LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS Symbols B Viscous friction coefficient, N-sec/m e, Back emf, v o Steady state error Applied force, N ooh Opposing force offered by mass of the body,N Opposing force offered by the elasticity of the body, N heh Opposing force offered by the friction of thé body, N Sampling frequency, Hz Conductance, mho zo ‘Transformation or operator i, Armature current, A Field current, A Moment of inertia, ke-m*/rad Complex operator Stiffhess of the spring, N-m / rad Acceleration error constant Back emf constant, V / (rad/sec) Derivative constant or gain Integral constant or gain Gain Margin Motor gain constant RRR RR RR Proportional gain Torque constant, N-m/A nK ‘Torque constant, Nm / A nm Velocity error constant re Armature inductance, Hait cs ERs = z o oS wo - wi” 4 ae 3A AAAS Field inductance, H Mass, kg Maximum overshoot Resonant peak Order of the system Type number Pole of a system Pole of compensator Forward path gain of K* forward path Charge Armature resistance, Q Field resistance, Q Complex variable Dominant pole Applied torque, N-m Electrical time constant Opposing torque due to friction, N-m Delay time Derivative time Field time constant Integral time Opposing torque due to moment of inertia, N-m Opposing torque due to elasticity; N-m Mechanical time constant Peak time Rise time Settling time Normalized bandwidthd6 dt ae dt oS 2 Normalized resonant frequency Armature voltage, V Field voltage, V Displacement, m Zero of a system Zeto of compensator Angular displacement, rad Angular velocity, rad/sec Angular acceleration, rad/sec? Undamped natural frequency, rad/sec Damping ratio Resonant frequency Bandwidth Phase margin Phase crossover frequency Gain crossover frequency Flux, weber Comer frequency Damped frequeney of oscillation Phase angle Frequency of maximum phase lag/lead Maximum lag/lead angle Additional phase lead Angle of asymptotes Angle of departure Angle of arrivalatv o Eigen value Impulse train Standard Input/Output signals c(t) otk) et) (kT) (kT). 1(t) r(k) u(t) a) Response in time domain Response of discrete signal Esror signal : Digital error signal Digital control signal Input in time domain Discrete time input signal Control signal (Analog) Impulse signal Matrices and Vectors A AX System matrix State transition matrix of discrete system Input matrix Output matrix Transmission matrix State transition matrix Identity matrix Jordan matrix Modal matrix or diagonalization matrix Transformation matrix Composite matrix for controllability Composite matrix for observability Input vectorUk) Input vector of discrete time system v Vander monde matrix X(t) State variable vector Xx, Initial condition vector x(k) State vector of discrete time system Y(t) Output vector ¥(k) Output vector of discrete time system a Grammian matrix Transform Operators and Functions ACs) Auxiliary polynomial E(s) Error signal in s-domain Gs) Open loop transfer function G(s)H(s) Loop transfer function H(s) Feedback transfer function £ Laplace transform L Inverse Laplace transform M(s) Closed loop transfer function T(s) Transfer function of the system z Z-transform x Inverse Z-transform Abbreviations BIBO Bounded Input Bounded Output LDS Linear Discrete Time System LTL Linear Time Invariant System ROC Region of convergence ZOH Zero Order HoldCHAPTER 1 MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF CONTROL SYSTEM 1.1 CONTROL SYSEEM Control system thedry evolved as an engineering discipline and due to universality of the principles involved, it is extended to various fields like economy, sociology, biology, medicine, etc. Control theory has played a vital role in the advance of engineering and science. The automatic control has become an integral part of modern manufacturing and industrial processes, For example, numerical control of machine tools in manufacturing industries, controlling pressure, temperature, humidity, viscosity and flow in process industry. When a number of elements or components are connected in a sequence to perform a specific function, the group thus formed is called a system. Ina system when the output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity, the system is called control system. The output quantity is called-controlied variable or response and input quantity is called command signal or excitation. OPEN LOOP SYSTEM Any physical system which does not automatically correct the variation in its output, is called an open loop system, or control system in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input quantity are called open-loop control system. This means that the output is not fedback to the input for correction. Input_,} Open loop | Output oO 7 system (Plant) rc Fig 1.1 : Open loop system In open loop system the output can be varied by varying the input. But due to external disturbances the system output may change. When the output changes due to disturbances, it is not followed by changes in input to correct the output. In open loop systems the changes in output are corrected by changing the input manually. CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM Controt systems in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity in order to maintain the desired output value are called closed loop systems, Error Detector omtemt c > up Reference _s{Connolier] p| Open loop system| : Input — lant) 1) o Fig 1.2 : Closed loop system.12 The open loop system can be modified as closed loop system by providing a feedback. The provision of feedback automatically corrects the changes in output due to disturbances. Hence the closed loop. system is also called automatic control system. The general block diagram of an automatic control system is shown in fig 1.2. It consists of an error detector, a controller, plant (open loop system) and feedback path elements. The reference signal ( or input signal ) corresponds to desired output. The feedback path elements samples the output and converts it to a signal of same type as that of reference signal. The feedback signal is proportional to output signal and it is fed to the error detector. The error signal generated by the error detector is the difference between reference signal and feedback signal. The controller modifies and amplifies the error signal to produce better control action. The modified error signal is fed to the plant to. correct its output. Advantages of open loop systems 1. The open loop systems are simple and economical. 2. The open loop systems are easier to construct. 3. Generally the open loop systems are stable. Disadvantages of open loop systems 1. The open loop systems are inaccurate and unreliable. 2. The changes in the output due to external disturbances are not corrected automatically. Advantages of closed loop systems 1. The closed loop systems are accurate. 2. The closed loop systems are accurate even in the presence of non-linearities. 3. The sensitivity of the systems may be made smal] to make the system more stable, 4. The closed loop systems are less affected by noise. Disadvantages of closed loop systems 1. The closed loop systems are complex and costly. 2. The feedback in closed loop system may lead to oscillatory response. 3. The feedback reduces the overall gain of the system. 4, Stability is a major problem in closed loop system and more care is needed to design a stable closed loop system. 1.2. EXAMPLES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM EXAMPLE 1 ‘OPEN. LOOP SYSTEM The electric fumace shown in fig 1.3. is an open loop system. The outputin the systems the desired temperature. The cemperature of the system is raised by heat generated by the heating element. The output temperature depends on the time during which the supply to heater remains ON. ‘The ON and OF F of the supply is governed by the time setting of the relay. The temperature is measured by a sensor, which gives an analog voltage corresponding to the temperature of the furnace. The analog signal is converted to digital signal yan Analog -to - Digital converter (A/D converter).43 C0: Sensor 1 —S | Eleetic (7 AD | Digital urmace Converter; — Interface |-—* Display Lp I ot I 1 | Relay >—? | controi | AC supply Circuit} Heating element Fig 1.3 : Open loop temperature control system. ‘The digital signals given to the digital display device to display the temperature.-In this system ifthere is any changein output temperature then the time setting of the relay is notaltered automatically. CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM ‘The electric furnace shown in fig 1.4 is @ closed loop system. The output of the systems the desired temperature and it depends on the time during which the supply to heater remains ON. Sensor i ' , Digital contro! Electric AD | circuit Fumacelt converter —»memace | iContratier (or) ey | | | CompuierMicro re — x processor 1 ing element f Rel: | ‘lay c 5 Control fe Amplifier te Dia le |__ Reterence input Circuit (Converter) (Desired temperatura) ac Supply Fig 1.4 : Closed loop temperature control system. ‘The switching ON and OFF ofthe relay is controlled by a controller which i a digital system or computer. The desired temperature is input to the system through keyboard or asa signal corresponding to desired temperature via ports. The actual ‘temperature is sensed by sensor and converted to digital signal by the A/D converter. The computer reads the actual temperature and compares with desired temperature. Ifitfinds any difference then it sends signal to switch ON or OFF the relay through D/A converierand amplifier, Thus the system automatically corrects any changes in output. Hence itis a closed loop system EXAMPLE 2 : TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM OPEN LOOP SYSTEM Traffic control by means of traffic signals operated on a time basis constitutes an open-loop control system. The sequence of control signals are based on a time slot given for each signal. The time slots are decided based on a traffic study ‘The system will not measure the density of the traffic before giving the signals. Since the time slot does not changes accordin; to traffic density, the system is open loop system. CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM ‘Traific control system can be made as a closed loop system if the time slots of the signals are decided based on th density of traffic. in closed loop traffic contro! system, the density of the trafficis measured on all the sides and the informatio is fed toa computer . The timings of the control signals are decided by the computer based on the density of traffic . Since th closed loop system dynamically changes the timings, the flow of vehicles will be better than open loop system.Ghapter (Mathematical Models of Control. L4 EXAMPLE 3 : NUMERICAL CONTROL SYSTEM OPEN LOOP SYSTEM Numerical control is a method of controlling the motion of machine components using numbers. Here, the position of work head tool is controlled by the binary information contained in a disk. Se 1 Output Reader >| DIA |—>| Amplifier} —»} Seve | 5 Cutter > FM pulse J motor | "| | Cool ¥ position) { ‘ - Magnetic disk Fig 1.5 : Open loop numerical control system. Amagnetic disk is prepared in binary form representing the desired part P (P is the metal partto be machined). The too! will operate on the desired part P. To start the system, the disk is fed through the reader to the D/A converter. The D/A converter Converts the FM (frequency modulated) output of the reader to a analog signal. Itis amplified and fed to servometer which Positions the cutter on the desired part P. The position of the cutter head is controlled by the angular motion of the servometer. This is an open loop system since no feedback path exists between the output and input. The system positions the too! for a given input command. Any deviation in the desired position is not checked and corrected automatically. CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM Amagnetic disks prepared in binary form representing the desirad partP (Ps the metal partto be machined). To start the system, the disk is loaded in the reader. The controller compares tho frequency modulated input pulse signai with the feedback pulse signal. The controlleris a computer or microprocassor system. The controller carries outmathematical operations on the difference in the pulse signals and generates an error signel, The D/A converter converts the controller output pulse (ertor signal) into an analog signal . The amplified analog signal rotates the servomotar to position the tool onthe job. The position of the cutterhead is controlled according to the input of the servomotor. The transducer attached to the cutterhead converts the motion into an electrical signal. The analog electrical signal is converted to the digital pulse signal by the A/D converter. Then this signal is compared with the input pulse signal. ifthere is any difference between these two, the controller sends a signal to the servomotor to reduce it. Thus the system automatically corrects any deviation in the desired output tool position. An advantage of numerical control is that complex parts can be produced with uniform tolerances atthe maximum milling speed. Tachometer —— Output (Tool | position) 1 i | L OA Servo | | pc Eur? Conttoller —* converter» Amplifier /—o| ere >a pulse ! Magnetic © | ak | Feedback signat [AyD Feedback signal L_“emheck sina | (Digital) (Analog) Fig 1.6 : Closed loop numerical control system.LS EXAMPLE 4: POSITION CONTROL SYSTEM USING SERVOMOTOR “The position control system shown in fig 1.7is @ closed loop system. The syste consists of a servorotor powered by a generator. The load whose position haste be controlled is connected to motor shaft through gear wheels, Potentiometers are used to convert the mechanical motion to electrical signals. The desired load position (0) is set on the input potentiometer and the actual load position (@,) Is fed to feedback potentiometer. The difference between the two angular positions generates an error signal, which is amplified and fed to generator field circuit. The induced emf of the generator drives the motor. The rotation ofthe motor stops when the error signalis zero, e. when the desired load position is reached. This type of control systems are called servomechanisms The servoor servomechanismsare feedback control systems in which the output is méchanical position (or time derivatives of position e.g. velocity and acceleration). Enor signal Amplifier [8 Generator field Lot | Input Feedback | potentiometer potentiometer Fig 1.7: A position control system (servomechanism). 1.3 MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS ‘A control system is a collection of physical objects (components) connected together to serve an objective. The input output relations of various physical components ofa system are governed by differential equations. The mathematical model of a control system constitutes a set of differential equations. The response or output of the system can be studied by solving the differential equations for various input conditions. ‘The mathematical model ofa system is linear if it obeys the principle of superposition and homogenity. This principle implies that if a system model has responses y,(t) and y, (t) to any inputs x, (t) and x, (8) respectively, then the system response to the linear combination of these inputs a,x, (f) +a, x, (1) is given by linear combination of the individual outputs a, y,(t)+a, y,(0), where a, and a, are constants. ‘The principle of superposition can be explained diagrammatically as shown in fig, 1.8. roan ) HG | FG Le | ty ha, EO Sysuem system an() +a) op G Leg) Tel 1 Tel) =a.c,(f) + a,0,0) 3 > ext z a : noe ie 1G Foo | Oo ie] then system Gis linear | er a Fig 1.8 : Principle of linearity and superposition.dle T= Matbeomatical Models of Control Systems 16 A mathematical model will be linear if the differential equations describing the system has constant coefficients (or the coefficients may be functions of independent variables). If the coefficients of the differential equation describing the system are constants then the model is /inear time invariant. If the coefficients of differential equations governing the system are functions of time then the model is linear time varying. ‘The differential equations of a linear time invariant system can be reshaped into different form for the convenience of analysis. One such model for single input and single output system analysis is transfer function of the system. The transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output to the Laplace transform of input with zero initial conditions, Laplace Transform of output | | a | Transfer function = PSS “ESO Oo Laplace Transform of input |e eocauacoamom | wa ay The transfer function can be obtained by taking Laplace transform of the differential equations governing the system with zero initial conditions and rearranging the resulting algebraic equations to get the ratio of output to input. 1.4 MECHANICAL TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEMS The model of mechanical translational systems can be obtained by using three basic elements mass, spring and dash-pot. These three elements represents three essential phenomena which occur in various ways in mechanical systems. The weight of the mechanical system is represented by the-element mass and it is assumed to be concentrated at the center of the body. The elastic deformation of the body can be represented by a spring. The friction existing in rotating mechanical system can be represented by the dash-pot. The dash- pot is a piston moving inside a cylinder filled with viscous fluid. When a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, it is opposed by opposing forces due to mass, friction and elasticity of the system. The force acting on a mechanical body are governed by Newton’s second law of motion. For translational systems it states that the sum of forces acting on a body is zero. (or Newton’s second law states that the sum of applied forces is equal to the sum of opposing forces on a body). LIST OF SYMBOLS USED IN MECHANICAL TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM x = Displacement, m < HW dx . =.= = Velocity, m/sec dt - dv . ; a = G77 ga = Acceleration, misec* Applied fore, N (Newtons) Opposing force offered by mass of the body, N Opposing force offered by the elasticity of the body (spring), N Opposing force offered by the friction of the body (dash - pot), N fi, M= Mass, kg K = Stiffness of spring, N/m B = Viscous friction co-efficient, N-sec/m Note : Lower case letters are functions of time |17 Gantt sjstemsTaginvering ~) FORCE BALANCE EQUATIONS OF IDEALIZED ELEMENTS, Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig 1.9 which has negligible friction and elasticity. Let a force be applied on it. The mass will offer an opposing force which is proportional to acceleration of the body. Let, f = Applied force bx f= Opposing force due to mass g t—+ Mw 4 @x x Reference Here, fc i, -Moo . ores Im ae OF « Fig 1.9: Ideal mass element By Newton's second Jaw. | M— wn 1.2), Consider an ideal frictional element dashpot shown in fig 1.10 which has negligible mass and elasticity . Let a force be applied on it. The dash-pot will offer an opposing force which is proportional to velocity of the body, Le x Let, f = Applied force f, = Opposing force due to friction g Here, <2 or 4, =B% B Reference at at Fig 1.10: Ideal dashpot with | er By Newton's second law,| f= {, = B x | (13) one end faved to reference. ‘When the dashpot has displacement at both ends as shown in Lex, a fig L.L1, the opposing force is proportional to differential velocity. 4 f+ ———_| or fy wad (%; — x2) B Reference we A) Fig 1.11 : Ideal dashpot with displacement at both ends. Consider an ideal elastic element spring shown in fig 1.12, fox which has negligible mass and friction. Let a force be applied on it. The spring will offer ati opposing force which is proportional to f— ——*—_$ displacement of the body, K K e . Reference Let, f = Applied force Fig 1.12; Ideal spring with one end £, = Opposing force due to elasticity fixed to reference. Herefcx or f=Kx By Newton's second law, | f=f,=Kx |... (1.5) When the spring has displacement at both ends as shown in hex, fox g 1.13 thé opposing force is proportional to differential displacement. > 65H —— f, (Xp Xp) or f, = K(x, —x,) K Fig 1.13 : Ideal spring with displacement at both ends. poe _ [f= f, = K@xy=%,)Chapter T= Mathematical Models of Control Systems 18 | e Guidelines to determine the Transfer Function of Mechanical Translational System 1. In mechanical translational system, the differential equations governing the system are obtained by writing force balance equations at nodes in the system. The nodes are meeting point of elements. Generally the nodes are mass elements in the system. In some cases the nodes may be without mass element. 2. The linear displacement of the masses (nodes) are assumed as x, , X,, X,, ete., and assign a displacement to each mass(node) . The first derivative of the displacement is velocity and the second derivative of the displacement is acceleration. 3. Draw the free body diagrams of the system . The free body diagram is obtained by drawing each mass separately and then marking all the forces acting on that mass (node). Always the opposing force acts in a direction opposite to applied force. The mass has to move in the direction of the applied force. Hence the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass Will be in'the direction of the applied force. If there is no applied force then the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass will be in a direction opposite to that of opposing force. 4. For each free body diagram, write one differential equation by equating the sum of applied forces to the sum of opposing forces. 5... Take Laplace transform of differential equations to convert them to algebraic equations. Then rearrange the s-domain equations to eliminate the unwanted variables and obtain the ratio between output variable and input variable. This ratio is the transfer function of the system. Note: Laplace transform of x(t) = L£{xt)}= Xs) | Laplace transform of - <{g xo} =5X(9) (with zero initial conditions) i s? X(s) (with zero initial conditions) | 2a 3 Laplace transform of £22 {& x0| de? dt EXAMPLE 1.1 \Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig 1. and determine the transfer function. box, Lex K, B Cy | | M pM 9 s * Fig I. SOLUTION es” Inthe given system, applied force '{(t)' is the inputand displacement’ is the output. Let, Laplace transform of f(t) = £{f()} = F(s) Laplace transform of x = L(x} = X(s) Lapiace transform of x, = Lix,) =X(s)1g x Hence the required transfer function is s ‘The system has two nodes and they are mass M, and M,. The differential equations governing the system are given by force batance equations at these nodes. Letthe displacement of mass M, be x, The free body diagram of mass M, is shown in fig 2. The opposing forces acting ‘on mass M, are marked as f,., fy. fy fy and f, fon» fas ax, - dx, . bx, f= M SG BR Lm ins : a ion §=BL(%—x); & =Kits-x) , By Newton's second law, M, f for thr th Hath = tf }J¢——f, 1M, BO 6 BL 6 a Koc, + Ke) = 0 OM Ge Brg TPG PRO AI Fig 2: Free body diagram Ontaking Laplace transform of above equation with zero intial conditions we get, "288M, (nade 1) Mg?X,(s) + B,SX;,(8) + Bs DXi(s) — X(s)] + KX As) +K [X(s)=X(s)} = 0 X(s) [Mss? + (B, + B)s +(K, + K)]- X(s) [Bs +K]=0 Xs) (Ms? + (B, +B)s + (K, + K)] = X(s) (Bs +k] Bs +K . = wee 2X10 ° X00) Goes RaR (1) The free body diagram of mass M, is shown in fig 3. The opposing forces acting on M, are marked as fp, ff, and. ax ft px fho=M, 5%; y= 8, & at ‘at ——_ 1) Q i br8a OR) = KK Xs) fee M, +— By Newton's second law, le 4, foe he + +f =) Kf, Fig 3 : Free body diagram 2, } My Shea, Beod (=x) K(x =x) Ft) of mass M, (node 2) j On aking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get, M,8°X(s) +B,8X(s) +Bs[X(s) — X,(s)] + KPX(s) - X,(s)] = F(s) X{(6) [MS* + (Bz + B)s + K]- X,(s)[Bs +K] = F(s) ‘Subsfituting for X,(s) from equation (1) in equation (2) we get, 24 (8, + ee X(s) [M,s* + (B, +B)s+K]— X(s) Mss (B Bern f°)‘© Chapier I ilatbeniatical Models of Conirol Systems ~) 10 [M,s? +(B, +B)s +K} IMs? +(B,+B)s+(K, +K)]- (Bs +K)? xe) | * Mis? + (B48) 9 =(K+K) | Fe) X(s) i “ Fis) M (B,+B)s+(K, +1) + K)] [Mys* + (Bp + B)s +K]- (Bs + K)? (By+B)s+( RESULT The differential equations governing the systern are, ax, a ua +B) SBS 6-9) ++ Ke, —9) <0 1 Pee ee ee) ‘The transfer function of the systemis, X(8) Ms? +(B, +B) $+(K,+K) Fis) [Ms?+(B, +B) s+(K,+1)] [M,s* +(B, +B) 8+K]- (Bs +K)* EXAMPLE 1.2 YA) Determine the transfer function “2) ofthe ‘system shown in fo 1 Fs) SOLUTION Let, Laplace transform of f(t) = Lif(t)} = F(s) Laplace transform of y, = Lfy,} =Y,(s) Laplace transform of y, = Lfy,} =,(s) ‘The system has two nodes and they are mass M, and M,, The differential equations governing the system are the force balance equationsat these nodes. The free body diagram of mass M, is shovm in fig 2. The opposing forces are marked asf, fy f,, andf,, a g fr MM: ha BM: Hyman ¢ fe Heb ve) By Newton's second law, fay +, +f the =A) a 8 1M + BE Ky Kal, Ya) =f) nl) Fig 2. On taking Laplace transform of equation (1) with zero initial condition we get, Mys?¥\(8) + BS¥4(5) + K,¥4() + Ke1¥4(8)— Yo(S)] = F(S) YASIMs* + Bs +(K; +Kz)]—Yo(s)K2 = Fis) 2) The free body diagram of mass M, is shown in fig 3. The opposing forces acting on M, are f,, and. d fog = Mo % ; Kol¥e-Ys) By Newton's second law, fxo + fig =0 feLit d Oe +Koly2-y) =0 few On taking Laplace transform of abs ati \n taking Laplace transform of above equation we get, ee M,s*¥2(8) + Ka[Yo(s)— Y46)] = 0 M. | . Yo{s) [M,s” +K,]- Ys) Ky = 0 fea ¥48) = Ys) Mae Substituting for Y,(s) from equation (3) in equation (2) we get, 2 vats) ea] [Ms® Bs (K,+K,)]- Yo(s) Kp = FOS) s ve) Mi tae 2a Sa) Fie) 2 ee [Mis? + Bs +(K, +K,)] [Mys? +K,]—K RESULT ‘The differential equations governing the system are, a 1 MGB 3h + Kiyh + Kali ~ Yo) = (0) e 2 MSP + Kye ¥9)= 0 The transfer function of the systemis, YAS) _ Ke Fis) [Ms?+Bs+ (K,+K,)][M,s* +K,]-K? EXAMPLE 1.3 Determine the transfer function, 2) ang X2lS) for the system shown in fig 4 F(s) F(s) 4) fl Poe A bp y +800 M+ 41 M, “BES 4 J K, Le Soo } S4E 5! B, t Fig 1. rs SOLUTION ph) fy Let, Laplace transform of ft) = Ltilt)} = F(s) Mbt, Fig2. Laplace transform of x, = £{x,} = X,(s) fre Laplace transform of x, = £{x,} = Xs)hapter I - Mathematical Models of Control Systems 112 ‘The system fias two nodes and they are mass M, and M,. The differential equations governing the system are the force balance equations at these nodes. The free body diagrarn ofmmass M, is shown in fig 2. The opposing forces are marked a5, fy fayp and f,, dx, fos MS ha By Newton's second law, fri + for + foto + fer = ft) +B, 24g, SO) kx = At a at (On taking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get, Ms°X,(s) + Bs Xi(s) + Bias Ki(s) ~ X(8)] + K.X,¢s) = F(s) X,(6) MS? +(By + By) S+Ky] ~BySXa( F(s) won) The free body diagram of mass M, is shown in fig 3. The opposing forces are marked a F., oy fy. and fp Faas hs ax. Oxy ‘ha = M, : a la = Ma fo=Be d fio = Broa eX); ho = Kx 2 = Bioa (Ka—m) fe = Kok By Newton's second law, fra + foo +for2 + fg =0 dx, Be. oi MoGe 7 Be Gy t Be On taking Laplace transform of equation (2) with zero initial conditions we get, MS°Xa{8) + B,SXa(8) + By28 [Xp(S) — X,(8)] + KyX;(s) = 0 0 We =X) x =0 wel) X,(s) [M,s? + (Bz +Bz2) $+ Kz] ~ Biz 8 X15) 2 X,(s) [M,8* + (By + By) $+ Ka] = Biz $ X,(s) = Bs Xi) (3) *O)~ Ts? (Bp +Bg) 84K] ‘ ‘Substituting for Xs(s) from equation (3) in equation (1) we get, (B,8)° Xi(s) M,s? +(B, +By)S+K, X(6) [IMs? + (8, + Bra) 8+ Ki Mp8? + (Be + Bra) 8 +Kal~(Bre8)?] Fs) M,8? + (By +Byg) $+ Ky Xi(6) IMs? +(B,+ By) 8K; =Fis) - ls) _ M,s? +(B, +B.) 8+K, SF)” Ms? +(8,+8,,) 5+ 1] IM,s? +(B, +B.) 8+K,]-(8, 8)" From equation (3) we get, _ IMs? +(B, +By) sts) X18) a Bys Substituing for X,{s) from equation (4) in equation (1) we get, Xi(s) 2a) MS BeBe) S21 ye? (6,0) 84K ]-B 8 Xl) =F) .153 sag tagineving [M82 +B, + Brg) S+K_] Ms? +(B)+By) s+ Bg8)"] pp) ESS 1 Xol8) _ Bys -— Fle) Mas” + (By + By) 8+ Ka] [Ms* +(B, +B) s*Ki)- (Bs) X2(8) RESULT = Thedifferential equations governing the system are, ox, dx, x, — Xo) SB SB, Se Ky = SE 4B BEBE Kin, ax = x1) at 1M, @x, ax, 2 Magee Boge t Ba + KX = 0 ‘The transfer functions of the system are; XS) _ Ms? +(By +Byz) $+ Kp 1. F(s) IMS? + (B; + By) 8+ Kil [M.S + (B, +B) $+Kal- Bus)" 3, XelS) _ Buys F(S) (Mas? + (By + Biz) § * Ko) IM" + (By + Bz) §* Kil - (Bus) EXAMPLE 1.4 Write the equations of mation in s-domain for the system shown in fig 1. Determine the transfer function of the system. _ Lex) 4 a { f M (t) j 8S 1 >i) 5 77777 * Fig 1. SOLUTION Let, Laplace transform of x(t)= L(x} =X(s) Laplace transform of f(t) = £&tt)} = FOS) Letx, be the displacement atthe meeting point of spring and dashpot. Laplace transform ofx, is X,(s). The system has two nodes and they are mass M and. the meeting point of spring and dashpot “The differential equations governing the systomare the force balance equations atthese nodes. The equations of motion in the s-domain are obtained by taking Laplace transform ofthe differential equations. “The free body diagram of mass Mis shown in fig 2. The opposing forces are marked asf, f,,and fy. ax. dx d fee MGz | f= Brae 3 fe=8e ae) L»x By Newton's second law the force balance equation is, }— ft) fhe =H ae ax dx qd MS +8, 2B Sux) =f) tS aE Bat Beg x)=) On taking Laplace transform of the above equation we get, Fig 2. Ms? X(s)+B, s X(s) +B, $ [X(s) ~ X()] = Fs) [Ms? +(B, +B.) s] X(s) ~ Bz 8X) = Fis) Li The free booy diagram atthe meeting point of spring and dashpotis shown in fig 3. The opposing forces are marked as fand f,. fen BrS ts | 1 By Newton's second law, f, +f, =0 M=0 f bp—te ABS -aeKm= Fig 3. ‘Ontaking Leplace transform of the above equation we get, B, s [X\(s)—X(s)]+K X(s)=0 (By8+K) X{s)~-By 8 X/s) =0 nee) B28 Xi0)= SRE Xie) sl) Substituting for X,(s) from equation (2) in equation (1) we get, 2 =| X(s)=Fis) [Ms? +(6,+B,)s]X(s)-B,s (IMs? =@,+B,)s16, s+K)- (8, Pl x eee Bys+K Xs) _ B,s+K _ FS) Ms*+(6,+B,) 3] (6 s+K) ee ‘The differential equations governing the system are, a ,& 5 ¢ 1 Me eget Ba gem = d 2. Bam =x)+Kx,=0 The equations of motion in s-domain are, 1. [Ms*+(B, +B.) s] X(s)— By S Xs) = F(s) 2. (By $+K) X,(s)-B, s X(s)=0 ‘The transfer function of the systemis, Xs) _ Bysik Fis) (Ms? ~(B,+B,) s}(B)s+1)- (62 s* 1.5 MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS The model of rotational mechanical systems can be obtained by using three elements, moment of inertia [I] of mass, dash-pot with rotational frictional coefficient [B] and torsional spring with stiffness [K]. The weight of the rotational mechanical system is represented by the moment of inertia of the ass, The moment of inertia of the system or body is considered to be concentrated at the centre of ity of the body. The elastic deformation of the body can be represented by a spring (torsional spring). The friction existing in rotational mechanical system can be represented by the dash-pot. The dash-pot is 2 piston rotating inside a cylinder filled with viscous fluid.LB CGoritrol Systems Engineering When a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, it is opposed by opposing torques due to moment of inertia, friction and elasticity of the system. The torques acting on a rotational mechanical body are governed by Newton's second Yaw of motion for rotational systems. It states that the sum of torques acting on a body is zero (or Newton's law states that the sum of applied torques is equal to the sum of opposing torques on a body) UST OF SYMBOLS USED IN MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEM © = Angular displacement, rad dO. a = Angular velocity, rad/sec Angular acceleration, rad/sec? = Applied torque, N-m Moment of inertia, Kg-me/rad = Rotational frictional coefficient, N-m/(rad/sec) = Stiffness of the spring, N-m/rad TORQUE BALANCE EQUATIONS OF IDEALISED ELEMENTS Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig 1.14 which has negligible friction and elasticity. The opposing torque due to moment of inertia is proportional to the arigular acceleration. Let, T = Applied torque. T,= Opposing torque due to moment of inertia of the body. T 9 Consider an ideal frictional element dash pot shown in fig 1.15 which has negligible moment of inertia and elasticity, Let a torque be applied on it. The dash pot will offer an opposing torque which is proportional to the angular velocity of the body. Let, T =Applied torque. T, =Opposing torque due to friction. YA | 8 @ . eo T,«<—— T, =B_ B Beg oF B=Bo 79 ® Fig 1.15 : Ideal rotational dash-pot with By Newton's second law, a) os) one end fixed to reference. | When the dash pot has angular displacement at both ends as shown in fig 1.16, the opposing torque is proportional to the differential angular velocity. “ . ls 2 Fig 1.16 : Ideal dash-pot with (1.9) angular displacement at both ends. d d T#£,-9) oF T,=BS-O,-0) fe(Ghabler I =Mathematical Models of Control Systems > 416 Consider an ideal elastic element, torsional spring as shown in fig 1.17, which has negligible moment of inertia and friction. Let a torque be applied on it. The torsional spring will offer an opposing torque which is proportional to angular displacement of the body. Let, T = Applied torque. \ T, = Opposing torque due to elasticity. 76 C& T,<8 or 1,=K@ Fig 1.17 : Ideal spring with one —r (10) end fixed to reference. By Newton's second law, [T % When the spring has angular displacement at both ends as shown in fig 1.18 the opposing torque is proportional to differential angular displacement. \ > -8,) or T,=K(6,-6) T™ 6! KO, a veo L1) Fig 1.18 : Ideal spring with angular 2) displacement at both ends. Guidelines to determine the Transfer Function of Mechanical Rotational System 1. Inmechanical rotational system, the differential equations governing the system are obtained by writing torque balance equations at nodes in the system. The nodes are meeting point of elements. Generally the nodes are mass elements with moment of inertia in the system. In some cases the nodes may be without mass element. 2. The angular displacement of the moment of inertia of the masses (nodes) are assumed as 0,, €,, 8,, etc., and assign a displacement to each mass (node). The first derivative of angular displacement is angular velocity and the second derivative of the angular displacement is angular acceleration. 3. Draw the free body diagrams of the system. The free body diagram is obtained by drawing each moment of inertia of mass separately and then marking all the torques acting on that hody. Always the opposing torques acts in a direction opposite to applied torque. 4. The mass has to rotate in the direction of the applied torque. Hence the angular displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass will be in the direction of the applied torque. If there is no applied torque then the angular displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass is in a direction opposite to that of opposing torque. 5. For each free body diagram write one differential equation by equating the sum of applied torques to the sum of opposing torques. 6. Take Laplace transform of differential equation to convert them to algebraic equations. Then rearrange the s-domain equations to eliminate the unwanted variables and obtain the relation between output variable and input variable. This ratio is the transfer function of the system. Note = Laplace transform of 6 = £{0} = %s) Laplace transform of s = 42 = 6(s) (with zero initial conditions) i 2, 2 Laplace transform of % = eh =8°O(s) . (with zero initial conditions) ii itLIT EXAMPLE 1.5 Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational systom shown in fig 1. Obtain the transfer function ofthe system. abe Be {Applied Torque) (Output) Fig 1. SOLUTION Inthe given system, applied torque Tis the input and angular displacement is the output, Let, Laplace transform of T = £{T}=T(s) Laplace transform of 0 = {0} =0(s) Laplace transform of 9, = £{0,}= 0,6) Hence the required transfer functionis #3 The system has two nodes and they are masses with moment of inertia J, and J,. The differential equations governing the system are given by torque balance equations at these nodes. Letthe angular displacement of mass vith momentofinertia J, be8, The ree body diagram of J is shown in ig 2. The opposing torques acting on J, are marked as T,, and, Tastee 5 Te=K(@,-9) By Newton's second law, T,.+ 7, =T hh Po oo JANN 14 K(0,-8)=T ve] T 4, 3,28 Ke, -KO=T (1) Fig 2+ Free body diagram of mass with ote moment of inertia J, On taking Laplace transform of equation (1) with zero initial conditions we get, J, 8? 4,(3} +K9,(s)—Ka(s) = T(s) (J, 8? + K) 0,(s)— K 6(s) = T(s) (2) The free body diagram of mass with moment of inertia J, is shown in fig 3. The opposing torques acting on J, aremarked as T, T,andT,. ao ce Tp=teaz i: T=BI i Tk=K0-6; e at 5 T= K0-0) — By Newton's secondlaw, T+, +1, =0 —— 4 “ os 7 a . de oe sage Bay tKe-a)=0 Fig 3 : Free body diagram of mass with moment of inertia J. 2 nie 8B sk KO, = On taking Laplace transform of above equation with zera initial conditions we gat, J,870(s) + Bs O(s) +KO(S)—K8,(s)= 0Chapter t ‘Mathematical Models of Control Systems > 118 (Jz 8? + Bs +K) €(8)—K0,¢s) = 0 (8? +Bs+K) 4 as) = Se (8) ‘Substituting for 6,(s) from equation (3) in equation (2) we get, (i,8? + Bs +) (Js? +K) z ‘8(s) — Ka(s) = T(s) Tus? + 2 _K2 [es K) is? +Bs +K)—K Jos)= L K 28) —K T(s) (Js? +K) zs? + Bs + K) —K? RESULT The differential equations governing the system are, de, 1 Jy a? -Ko=T 2, 2. bE Be Ke Ko, =0 The transfer function of he systems, oS) _ __K F(8) (ds? +K) (Us + Bs +K)—K? EXAMPLE 1.6 Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system shown in fig 1. and determine the transfer function o(s)T(s). SOLUTION Inthe given system, the torque T is the input andthe angular displacement is the output. Let, Laplace transform of T= £{T} =T(s) Laptace transform ofé = £10} =6(s) 19,3 =06) Ss) Hence the required transfer function is ——— Te) . The system has two nodes and they are masses with moment of inertia J, and J, The differential equations goveming system are given by torque balance equations at these nodes. Laplace transform of 8, = Lethe angular displacement of mass with moment of inertia J, be 6,. The free body diagram of J,isshowninfig2. The soposing torques acting on J, are marked as T,,, Ty. and T, mre de, a Th th a 2 Toe BrgGer-8) 3 Te =K(0,-6) aol 1 BSS By Newton's second law, T,+ Ty + =T Fig a : Phe bea dag diagram of mass with moment of inertia J,ao, d #8 go We Beg ‘Ontaking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get, (8,-8)+K(0,-0)=T J870,(s)+8 B;, [0,(s) -Os)] + K0,(s) - KO(s) = Tis) 0,8) US? + SB ie +K] 918) [88,2 +K] = TS) a ‘The free body diagram of mass with moment of inert J is shown in ig3. The opposing torques are marked as Ty, Ts T,andT,. ve Tp Tae Te T d I, ee Tow Bz Gy @- 6) ) VARA we J) TBR; K=KO-0) 3 Fig 3 : Free body diagram of mass with Tet T= 0 moment of inertia J. By Newton's second law, Tj + Toa ao d de de Ge 7 Be OO) + BG + KO 0) =0 a FBS + Bie, +B)+Ke KO =0 3S ate at Ontaking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get, J,870(S) - B,80,(s) + $0(S) [B,2 + B] + K0(s)— Ko,(s) = 0 (8) [s7J, +8(B,, +B) +K]~0,(s) [88,, +K}=0 _ [s4uy+8(B +B) +KI 9 0 Be KI as) (2) ‘Substituting for@,(s) from equation (2) in equation (1) we get, 2 + ie? +s8,,+1q HS +882 +B) M08) gg. (68,,+K) Kk) @(s) = T(s) (Js? + SByz +K) [J287 + 8(Brz + B) + K]- (SByz + KY? - SSB + K) ame foe) TS) 86) (sBy +k) “T(s) (dis? + SBi2 +K) Ns” + 8(B,, + B)+K]- (6B,z +1)? RESULT ‘The ditterential equations governing the system are, / oe, d 1 Sage * Br yy O19) + K(0 1-8) = T ae do, _ do 2 JS 8, SSB, +8)= K-98) <0 arr at at (2 FB) + KO) The transfer function of the systemis, 9) _ (682 +K) (8) (Uys? + 8B + K) [W,8" + §(B,2 +B) + K]—(sBiy +K)?‘ehapier T= Mathematical Models of Control Systems 1.20 1.6 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS The models of electrical systems can be obtained by using resistor, capacitor and inductor. The current-voltage relation of resistor, inductor and capacitor are given in table-1. For modelling electrical stems, the electrical network or equivalent circuit is formed by using R, L and C and voltage or current urce. The differential equations governing the electrical systems can be formed by writing Kirchoff ’s current law equations by choosing various nodes in the network or Kirchoff’s voltage law equations by josing various closed paths in the network. The transfer function can be obtained by taking Laplace ‘cansform of the differential equations and rearranging them as a ratio of output to input. TABLE-1.1 : [- Relati and € {Element Voltage, across the element Current through the element © oR v)=Ri) (= ~o We x) WL =L4 wet 1H v(t) =L- a iy pivoa vit) i - c _ w= Efi at (t= ch v(t) =XAMPLE 1.7 Obtain the transfer function of the electrical network shown in fig 1. SOLUTION In the given network, inputis e(t) and output is v,(t). Let, Laplace transform of a(t) = £fe()} = Eis) Laplace transform of v,(t)= Ltv,(0) =V,(s) The transfer function of the network is ae Transform the voltage source in series with resistance R, into equivalent current source as shown in figure 2. The network has two nodes. 1e node voltages be v, and v,. The Laplace transform of node voltages and v, are V,(S) and V,(s) respectively. The differential equations governing Senetwork are given by the Kirchof’s current law equations atthese nodes. Atnods-1, by Kirchoff’s current law (referfig3) Wood Mew 8 Mic Mi wee & R dat RR, Ontaking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get, Me v/s R, 4. “se. _ Xefs) +CsV4s)+ vis welt +80, + aL eLal Ciara Sten rggearing tae aT Joo dv Fig 4. ‘At node-2, by Kirchaff's current iaw (refer fig 4) Yo-Vy GMa “241.0, S220 dt Ontaking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get, YOM cs veo[+ “ee Ri127 TABLE -1.3 : Analogous Quantities in Force-Voltage Analogy | Item Mechanical system Electrical system (mesh basis system) Independent variable Force, f Voltage, ¢, V (input) Dependent variable Velocity, v Current, i (ouput) Displacement, x Charge, q Dissipative element Frictional coefficient Resistance, R of dashpot, B Storage element Mass, M Inductance, L Stiffness of spring, K Inverse of capacitance, 1/C Physical law Newton's second law Kirchoff’s voltage law =rF=0 iv=0 Changing the level of Transformer independent variable aN & TABLE. Analogous Elements Force-Curtent Analogy Mechanical system Electrical system Input: Force Input: Current source Output: Velocity Output : Voltage across the element -—-— i¢ Rov Y~ - 109,< 1.28 TABLE-L5 : Analogous Quantities in Force-Current Analogy Item Mechanical system Electrical system (node basis system) Independent variable Force, f Current, i (input) Dependent variable Velocity, v Voltage, v (output) Displacement, x Flux, > Dissipative element Frictional coefficient Conductance G=1/R of dashpot, B Storage element Mass, M Capacitance, C Stiffness of spring, K Inverse of inductance, 1/L Physical law Newton's second law Kirchoff’s current law =f=0 Li=0 Changing the level of Lever Transformer independent variable fo Ny as nN 5. The mechanical driving sources (force) and passive elements connected to the node (mass) in mechanical system should be represented by analogous elements in a closed loop in analogous electrical system. 6. The element connected between two (nodes) masses in mechanical system is represented as a common element between two meshes in electrical analogous system. FORCE-CURRENT ANALOGY ‘The force balance equations of mechanical elements and their analogous electrical elements in force-current analogy are shown in table-1.4. The table-1.5. shows the list of analogous quantities in force-current analogy. The following points serve as guidelines to obtain electrical analogous of mechanical systems based on force-current analogy. 1. In electrical systems elements in parallel will have same voltage, likewise in mechanical systems, the elements having same force are said to be in parallel. The elements having same velocity in mechanical system should have the same analogous voltage in electrical analogous system. Each node (meeting point of elements) in the mechanical system corresponds to a node in electrical system. A mass is considered as a node. 4. The number of nodes in electrical analogous is same as that of the number of nodes (masses) in mechanical system. Hence the number of node voltages and system equations will be same as that of the number of velocities of (nodes) masses in mechanical system. 5. The mechanical driving sources (forces) and passive elements connected to the node (mass) in mechanical system should be represented by analogous elements connected to a node in electrical system. 6. The element connected between two nodes (masses) in mechanical system is represented as a common element between two nodes in electrical analogous system.1.29 EXAMPLE 1.8 Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig 1. Draw the foice-voltage and force-current ) [a a % electrical analogous circuits and verify by waiting mesh and nade Boj ee equations. : as i SOLUTION 'B, Fig I. The given mechanical system has two nodes (masses). The differential equations governing the mechanical system are given by force balance equations at these nodes. Let the displacements of masses M, and M, be x, and x, respectively. The comesponding velocities be v, and v,. ‘The free body diagram of M, is shown in fg 2. The opposing forces are marked as * foe for fore and fy wc) t d, dx, br, fai My ot re Mf} >t, d }—# fire BeBe G Om) ff =KiK1—%) te By Newton's second law, fay + fy + fire + fy = f(t) Fig 2 ox, dx, d 2 My Ge Br ge * Biz yO Ka) # Klos Xa) = (9) all) The free body diagram of M, is shown in fig 3.The opposing forces are marked 8 fa, fixe fy, aNd fg x ax, ax, d —pv, Se=Me fa= Ban 1 Toe = Bio Oe) pro fa =a - xX) 5 fe =Kox | ” Me > fre By Newton's second law, fxg + tye + fig + fare + Lys, a fe a Ren KGa m=O on (2) a M27 HF Kin ~ x) (2) Fig 3. ‘On replacing the displacements by velocity in the differential equations (1) and (2) of the mechanical system we get, 2, 7 a * ; Sey andx= vat} MSE Biv Brlvy ve) + Kelis ve) a= sve 3) 2 «Bev, 1 Kelve dt+ Bry —v,)+ Kl vy = (4) FORCE-VOLTAGE ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT The given mechanical system has two nodes (masses). Hence the force-voltage analogous electrical circuit will have twomeshes. The force applied to mass, M, is represented by a voltage source in first mesh. The elements M,,B,,K, and B,,are Connected to first node. Hence they are represented by analogous elementin mesh-1 forming a closed path. The elements Ky, B., M,, K, and B, afe connectedto second node. Hence they are represented by analogous elemientin mesh-2 forming a closed path, The elements K, and B,, are common between node-1 and 2 and so they are represented by analogous element as ‘common elements between two meshes. The force-voltage electrical analogous circultis shown in ig 4 UC, yi, ML, B, 3 R, K> 1c, Yok By Ry L, R, SSW 88 Re R + 2 + TC c. Fig 4 : Force-voltage electrical analogous circuit. ] l+ Fig 6. ‘The mesh basis equations using Kirchoff's voltage law for the circuit shown in fig 4 are given below (Refer fig 5 and 6). di. ; 1. Lage Pt Ralf) +e JC tadat= ef ~6) a 1, tig 4 LG Rilo t Elle at+R,, deel iat =0 (6) Itis observed that the mesh basis equations (5) and (6) are similar to the differential equations (3) and (4) goveming the mechanical system FORCE-CURRENT ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT ‘The given mechanical system has two nodes (masses). Hence the force-current analogous electrical circuit will have ‘wo nodes. “The force applied to mass M, is represented as a currentsource connected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements M,, B,, K, and B,, are connected to first node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements connected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements K,, B,», M,, K,, and B, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-2 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements K, and B,, eré common between node-1 and 2 and s0 they are represented by analogous elements as common element between two nodes in analogous circuit. The force-currentelectrical analogous circuitis shown in fig 7. ‘The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. Yi) M, 3 C, B,> UR, K, 71, yoy, M, > C, B,> UR, Kota, v,>¥, B, > UR,L3t AT) vat a ~ w+ Live -wiat=0 svnl8) itis observed thatthe node basis equations (7) and (8) are similar to the differential equations (3) and (4) goveming the mechanicalsystem. EXAMPLE 1.9 I Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig 1. Ki A B Drawthe force -voltage and force-current alectrical analogous circuits and verify by writing — x mesh and node equations. * K, ‘f £0 SOLUTION t SOLUTION ve The given mechanical system has three nodes masses. The differential equations mo governing the mechanical system are given by force balance equations at these nodes. Let «8 eB, the displacements of masses M,, M, and M, bex,.x, andx respectively. The comesponding a! ys velocities be v,,v, and v,. a The free body diagram of M, is show in fig 2. The opposing forces are marked as Figl. four fae fy aNd fy jx, x, eX, — rt | M «—t, Lk, Fig 4,> 1.32 fa = Kz 0X2) 5 fia Ko By Newton's second law, fn + fyit feat fra = filt) Bx, dx Mae * BG + Keb ~X2)+ Kx = £() wend) Free body diagram of M,is shown in fig 3. The opposing forces are marked asf. fy fi. fs a, ho Me i fe Ke 0X2) 3 fla = Ky Xs) By Newton's second law, fn2 + fs + fe ths = b(t) a, 4, ge 2 79) * Kala — %1 + Kala — a) = elt) (2) “The free body diagram of M, is shown in fig 4. The opposing forces are markedas ff, and... ax. foo MG i hs Fis) 5 be= Kilts By Newton's second law, fs + fue + fig = 0 a a _ Maat + Ba Gp (M9 ~ Xa) + Kala ~ 2) = 0 _ 7” son) ‘Onrepiacing the displacements by velocity in the differential equations (1), (2) and (8) governing the mechanical syste eget, (,, @x_dv. dx . [te wa and x= Jat Me By, +k, =f (4) Ge By Kyat = Kee, valet =F) vs MyM Bylvy v9) +Ke (ve W)Bt+ Kells Vt =f) 6) dvy , M; <2 +Ba(v, V2) +Kaf(vs—vo)dt = 0 at IOLTAGE ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT ‘The given mechanical system has three nodes (masses), Hence the force-voltage analogous electrical cicuitwill have, Stree meshes. The force applied to mass, M, is represented by a voltage source in first mesh and the force applied to mass, M, ' represented by a voltage source in second mesh. The elements M,, B,, K, and K, are connected to firstnode. Henos they are represented by analogous elementin mesh- { forming a closed path. The elements M,, B,, K, and K, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented by analogous element in mesh-2 forming a closed path. The claments M,, K,and B, are connected to third node. Hence they are represented by analogous element in mesh-3 forming a closed path. The element K, is common between node-1 and 2 and so itis represented by analogous element as common element between mesh 1 and 2. The elements K, and B, are common between node-2 and 3 and so they are represented by analogous elements as common olemenis between mesh-2 and 3. The force-voltage electrical analogous circuit is shown in fig 5. The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. fre(0 voi, M,>L, B,->R, K,> 1G, £0 0,0) vi, M,> B,>R, K,>1C, vy iy ML, K,> 11,133 Fig 5 : Force-voltage electrical analogous circuit eo L —_—- ON 1 Ce Te ¢ 1 iL | OY Gea Fig 7. Fig 8 ‘The mesh basis equations using Kirchoff’s voltage law for the circuit shown in fig 5 are given below (Refer fig 6, 7, 8). di, 1 ig ug Rare Git SIM iat = ef) J) -8) dis ng fl bs Gt Ralls ie) += I -iy)at = 0 (9) ttis observed that the mesh equations (7), (8) and (9) are similar tothe differential equations (4), (5) and (6) goveming the mechanical system, _ - FORCE-CURRENT ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT The given mechanical system has three nodes (masses). Hence the foree-current analogous electrical circuit willhave three nodes. ‘The force applied to mass M, is represented as a current source connected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuit. The force applied to mass M, is represented as a current source connected to node-2 in analogous électrical circuit. The elements M,, B,, K, and K, are connected to first node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to nade-1 in analogous electrical circuit The elements M,, B,, K, and K, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elemants connected to nade-2 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements M,, B, and K, are connected to third node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-3 in analogous electrical circuit. The element K, is common between node-1 and2 and so itis represented by analogous element as common element between node-1 and 2 in analogous circuit, The elements B, and K, are common between node-2 and 3 and so they are represented by analogous elements as common elements between node-2 and 3. The forcs-current electrical analogous circuit isshownin fig 9. ‘The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. £010) yy, M,C, B, > UR, Ko 1, fi) VV, M,>C, 8,3 1R, Kom, Wy, M,C, KI,Ghapter 1 - Mathematical Models of ‘Control Systems 1A ‘The node basis equations using Kirchoff's current aw for the circuit shown in fig 9. are given below. (Referfig 10, 11,12). = L 8 wok Fig 9 : Force-current electrical analogous circuit. 1 —](v¥,—v2)dt y, a! ve Ue (eee ie <— five —vp)dt Fig 12: (10) 11) dvs 1 1 Og 7 Hvs~ vale 0 +12) itis observed that node basis equations (10), (11) and (12) are similar to the differential equations (4), (6) and (6) jpveming the mechanical system.1.35 Q5 EXAMPLE 1-10 ite te diferent equations govening ths ny on ystem shown inp, (MeL tle, fig 1.Draw force-voltage and force-current ek rue irchjts and verify by = —* ep + Kf writing mesh and node equations. TOO M, SOLUTION O I B, The given mechanical system conte ee. wedged tial 7 equations governing the mechanical crural Given encsed tion at Fig 1 these nodes. Lethe displacements of masses M,, Wand M;bex, x, and, respectively. * The corresponding velocities be v,,v,and v,, The free body diagram of M, Is shown in fig 2, The opposing forces are marked as fy Fa fafa Nf —>x a ee St fae Kes i i d d a fo =By=(Ks—-%2) ha =Bs—(X-X ; be = Ba grli=%2) # fy = Ba G(s %) u, i By Newton's second law, fay t f+ fa fo the = 0 —t1, d ‘ wee +3 pt Kee +B oe Se =X) Ba GOi—%9)=0 vet) Fig 2. “The free body diagram of M, is shown in fig 3. The opposing forces are marked aS fp, fyas fy fiay- PX ax, d -—>v, Ge fe Babe) — fos = Bin M(x, = fa eK ts fas = Bn 5X2 Xo haa = Kes(K2 — Xa) M, — By Newton's second law, fg + fad + fs + fezs =O ox, Me + wae d 62 -%)+Ba Ste H4)+KaQy— m9) 20) Fig 3. ‘The free body diagram of M, is shown in fig 4. The opposing forces are marked aS ffs: za» ANd fe. | ?™ Loy fs BS 5-%) 1 has = Kesbts-%) By Newton's second law, fs + hs +23 + fs =0 | aX _ de ~ Onreplacing the displacements by velocity in te differential equations (1), 2) and (8) governing the mechanical syste we get, My +B) Fo - 4) Bar Go 2) + Kagbig— Xa) 30 8) Fig 4. ( ax dv dx. ice. -=, =- dt aa aM va) WS By, Kyat Bale ~ Vp) + By(v;~ vg) = 0 Mp2 + Balve £44) + Boala =¥s) + Kava —vs)at =0 MS BW) Balls v9) Hag vat =0GiapieF I Mathematical Models of Control Systems > SPCE-VOLTAGE ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT The given mechanical systein has three nodes (massés). Hence the force-voltage analogous electrical circuitwill have memeshes. 136 The elements M,, K,, B., B, and B, are connected to first node. Hence they are represented by.analogous elements in =st-1 forming a closed path, The elements M., K,,, B,, and B, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented salogous elements in mesh-2 forming a closed path. The elements M,, K,,, 8, and B, are connected to third node. Hence =) 2'e represented by analogous elements in mesh-3 forming a closed path The elements K,, and B,, are common between node-2 and 3 and so they are represented by analogous element as Simon elements between mésh-2 and 3. The element B, is common between node-1 and 2 and soiitis represented by <22G0us element as comimon elementbetween mest-1 and 2. The element, is common between node-1 and 3and soitis erssented by analogous element between mesh-1 and 3. The force-voltage electrical analogous circuits shown in fig 5. ‘The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. vi, M,—L, K, S1C, B, +R, vi, Mol, Ky? 1/C,B, > Ry vy, Mol, BR, B,>Ry fw di, Roly Rolly ie) J Rp Oy TO | | i Fig 5 : Force-voltage electrical analogous circuit Fig 6. Ralls ~ hy) ny Rafle i) + a dz Fat Fig 7. | | | a Te. HE Ile-iadot Realy in) GY Sy * uly R, | Co Ry | wy Fig 8. The mesh basis equations using Kirchoff's voltage law for the Circuit shown in fig 5 are given below. (Refer fig 6, 7 u di 1 . 1 z + Ret ee Lit + Pali —in)+ Pelli) = 0 BB + Ral) + Mla) Palle 1) = 0 2 (7)437 CGaaitrol systems Enginooring di 7 Ladheri A+ itis observed that the mesh basis equations (7), (8) and (9) are similar to the differential equations (4), (5) and governing the mechanical system FORCE-CURRENT ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT The given mechanical system has three nodes (masses). Hence the force-current analogous electrical circuft wilh throe nodes. “The elements M,, K,,B,,.B, and B, are connected tofrstnode. Hence they are represented by analogous element elements vonnected to nede-1 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements M,, K,,,B,, and B, are connected to second.no Hence thay are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-2 in analogous electrical cit. elements M, K.,.B,, end B, are connected to third node. Hence they re represented by analogous elements 2s elem connected to node-3 in analogous electrical circu. ‘The elements K,, and B., are common between node-2 and 3 and so they are represented by analogous elemen common elements between nodé-2.and 3in electrical analogous circuit. The element B, is common between node-1 and2. soit is represented by analogous element as common element between node- 1 and 2 in electrical analogous circuit lament, js common between node-1 and and soitis represented by analogous elementas common element between n + and3 in electrical analogous circuit. The force-current electrical analogous circuitis shown in fig 9. “The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. vy Y M, > K, > tL, 8, > UR, Vv, > Vy M, > Ky UL B, + 1/R, ye Ny M, > G, B, > UR, B,, > UR, 4‘Ghapler T-Matbeinatical Models of Control Systems > 138 ‘The node basis equations using Kirchoff’s current law for the circuit shown in fig 9 are given below. (Refer fig 10, 11 p12). C Siege ivatt x ~waltgethws)=0 . n(10) iy 1 . CG Me Wt LL Ae volt give v) =0 4) it = Ra GE Oe wit ll wade Bote ms) 20 volt2) itis observed that the node basis equations (10), (11) and (12) are similarto the differential equations (4), (5) and (6) jpverning the mechanical system. EXAMPLE 1.11 ‘Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig 1. Draw the erce-voltage and force-current electrical analogous circuits and verify by writing mesh and node uations. SOLUTION “The given mechanical system has two nodes (masses). The differential equations governing pe mechanical system are given by force balance equations atthese nodes. Let the displacement. gmasses M, and M, be x, and x, respectively. The corresponding velocities be v, and v,, The free body diagram of M, is shown in fig 2. The opposing forces are marked asf, f,, and f,. de ~X2) 4:28, ” at ee OE : a= Ki = X2) By Newton's second law, fay + +f Ox, dexy— x0) “The free body diagram of M, is shown in fig 3. The opposing forces are marked asf. fa. + Ky(x,— x2) = 0 (1) ax, dx, d fa MP i he BE 5 = Brg) fe=Kx, fa Kia) By Newton's second law, fro fhe + fe + fy tha = F(t) 2 Xe » Fig 3. On replacing the displacements by velocity in the differential equations (1) and (2) goveming the mechanical system dx, a Ba Get Kana + By ea — x0) + Klee =) = AO meget, =O _ vandx= jvdt dt’ dt MSE Bim veel r—valst= 0 8) My S22 a Bvs + Kel vast + Bp) + Ka Ma - wt= A ®139 : CGintral Systems Engineering” FORCE-VOLIAGE ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT The given mechanical system has two nodes (masses). Hence the force voltage analogous electrical circuit will he twomeshes. The force applied to mass, M, is representedby a voltage source in second mesh. The elements i, K, and B, are connected to first node, Hence they are represented by analogous element in mest forming a closed path. The elements M,, K,, 8, B, and K, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented! analogous element in mesh 2 forming a closed path. ‘Theelements B, and K, are common between node 1 and 2 and so they are represented as common elements betwee mesh 1 and 2. The force-voltage electrical analogous circuitis shown in fig 4. The eloctrical analogous clements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. fe) v, > i Moo Ly, K, > 1c, B, > R, vy, > i Mook Ko Me, BOR nok ‘The mesh basis equations using Kirchoff's voltage law for the circuit shown in fig 4. are given below, (refer fig5 and eft) L Fig 4 : Force-voltage electrical analogous circuit. Fig 5. tis observed that the mesh basis equations (5) and (6) are similar to the differential equations (3) and (4) goveming th mechanical system. FORCE-CURRENT ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT ‘The given mechanical system has two nodes (masses). Hence the force-currentanalogous electrical circuit wil hay two nodes. The force applied to mass M, is represented as a current source connected to node-2 in analogous electrical circu The elements M,. K, and B, are connected to first node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements 2 elements connected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuft. The elements M,, K,, B,, B, and K, are connected to secon ‘hode. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuit‘Mathematical Models of Control Systems £40 The elements K, and B, is common to node-1 and 2 and so they are represented by analogous element as common elements between two nodes in analogous circuit. The force-current electrical analogous circuitis shown in fig 7. ‘The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. fi) vy, M,C, B, > 1R, Kom, v,>%, M,C, B,> UR, Ko 1, ‘The node basis equations using Kirchoff's current law for the circuitshown in fig.7, are given below, (Refer fig8 and 9). CML y,-v,)+7f.-v)at=0 soe (7) 4 uy . 1 vp CO, 2+ —y, Pat Ry 2 Itis observed thatthe node basis equations (7) and (8) are similar to the differential equations (3) and (4) governing the mechanical system, Jute» Live ude E five — wpa =i) res @) A jon-veat 4 Fig 8. 1.40 ELECTRICAL ANALOGOUS OF MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS The three basic elements moment of inertia, rotational dashpot and torsional spring that are used in modelling mechanical rotational systems are analogous to resistance, inductance and capacitance of electrical systems: The input torque in mechanical system is analogous to either voltage source or current source in electrical systems. The output angular velocity (first derivative of angular displacement) in mechanical rotational system is analogous to either current or voltage in an element in electrical system. Since the electrical systems has two types of inputs either voltage source or current source, there are two types of analogies: torque-voltage analogy and torque-current analogy. TORQUE-VOLTAGE ANALOGY The torque balance equations of mechanical rotational elements and their analogous electrical elements. in torque-voltage analogy are shown-in table-1.6. The table-1.7 shows the list of analogous quantities “in torque-voltage analogy.La Laat spsiemsingineering Mechanical rotational system Electrical system Input; Torque Input, : Voltage source Output ; Angular velocity Output : Current through the element B 7 hea * gay VARI . on i Ns ae Tepe I~ ae ye The following points serve as guidelines to obtain electrical analogous of mechanical rotational systems based on torque-voltage analogy. In electrical systems the elements in series will have same current, likewise in mechanical systems, the elements having same angular velocity are said to be in series. The elements having same angular velocity in mechanical system should have analogous same current in electrical analogous system. Each node (mécting point of elements) in the mechanical system corresponds to a closed loop in electrical system. The moment of inertia of mass is considered as a node. The number of meshes in ciectrical analogous is same as that of the number of nodes (moment of inertia of mass ) in mechanical system. Hence the number of mesh currents and system equations will be same as that of the number of angular velocities of nodes (moment of inertia of mass) in mechanical system. The mechanical driving sources (Torque) and passive elements connected to the node (moment of inertia of mass) in mechanical system should be represented by analogous element in 3 closed loop in analogous electrical system. \ The element connected between two nodes (moment of inertia) in mechanical system is represented as a common element between two meshes in electrical analogous system.eee I Hiatbomalica Models of Control Systems > 1a TABLE-L7 : Analogous Quantities in ‘Torque-Voltage Analogy Item Mechanical rotational system Electrical system (mesh basis system) Independent variable Torque, T Voltage, 0, v Gnput) Dependent variable | Angular Velocity, «0 Current, i (output) Angular displacement, @ Charge, q Dissipative element Rotational coefficient Resistance, R. of dashpot, B Storage element Moment of inertia, J Inductance, L Stiffness of spring, K Inverse of capacitance, 1/C Physical law ‘Newton's second law Kirchoff’s voltage law IT=0 iv=0 Changing the level of Gear Transformer |. independent variable Tom ea _N | my a TORQUE-CURRENT ANALOGY The torque balance equations of mechanical elements and their analogous electrical clements in sorque-current analogy are shown in table-1.8. The table-1.9 shows the list of analogous quantities in corque-current analogy. The following points serve as guidelines to obtain electrical analogous of mechanical rotational systems based on Torque-current analogy. 1. In electrical systems the elements in parallel will have same voltage, likewise in mechanical systems, the elements having same torque are said to be in parallel. The elements having same angular velocity in mechanical system should have analogous same voltage in electrical analogous system. Each node (meeting point of elements) in the mechanical system corresponds to a node in electrical system. The moment of inertia of mass is considered as a node. ‘The number of nodes in electrical analogous is same as that of the humber of nodes (moment of inertia of mass) in mechanical system. Hence the number of node voltages and system equations will be same as that of the number of angular velocities of nodes (moment of inertia of mass) in mechanical system. The mechanical driving sources (Torque) and passive elements connected to the node in mechanical system should be represented by analogous element connected to a node in analogous electrical system. The element connected between two nodes (moment of inertia of mass) in mechanical system is represented as a common element between two nodes in electrical analogous system.LB Ciara SystemisTngincering ‘TABLE-L8 : Analogous Elements in Torque-Current Analogy Mechanical rotational system Electrical system Input : Torque Output : Angular velocity Input : Current source Output : Voltage across the element K pT ok T=K0=Kjodt fodt 6 \ a 0 do dt Analogous Quantities in Torque-Current Analogy Ttem Mechanical rotational system Electrical system (node basis system) Independent variable Torque, T Current, i (input) Dependent variable Angular Velocity, o Voltage, v (output) Angular displacement, ® Flux, Dissipative clement Rotational frictional coefficient of dashpot, B Conductance, G = 1/R Storage element Moment of inertia, J Capacitance, C Stiffness of spring, K Inverse of inductance, VL | Physical law Newton's second law ” Kirchoff ’s current law ET=0 di-0 Changing the level of Gear Transformer independent variable 1 |(Githabler FMatbematical Models of Conirol Systems ~) 14 XAMPLE 1.12 g Write the differential equations governing the mechanical otational system & ma EB shown in fig 1. Draw the torque-voltage and torque-current electrical analogous 7 g/L“ a cuits and verify by writing mesh and node equations. i > 7 TTT TITTTOT SOLUTION B, Fig. The given mechanical rotational system has two nodes (moment of inertia ofmasses). The differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system are given by torque balance equations at these nodes. Let the angular displacements of J, and J, be @, and 0, respectively. The corresponding angular velocities be ,ando, “The fee body diagram of Ji shown n fg 2. The opposing torques are marked as Typ Ted Ty dO, 8, Tah ET GE Ty KO.) \ FEY} }— ew Ll kK By Newton's second law, T,,+T,,*T=T T @, Tr Ta Ta Fig 2, 0, 0, —_ eget Bg TO 82) T (1) _ The free body diagram of J, is shown in fig 3. The opposing torques are marked as TT, T,,andT,,. oe, oe Type i ane Ge TL \ Ta=Ke ¢ Tan Ke) Hee By Newton's second law, T+ Tp +T p+ Ty, a, 2 Fig 3. Sir + Be G2 + Ka) + Ki(02 - 0) =9 ‘On replacing the angular displacements by angular velocity inthe differential equations (1) and (2) ‘governing the mechenical rotational system we get, (,. da _da_ 0 e, 22, Bie and 0=Joat| ae dt’ at J J BiB. +KJ(o;-o,)dt=T 3) doy 4 Lege Bata Kalenaat eK [@,-0,)dt=0 (4) TORQUE-VOLTAGE ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT ‘The given mechanical system has two nodes (J, and J.). Hence the torque-voltage analogous electrical circuitwill have two meshes. The torque applied to J, is represented by @ voltage source in first mesh. The elements J,, B, and K, are connected first node. Hence they are represented by analogous element in mesh-1 forming @ closed path. The clements J, B,,K, and K, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements in mesh-2 forming a closed path, ‘The element K, is common between node-1 and 2 and so itis represented by analogous element as common element between two meshes. The torque-voltage electrical analogous circuit is shown in fig 4, The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical rotational system are given below. T set) jo ky BR, kK, = 1c, o, i, beh 9 BOR K, > 1, 2, 1,Figs. Fig 6. ‘The mesh basis equations using Kirchoff's voltage law for the circuit shown in fig 4 are given below (Refer fig 5 and 6). ti, ae tay ug Rae STi (5) di, Tee ; La Git Ral + Jiatt+ fa inat=0 wee(8) itis observed that the mesh basis equations (5) and (6) are similar to the differential equations (3) and (4) goveming the mechanicalsystern. TORQUE-CURRENT ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT ‘The given mechanical system has two nodes (J, and J,). Hence the torque-current analogous electrical citcuitwill have two nodes. The torque applied to J, is represented asa current source connected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements J, B, and K, are connected to firstnode. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-t in analogous electrical circuit. The elements J., B,, K, and K, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-2 in analogous electrical circuit The element K, is common between node-1 and 2. So itis represented by analogous element es common element between node-1 and 2. ‘The torque-current electrical analogous circuitis shown in fig 7. vs Lu ve Fig 7: Torque-current elecirical analogous circuit.Ghapiert Mathematical Models of Control Systems. 16 Fig 8. Fig 9. The electrical analogous elements forthe elements of mechanical rotational system are given below. Ti) BUR, 0,>y, 4,36, Kou, BUR, a, >%, 4,56, Kou, ‘The node basis equations using Kirchoff's current aw for the circuit shown in fig 7 are given below (Refer fig 8 and 9). OG ys Lit vadt itp (7) 1 1 eve 7 lvate Tle -v,)Jdt=0 (8) itis observed that the mesh basis equations (5) and (6) are similar to the differential equations (3) and (4) governing the mechanical system, EXAMPLE 1.13 Ky . . a od 7 K, White the differential equations governing the mechanical _\ | | a: HH} B, SL rotational system shown in fig. Draw the torque-voitage and Yi ‘+i. i ye ‘torque-current electrical analogous circuits and verify by writing * By mesh and node equations. Fig !. SOLUTION ‘The given mechanical rotational system has three nodes (moment of inertia of masses). The differential equations, i, Jb, B, > R, K, > 110, oy > i, bok B, > R, K, > 1c, o, > i Jy Ly i L, L L at Le SOS pe ce, eo =o, S ef mae R, a e(t) GY OY Ty | GY | : Rill, -i2) Sa, -j Fig 5 Torque-voltage electrical analogous circuit Fig 6.(Gapter 1 Mathematical Models of Control Systems Ralie—iS R Rv Rilla-i) - ~ GY Fig 7. ‘The mesh basis equations using Kirchott’s voltage law for the circuit shown in fig 5 are given below (Referfig 6, 7 2nd 8). Le Rid +L fll itt = et ol) Puli Pallet + fli =0 ) 1 Ralls h)+ Z finst=0 (9) Itis observed that the mesh basis equations (7), (8) and (9) are similar to the differential equations (4), (5) and (6) 2everning the mechanical system. RQUE-CURRENT ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT ‘The given mechanical system has three nodes (J,,J,and J,). Hence the torque-currentanalogous electrical circuit will save three nodes. The torque applied to J, is represented as a current source connected to node-1 in analogous electrical orcuit ‘The elements K,, J, and B, are connected to first node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements aselements onnected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements J, B., B and K, are connected to second node. Hence they ze represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-2 in analogous electrical circuit The elements J, B,, sod K, are connected to third node. Hence they aré represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-3 in snalogous electrical circuit. ‘The elements K, and B, are common between node-1 and 2.and so they are represented by analogous element as Gammon elements between node-1 and 2. The element B, is common between node-2 and 3 and so itis represented as common #ement between node-2 and 3in analogous circuit. The torque-current electrical analogous circuits shown in fig 9. Wi-v2) og, aoe LJe—vant Ry Hie) Fe G c Bl Fig 9: Torque-current electrical analogous circuit.1.49 UR, K > 1, &:> Vy 49 8, > UR, K > 1”, o> vy, > G The node basis equations using Kirchoff’s current law for the circuit shown in fig 9 are given below (Refer fig 10, 1 and 12) ay 4 ty . Ora Ved flv) (10) dv, 1 1 1 Co Get Ma Wa vad Je at =0 eel 1) oN os Lvs) “ 0 (12) Itis observed that the node basis equations (10), (11) and (12) are similar to the differential equations (4), (5) and (6 governing the mechanical system. 1.11. BLOCK DIAGRAMS ‘A control system may consist of a number of components. In control engineering to show thi functions. performed by each component, we commonly use a diagram called the block diagram. A bloc diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component and o the flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the intertelationships that exist among the various components The elements of a block diagram are block, branch point and summing point. BLOCK Ina block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional blocks. Th functional block ot simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input signal to th block that produces the output. The transfer functions of the components are usually entered in th corresponding blocks, which are connected by arrows to indicate the direction of the flow of signals Figure 1.25 shows the block diagram of functional block. The arrowhead pointing towards the block indicates the Input, A_[ Transfer | Output, B input, and the arrowhead leading away from the block represents | ee BoAGO the output. Such arrows are referred to as signals. The output signal from the block is given by the product of input signal Fig 1.25 : Functional block. and transfer function in the block.Chapter 1 Mathematical Models of Control Systems 1.50 SUMMING POINT Summing points are used to add two or more signals in the A AB system. Referring to figure 1.26, a circle with a cross is the symbol that adicates a summing operation. i The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether the signal s to.be added or subtracted. It is important that the quantities being added or subtracted have the same dimensions and the same units. Fig 1.26 : Summing point. BRANCH POINT Branch point 5 A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block AP OLE Rake zoes concurrently to other blocks or summing points. A CONSTRUCTING BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR CONTROL SYSTEMS Fig 1.27: Branch point: A control system can be represented diagramatically by block diagram. The differential equations joverning the system are used to construct the block diagram. By taking Laplace transform the differential guations are converted to algebraic equations. The equations will have variables and constants. From the sorking knowledge of the system the input and output variables are identified and the block diagram for ich equation can be drawn: Each equation gives one section of biock diagram. The output of one section ill be input for another section: The various sections are interconnected to obtain the overall block Segram of the system. (AMPLE 4 Construct the block diagram of armature controlled demotor. SOLUTION ‘The differential equations governing the armature controlled dcmotorare (refer section 1.7), Vy=ieRe the f+0, ofl) T=Ki, sl) do as By Tad Gt Bo oe3) e =K,o Ad) i on 8 _ oes 8) Ontaking Laplace transform of equation (1) we get, Vols)=1(S) Rotts StF ES) (6) In equation (6), V,(s) and E,(s) are inputs and I,(s) is the output. Hence the V(sFEs) 2=eation (6) is rearranged and the block diagram for this equation is shown in fig 1. Vas) Va(6)~E,(8) = 1(6) [Re +5 La] L106) =e [MoE] “— MO) = Tory Mal)= Fig 1. On taking Laplace transform of equation (2) we get, WO) re? T(s)= KL (6) Fig 2 (7), 1,(s) is the input and T(s) is the output. The block diagram for this equation is shown in fig 2.Conttal En 151 On taking Laplace transform of equation (3) we get. we8) T(e)=Js o(s)+B ais) Inequation (8), T(s) is the input and a(s) is the output. Hence the equation (8) is rearranged and the block diagram o(s) bs this equation is shown in fig (3). Tis) = (Js +B) o(s) 1 ea _ On taking Laplace transform of equation (4) we get, (9) -.0(8)= E(S)=K ols) Inequation (9), o(s) is the input and E,(s) is the output. The block diagram for this equation is shown in fig 4. ‘On taking Laplace transform of equation (5) we get, o(s) #8 4(s) (10) {In equation (10), c9(8) isthe input and 6(s) is the output. Hence equation (10) is rearranged and the block diagram {ort “pias Fig 5. equation is shown in fig 5. 1 &s) = zals) . : “The overall block diagram of armature controlled demmotoris obtained by connecting the various sections shown in fig fig 5. The overall block diagram is showm in fig 6. Vss}-EXs) vss) TMs) 18) | 108) Os) Eds) Fig 6 : Block diagram of armature controlled de motor. EXAMPLE 1.15 Construct the block diagram of field controlled de motor. SOLUTION The differential equations governing the field controlled de motor are (refer section 1.8), ‘On taking Laplace transform of equation (1) we get, V4(s) = Ry W(s) +L 8 (8)452 ln equation (4), V,(s) is the input and |,(s) is the output. Hence the equation (4) is rearranged and the block diagram for =quation is shown in fig 1 v{s) 7 us) is) Jt | V(s)=44s) [P,+8t)] Rosh, ohe)= = vio) Fig L. (On taking Laplace transform of equation (2) we get, 1 Tis) = Ky Is) (8) “2 ge) In equation (5), |,(s) is the input and T(s) is the output. The block diagram for this Fig 2, pssonis shown in fig 2. Ontaking Laplace transform of equation (3) we get, T(s)=Js*0(s) + Bs0() ) of as) In equation (6), T(s) is input and 8(6)/s the output. Hence equation (6) is rearranged Js? + Bs) & Se block diagram for this equation is shown in fig 3. Fig 3 Tis) = (Js? + Bs) @(s) The overall block diagram of field controlled de motor is obtained by connecting the various section shown in fig 1 to The overall block diagram is shown in fig 4. 1_| Ms) Ts) 7 vis) > {s) Ry+sl; aK Js? Bs > 8(s) Fig 4 : Block diagram of field controlled de motor. K DIAGRAM REDUCTION The block diagram can be reduced to find the overall transfer function of the system. The following rules can be used =ieck diagram reduction . The rules are framed such thet any modification made on the diagram does not alter the input-output zor RULES OF BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA. Rule-1 : Combining the blocks in cascade AG, AGG, AG BS, a ASS > A A_yany 45° Combining Parallel blocks (or combining feed forward paths) AG, Gy, ie AG,+AG,= A(G,+G, > a yao (Ges) Ay Gl AG +G,) Rule-3 = Moving the branch point ahead of the block A ree AG A {] AG. A AG,153. Rule-4 : Moving the branch point before the block AG A AG Aa} ase : Moving the summing point ahead of the block 8 By mi86 \ G2 A AIB a (AXB)IG | : gh—> A AG AG + BG = (A+B)G Sool BS gy AO 4 Rule-6 : Moving the summing point before the block B BIG B HUG] > TT 4.8 = AGHB G AGHB A AG A 6 Rule-7 : Interchanging summing point B B Achy AtB AtB=C = A AC Bs ACABEAIE-C c c Rule-$ ; Splitting summing points 8 8 —] A & AtB-C = A ASB AtB-C ¢ | c Rule-9: Combining summing points B B & ASBC A & AB ee 3 A 4 ¢ ¢ J - Rule-10 : Elimination of (negative) feedback loop (R-CH) (R-CH)G R Ss R G ¢ c> —— -—> cH oe i+GH C=R-CHG 3 C=RG-CHG = C+CHG=RG Proof: Cc GS SCUFHG=RG > FT Gy ~ Rules11 : Elimination of (positive) feedback loop } R ah c(Models istems 154 EXAMPLE 1.16 Reduce the block diagram shown in fig and find C/R. 'G,+—_——, 2 fz] ©) + x O Yo SOLUTION Step 1: Move the branch point after the block. Step 2:Eliminate the feedback path and combining blocks in cascade. GH) G, 1+GH &)-[ G \(e=) GG, +Gy qi ‘The overall transter function of the system, c= ecGoniral Spstems Engineering | Step 1: Moving the branch point before the block 155 EXAMPLE 1.17 Using block diagram reduction technique find closed loop transfer function of the system whose block diagrams shor infig 1 , aa Fi Fig I. SOLUTION RChapter i Mathematical Models of Control Systems > 1.56 Step 5:Eliminating the feedback path and combining blocks in cascade c G 1+GHG2 - GGG, +6.) GiG,G, +6,G, 1 6G, = 14+ GH, = GGG, +G,G,_ 7 GGG) hy > TECH +GGH, TGR, 1+GGH, +G,G,H, + GH GGH, G 1+GGH, Step 7:Fliminating the feedback path —— R GE,6,166, | 1+ G,GH,+G.G.H2 + GH, ___ GG.G,+G,G, C__TGGH=GGH GH _ G,G,G,+6,G, R 4,__ 6S.6s+G6. TG GH, +G,GH, +G,H, +GG,G, +66, TG GH, +G.G,H, + GH; RESULT The overall transfer function is given by, cL GiG,G3+G,Gg R_1+G,G;H, + G.G,H, + GH, +G,G,G, + GG, AMPLE 1.18 Detesmine the overall transfer function at forthe system shown in fig 1157 SOLUTION ‘Step 1: Maving the branch point before the block (S) seis) ‘Siep 3 : Eliminating the feedback path ro Ris) yes) ‘Step 5: Combining the blocks in cascade 158 ‘Step 6 : Eliminating the feedback path RS) GGG, cs) Ty GxG,H, + GzGoHe ‘Step 7: Combining the blocks in cascade 15G,G,Hj+G: . GGG. x 15G,GH,+ 6,64, 7 G, cis) GGG. GLH, CELy ols) GG,G.G, R®) 1+ G,G,H,+ G,GH, +6,G,G,G, SULT The overall transfer function of the system is given by, Ks) _ GiG,G,G, RS) 1+ G,G,H, + G,GH, GGG. =XAMPLE 1.19 Forthe system represented by the block diagram shouim in fig 1. Evaluate the closed loop transfer function when the =cutRis (i) atstation-t (i at station-t { Station-Il 8 Station-| Si SOLUTION @ Consider the input Riis at station-| and so the inputat station-Hlis made zero. Lethe output be Cs. Since there isno inputat statior-Il that summing point can be removed and resulting block diagramis shown in fig 2