Evolution of Chinese Painting

Chinese painting is a traditional form of painting of the Han Nationality, it is an art that is
done with brushes dipped in water, ink or pigments and painted on silk or paper. Chinese
painting can be classified into three categories: figure painting, landscape painting and
flower-and-bird painting. Chinese painting has a long history, from the Warring States Period
(BC 475-221) to the Qing Dynasty (1840-1842), before the Opium War, it has gone through
about 2000 years of development, and not surprisingly, within its extensive years of
development and evolution, it has undergone many changes. In terms of content and artistic
creation, Chinese painting always carries and reflects the artists’ ideology and their
understanding of nature, society, politics, philosophy, religion, morality and literature.
Therefore, in this essay, I am going to discuss how does drawing style evolve in Chinese
painting and how do these evolutions relate to the social context.

The earliest extant artwork in China can be traced back to the primitive society, or even the
prehistoric times when arts were created with bare hands or simple tools, such as sticks or
charcoals. However, to be precise, “Chinese painting” referred here would be scroll painting,
album painting or fan painting, which ink and water were used. Therefore, the earliest silk
painting that was discovered is the Silk Painting with a Lady, Phoenix and Dragon (Longfeng
Shinv Tu 龙凤仕女图) (Figure 1). It was excavated from a Chu Tomb on the Chenjia Hill
and it dates back to the late years in the Warring States Period. This silk painting is 31.2
cm long and 23.2 cm wide, painted on a dark brown woven silk with black ink and white
powder, most have fallen off. At the bottom of the painting features a side view of a
woman with folded hands, standing in a praying posture. This may infer her to be the
image of the tomb occupant1. Her long hair was combed up in a chignon and she is
dressed in a long, moire gown with Chinese typical loose-sleeves. The woman is girdled
with a wide white sash, which slenderises her waist. Her long gown shuffles to the
ground and the corners of her skirt are turned up. Above the lady's head is a phoenix
bird, occupying half of the painting, in a gesture that is about to soar into the sky. With its
head up and its long tail bending forward, the bird’s body forms a beautiful ring shape.
To the left of the phoenix, there is a coiling horned dragon spiralling up with its claws
extended. In the Chinese culture, dragons and phoenixes are animals with “superstitious
power”, they represent the Chinese “yin” and “yang” respectively and serves as
“auspicious symbols”2. This painting was a funeral flag, which was believed by the
ancients that it had the power to usher the soul of the deceased 3 and the symbols of
dragon and phoenix would lead the lady in the painting to the Land of Immortality. This
painting is not a single case, another painting, A Figure Riding the Dragon (Renwu
yulong tu 人物御龙图) discovered in another Chu tomb is regarded as a companion
piece to the Silk Painting with a Lady, Phoenix and Dragon. Both drawings are burial
1
“Silk painting with female figure, dragon and phoenix patterns”, Human Museum, accessed 16 Nov,
2020,
http://www.hnmuseum.com/en/content/silk-painting-female-figure-dragon-and-phoenix-patterns
2
Fei Hong Liu, “Lords of the Chinese world: the dragon and phoenix,” chinaculture, 2014,
http://en.chinaculture.org/chineseway/2014-07/31/content_553822.htm.
3
Beijing China, “Silk Painting Featuring Figure, Dragon and Phoenix - Unknown - Google Arts &
Culture,” Google (Google, 0AD), https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/silk-painting-featuring-figure-
dragon-and-phoenix-unknown/HwG6Zd5DLqw31Q.
items for noble people. This is because silk was a valuable material at that time, and
only artisans of the imperial courts had the privilege to paint on silk 4. Paintings on silk
were thought as the highest and purest form of art and therefore were mainly used to
depict religious and mythological scenes.

In terms of technique, the brush thread is jerky and varies in thickness, figures and
animals were depicted in simple outlines, reflecting the characteristics of early Chinese
painting. Chinese painting at that time adopted little technique, however, although
painting skill was not mature enough, ancient Chinese painters were able to use simple
and dynamic lines, to present a vivid and lifelike scene. The composition of the whole
painting is balanced and harmonious, it can be seen that Chinese artists at that time had
already developed a relatively mature aesthetics and method of expression.

4
Amanda Mailer and Shengfei Zhu, “Hand Designed Silk Embroidery Art with Over 2,500 Years of
History,” Art of Silk Blog ~ Chinese Silk Painting: Its History and Spread to the West, 2013,
https://www.artofsilk.com/blogs/news/8245039-chinese-silk-painting-its-history-and-spread-to-the-
west.
 Figure 1. The Silk Painting with a Lady, Phoenix and Dragon 5
5
The Silk Painting with a Lady, Phoenix and Dragon https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA
%E7%89%A9%E9%BE%99%E5%87%A4%E5%B8%9B%E7%94%BB#/media/
File:Silk_Painting_of_a_Lady,_Phoenix_and_Dragon.jpg
Wei Jin Southern and Northern Dynasties (220-589) is the period when scroll painting
originated, Chinese painting in the true sense appeared, figure painting was the main
creative theme in that period. The Wei Jin Southern and Northern Dynasties, was a period of
more than 300 years in Chinese history. It was a period with rapid changes of dynasties and
coexistence of multiple regimes, the north-south confrontation lasted for quite a long time.
However, although it was an age of wars and political unrest, arts and culture flourished6.
The constantly converging and diverging forces and territories ushered in an era of great
cultural and artistic inclusiveness. It was a time of great spiritual freedom and liberation. The
attention of painting shifted from praising people’s inner virtue to depiction of people's
demeanour and appearance7.

In terms of religion, the long-entrenched Confucianism was replaced by Buddhism. This was
a result of the invasion of the barbarian tribes into Northern China. To legitimize their control
over the Chinese, the barbarians adopted the Buddhist concept of kingship and “equated
their earthly power with their spiritual authority”. At the same time, there was a thirst for a
real religion among the nobility to fill in metaphysical gap that the Confucianism was unable
to bestow8.

This breakdown of Confucian system resulted in an increased emphasis on Buddhist themes

and theory in paintings. The scope of the subject of painting has been expanded. In addition
to the content of serving religion and Buddhism, there are also paintings of popular folk
stories and realistic life style paintings9. Gu Kaizhi (顾恺之, ca. 344-406) was the most
representative painter at that time. In his essays about painting theory, On Painting (论画),
he wrote that “The spirit of figure painting is all in the eyes”10. According to Gu Kaizhi's theory
of "Vivid portrayal", he believed that paintings should focus on the appearance and
temperament of the characters. To portray character’s facial expression and their gestures
was much more important than the proportion and perspective of the painting. Hisdrawing
theory conformed to the Buddhist concept of “spirit is rooted in and manifested through
form".

One of his most famous works, Admonitions of the Court Instructress (女史箴) (Figure 2),
(which survives in a Tang dynasty copy in the British Museum) embodies his ideas of
painting. It illustrates a political parody that was written by Zhang Hua (张华, ca.232-300)11. It
was written to suggest young ladies in the emperor's harem to respect feminine virtues and
at the same time satire the excessive behaviour of an empress. The handscroll has nine
scenes and it was painted in a complex, horizontal arrangement12. The figures in the painting
are slender and fairylike, lines are fine and flow rhythmically. This painting is a good

6
Bamber Gascoigne, Dynasties of China (London, England: Folio Society, 2014).
7
张丹.《女史箴图》：从教化到审美的转型[D].扬州大学：美术学.2009
8
Ulrich Theobald, “Chinese History - Religions in the Three Kingdoms and the Jin Periods,” Religions
in the Three Kingdoms and the Jin Periods (www.chinaknowledge.de), 0AD,
http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-religion.html.
9
“Chinese Figure Painting,” China Online Museum, July 19, 2015,
https://www.comuseum.com/painting/figure-painting/.
10
“Gu Kaizhi,” China Online Museum, January 29, 2015,
https://www.comuseum.com/painting/masters/gu-kaizhi/.
11
“Museum of the World: Admonitions Scroll,” Google (Google, 0AD),
https://britishmuseum.withgoogle.com/object/admonitions-scroll.
12
Ibid.
reflection of the social context. Due to the introduction of complicated Buddha paintings,
Chinese paintings were no longer satisfied with the simple and plain drawing style of the
Warring States Dynasty, painting at that time began to become delicate and exquisite. In
terms of the painting throry, Gu Kaizhi’s "Vivid portrayal" theory became the guiding ideology
in this period. The creation of female-themed paintings no longer only focused on the theme
of exhortation, but started to explore the character's personality, appearance, charm and
other painting languages that show the beauty of the characters. The painting Admonitions
of the Court Instructress not only depicted the female images in Gu’s eyes, but also reflected
the life states of women at that time. It can be seen that in Wei Jin Southern and Northern
Dynasties, figure painting had already developed to a very high level. However, another
significant category of Chinese painting, the landscape painting had yet to emerge. Although
Gu had depicted quite an number of mountains and rivers in his another painting, the Picture
of The Ode of the River Goddess (洛神赋图), they were only served as the background of
the narrative painting. No artists had started to include landscape as the main subject of their
painting.

Figure 2. Admonitions of the Court Instructress

Only by the late Sui Tang Dynasty (618-907), landscape painting had evolved into an
independent genre and reached its apogee in the Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD). Chinese
landscape painting was regarded as an embodiment of the “universal longing of cultivated
men to escape their quotidian world to commune with nature. Before early Tang Dynasty,
landscape painting was mainly green. Zhan Ziqian (展子虔)’s Spring Excursion (游春图)
(Figure 3) is a representative landscape painting in that period. Zhan Ziqian, Li Sixun, and
the latter’s son Li Zhaodao developed a style of landscape painting known as blue-and-
green landscapes, which used bright blue, green and red pigments to produce a richly
coloured effect. This blue-and-green painting style readily appealed to the Tang court’s taste
for international exotica, religious fantasy, and boldly decorative art and therefore became
the mainstream landscape painting style at that time13.
13
Michael Sullivan, “Five Dynasties (907–960) and Ten Kingdoms (902–978),” Encyclopædia
Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 0AD),
 Figure 3. Spring Excursion14

When it comes to the Song Dynasty after the Tang Dynasty, ink landscape painting rose
rapidly and occupied a dominant position in the Chinese painting field15. The development of
Chinese landscape painting had reached an unprecedented level. It had developed into
several branches, and the forms and methods of artistic expression were also more diverse.
The subject matter of landscape paintings in the Song Dynasty gradually expanded. It not
only explored the natural mystery of mountains and rivers, but also reflected the social life at
that time. Creative themes of landscape painting included traveling, mountain dwelling,
visiting and fishing and many other activities16. During this period, with increased attention on
real life, religious painting began to withdraw from the main position in Chinese painting.
Chinese landscape painting in the Northern Song and the Southern Song Dynasties have
their own characteristics. Landscape paintings in the Northern Song usually depicted a
panoramic view of rivers and mountains, while landscape in the Southern Song was often
painted on a small piece of fan and only occupied a corner of the painting17. Compared to
the flamboyant and exquisite landscape painting in the Tang Dynasty, landscape painting in
the Song Dynasty was plainer. In terms of drawing technique, more subtle expression
methods appeared. Fan Kuan’s Travellers among Mountains and Streams (溪山行旅图) was
one of the representative works at that time. The immeasurable distances were conveyed
with blurred outlines, mountain contours disappearing into the mist through Chinese “Liubai”
(leaving blank space) technique, and impressionistic expression of natural phenomena18.
Majestic is the first impression of this painting, huge peaks and walls almost occupied the

https://www.britannica.com/art/Chinese-painting/Five-Dynasties-907-960-and-Ten-Kingdoms-902-
978.
14
Ziqian Zhan, “Stroll About InSpring.jpg,” Stroll About InSpring.jpg, 0AD,
https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B1%95%E5%AD%90%E8%99%94#/media/File:Stroll_About_InSp
ring.jpg.
15
“Landscape Painting,” Landscape Painting | Chinese Art Gallery | China Online Museum, 0AD,
http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/painting-landscape-backup.php.
16
Fengtong Li, “中国山水画的演变历程,” 2015,
http://www.365azw.com/share/s-187305.
17
Ibid.
18
“Landscape Painting,” Landscape Painting | Chinese Art Gallery | China Online Museum, 0AD,
http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/painting-landscape-backup.php.
whole painting. The top of the mountain is covered with thick trees, and waterfalls descend
directly from the mountainside. The bottom of the painting appeared to be the foreground of
the painting, with boulders and stones piling at the mountain foot. This composition makes
the whole work complex and intricate. Peasants and pack mules emerged at the bottom right
corner, the towering cliff at the background dwarfs them to insignificance19. The Song
Dynasty landscape paintings emphasized nature as the teacher, most of which are realistic
style. Artists not only depicted the scenery, but also emphasised the artistic conception in
the painting. Taoism emphasised Yin and Yang, while Neo-Confucianism in the Song
Dynasty paid attention to “Tian Ren He Yi”, meaning the unity of nature and man, and
pursued the moral principles hidden between society and nature20.

19
Michael Sullivan, “Five Dynasties (907–960) and Ten Kingdoms (902–978),” Encyclopædia
Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 0AD),
https://www.britannica.com/art/Chinese-painting/Five-Dynasties-907-960-and-Ten-Kingdoms-902-
978.
7
20
Patricia Buckley Ebrey, The Cambridge Illustrated History of China (Cambridge, England:
Cambridge University Press, 2010), 162.
 Figure 4. Travellers among Mountains and Streams21

21
Kuan Fan, “Wikimedia Commons,” Wikimedia Commons, 0AD,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fan_Kuan_-_Travelers_Among_Mountains_and_Streams_-
_Google_Art_Project.jpg.
The history of Chinese painting is extensive and it is still continuing. This essay only
discussed the representative works from the Warring States period to the Song Dynasty
when Chinese painting developed to its peak. Artists attention shifted from figure painting to
landscape painting and purpose of paintings shifted from religious purpose to pure
appreciation and admiration of the nature. In terms of techniques and skills, Chinese painting
are becoming more and more mature, the ways of expression and artistic styles are more
diverse, and the theme and subjects depicted are wider. However, even with all these
changes, Chinese painting is always reflecting Chinese people’s ideology, from the “yin
yang” symbolised by the dragon and phoenix, to pursuing the unity of nature and man.
Chinese people use Chinese painting as their platform to convey and express their wishes
and ideals.
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