulfide (COS), carbon disulfide (CS2, or "sour gas"),
and carbon dioxide (CO2, or "acid gas"), are among the gases
to be removed; vapors may also contain VOCs and mercury.
Gas treatment (or "sweetening") results in the release of a gas
stream that concentrates the extracted compounds. When the
amount of sulfur compounds (depending on concentration and
rate of production) is high, they are usually oxidized to
elemental sulfur using catalytic oxidation; the tail gases are
usually recycled, and the final effluents are released to the
atmosphere after thermal oxidation under controlled
conditions.
In some areas, mercury can be found in natural gas, with
concentrations ranging from a few to hundreds of parts per
billion g/Nm3 (micrograms per normal cubic meter). Mercury
levels must be reduced significantly to avoid affecting
subsequent treatment phases (heat exchanger failures due to
amalgamation)11 and to ensure that mercury concentrations
do not reach or exceed relevant ambient quality guidelines and
standards. 12th. The treatment can reduce the mercury
concentration in gas using either regenerative or non-
regenerative methods.
Because untreated gas could be released in the event of an
emergency flare-up or venting, a baseline mercury survey
should be conducted before activities begin, and periodic
monitoring of mercury content in the surrounding vegetation
should be implemented if mercury is detected.
Effluents from Gas Dehydration Systems
When natural gas is extracted from a reservoir, it usually
contains a lot of water and is often saturated or near the dew
point. This might lead to the production of hydrates or
corrosion. To reduce downstream process consequences, water
should be eliminated; this may be done using a variety of
ways, including glycol dehydration and molecular sieves. The
regeneration phase, regardless of the technique, produces an
effluent stream including water vapor, methane, VOCs, and, in
rare circumstances, traces of mercaptans.
Fugitive Emissions
The leak of VOCs from process equipment cold vents may be
linked to fugitive emissions at onshore sites (collected
gaseous streams that are directly released to the atmosphere
without combustion). Valves, flanges, pressure relief devices,
process drains, open-ended valves, pump and compressor seal
systems, agitator seals, access door seals, hydrocarbon loading
and unloading activities, and open tanks for Non-Aqueous
Drilling Fluids (NADF) are some of the potential leak sources
(which can generate diffuse emissions).
In the design, operation, and maintenance of onshore
facilities, methods for controlling and minimizing fugitive
emissions should be studied and implemented. The safety and
appropriateness requirements of the equipment, as well as its
potential to limit gas leaks and fugitive emissions, should all
be considered when selecting appropriate valves, flanges,
fittings, seals, and packings. Leak detection and repair
procedures should be created, and all collected gaseous
streams should be burnt in high efficiency flare(s).
Installing pressure relief valves in tank roofs should prevent
the usage of open vents. For the loading and unloading of tank
trucks and ship tankers, vapor control/recovery equipment
should be fitted as needed. Carbon adsorption, refrigeration,
thermal oxidation, and lean oil absorption units are all
examples of vapor processing systems. The EHS Guidelines
for Crude Oil and Petroleum Product Terminals give
additional recommendations for the avoidance and
management of fugitive emissions from storage tanks.
Wastewater
The General EHS Guidelines cover wastewater management,
water conservation and reuse, as well as wastewater and water
quality monitoring. Additional wastewater streams relevant to
the onshore oil and gas business are addressed in the
following guideline.
Produced Water
When water from oil and gas reservoirs is brought to the
surface during hydrocarbon production, it becomes produced
water. Formation water can be found in significant quantities
in oil reservoirs, although it is normally found in smaller
proportions in conventional gas reservoirs. Coal Bed Methane
(CBM) reservoirs are an exception, as they create a substantial
volume of produced water at first. Water is pumped into
reservoirs in several fields to maintain pressure and/or
optimize output. The whole generated water stream might be
one of the major waste products in terms of volume in the
operation.
Produced water is a complex mixture of inorganic (dissolved
salts, trace concentrations of certain metals, suspended
particles), organic (suspended and dissolved hydrocarbons,
traces of fatty acids and other organic compounds), and, in
some cases, residual trace concentrations of chemical
additives used to improve the hydrocarbon production process
(e.g., scale and corrosion inhibitors, hydrate inhibitors).
Alternatives for managing and disposing of generated water
should be considered and included into facility and production
design. Injection into the reservoir to improve oil recovery or
injection into a designated disposal well drilled to a suitable
receiving subsurface geological formation are two possible
options. Other prospective applications, such as irrigation,
dust management, or usage by other industries, may be
appropriate to investigate if the chemical makeup of the
generated water is consistent with these possibilities, and
provided there are no negative environmental and/or human
health effects.
Produced water releases to surface waterways or land should
only be considered as a last resort and only if no other options
are available. Combinations of gravity and/or mechanical
separation, as well as chemical treatment, are among the
treatment technologies to consider. A multistage system,
consisting of a skim tank or parallel plate separator, followed
by a gas flotation cell or hydrocyclones, may be required.
Depending on the application and field circumstances, a
variety of treatment package technologies are available and
should be evaluated.
To ensure continuous operation, sufficient storage capacity
should be considered in the facility's design stage, particularly
in the case of system failure or interruption of the disposal
solution.

Conclusion

This article depicts the steps of integrated model development,

which include the creation of digital models of oil and gas
wells with sophisticated completion systems, as well as oil
development environmental requirements.

The integrated model of the oil and gas condensate field's

"Reservoir-Well-Surface Infrastructure" system allows for
efficient forecasting of production performance, planning,
management, and decision-making on key aspects of
production activity of an oil and gas production enterprise,
including not only development and geological aspects, but
also infrastructure limitations.

This research helps us to get a better understanding of

reservoir engineering and infrastructure development in oil
and gas condensate fields utilizing the integrated formation-
well-surface infrastructure model in accordance with HSE
rules.