Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018

Why Has the Medium-Speed

Diesel Become Competitive
in Marine Propulsion?

Wolfgang Hempel
Maschinenfabrik Augsburg - Nürnberg AG

Combined Fuels & Lubricants,

Powerplant and Transportation Meetings 670950
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Oct.30-Nov. 3,1967
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018
Why Has the Medium-Speed
Diesel Become Competitive
WHEN TECHNICAL PRODUCTS are developed it is always
necessary to decide which solution is the "best" for a given
application. For the technician the best solution, in the
case of a prime mover, for example, may be the one that
gives the most favorable thermal efficiency. For the seller
the best solution is the one that offers the lowest sale price.
Both points of view are one-sided.
For the subject under discussion, a marine propulsion
plant, the best solution is without doubt the one that gives
the user, the shipowner, the lowest direct costs and the greatest
profit. The engine manufacturer must adapt himself to this
economic demand. Such demands have naturally under-
gone great changes during the course of time. For example,
the " man with the oil can" was not always counted as a
decisive cost factor. Today, both the "man" and the con-
tents of the "oil can," which are very expensive for the
high-performance engine, are part of the cost package.
Just like the various individual costs, the weight of the
propulsion plants enters the total economics framework of trans-
port vessels. The same output at a lower weight results in
a higher carrying capacity, which means lower direct costs
and a greater profit. This factor can be so important for
fast vessels that it can exceed by far the influence of fuel
consumption. The example of aeronautic engines comes
to mind immediately, for very fast ships also have a weight
ABSTRACT
Since 1965, the market for propulsion plants for large
merchant vessels has shown an increasing trend towards me-
dium-speed geared plants. An economic analysis deter-
mines the reasons why the medium-speed engine can com-
pete with the slow-running, direct-propulsion, two-stroke
engine. The various influences on the types of cost are
670950
in Marine Propulsion?
Wolfgang Hempel
Maschinenfabrik Augsburg - Nürnberg AG
problem. That is, in ships now being used more and more
for container service, a range is reached where the weight
of the propulsion plant has a direct effect on the carrying
capacity.
PRESENT DEVELOPMENTS
Of the various types of propulsion plants available for
large, ocean-going ships (steam turbine; slow two-stroke
diesel engine; medium speed diesel engine; gas turbine;
and atomic propulsion) the medium speed diesel engine is at
present advancing particularly rapidly.
By "medium speed diesel" is meant the present-day
four-stroke diesel with speeds of 400-500 rpm and a cylinder
output of about 500 hp. The MAN RV-VV 40/54 engine ex-
emplifies such an engine. Fig. 1 shows the 16-cyl, 8650 hp
version of this engine being installed in a ship. Similar en-
gines are today also being offered by a great number of
engine manufacturers.
It has been demonstrated in practice that such engines
can be operated on the same heavy oils as the slow two-
stroke engine without any loss in reliability. Therefore this
type of marine propulsion has become a great rival for direct
propulsion with slow two-stroke engines.
Engine plants of this type were first used in ferries and
examined and the cost parameter range within which the
medium-speed geared plant is competitive will be marked
out. An optimization analysis clarifies the cost advantages
that will be provided by tomorrow's still larger medium-
speed four-stroke diesels.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018
special ships, where slow speed engines could not be con-
sidered in view of their overall height. This development
has reached a certain saturation point, as can be seen from
the order figures for ferries up to 1967 in Fig. 2. The yearly
increase in orders, which is now only small, shows that the
market is not expanding. The situation is the same with
special vessels such as dredgers and factory ships, where
space considerations favor the medium speed engine.
The striking feature of Fig. 2 is the steep increase in or-
ders for medium speed geared plants for freighters since
1965. The space question is important here for only a few
types of ships, which are today still quite rare. These in-
clude container ships with through decks, bulk carriers with
their own loading equipment, and very fast vessels with an
extremely narrow stern. After initial hesitation the cost
advantages seem to have been actually recognized. This
development in tankers is just starting. The question is:
What induced a large number of economically minded ship-
owners to choose such geared plants?
In the past three years, surveys and comparisons have
been carried out in this field by various engine building
firms. The first important investigation was that of Kilchen-
mann (1)* in 1964, but some of the points he mentioned
can be no longer considered valid in view of the very rapid
technical development since then. For example, even higher
fuel costs and higher cylinder liner wear than those of the
slow speed two stroke engines are mentioned as disadvan-
tages of the medium speed four-stroke engine, points that
are now considered to be the advantages of this engine. Fur-
ther investigations were made by Hansen and Klintop (2),
Zinner (3), Keylwert (4), Blomstergren (5, 6), and in par-
ticular by Neumann and Carr (7).
Nevertheless, the present investigation has its justifica-
tion. Assuming that the views expressed in all the previous
investigations were not influenced by the manufacturing pro-
gram of the firm concerned, the following limitations still
remain:
1. None of the investigations could consider all cost
factors (for instance, the weight and the price of the propeller
plant are often neglected when considering prime cost and
propeller speed).
2. The cost parameters, such as the specific fuel con-
sumption, are in general not varied. Instead the values of
only one type are taken. Consequently, the results are diffi-
cult to transfer and are easily superseded by further develop-
ments.
3. Not all sizes of ships and ship speeds are considered,
but merely those of individual projects. However, the cost
advantages are very different for different sizes of ships and
different ship speeds.
The task was, therefore, to investigate all cost factors
with all variations for all sizes of ships and all ship speeds
and to ascertain the influence, that is, the importance, of
the individual cost parameters.
In such a study of parameters or "sensitivity analysis,"
two different technical alternatives (geared plant and direct
drive), described by means of empirical equations, are cal-
culated and compared. The influence of individual param-
eters on the economics of the plants is examined by vary-
ing each parameter. This then shows the importance of
the influence for the planning of further development work.
Varying the parameters also makes it possible to draw
clearly recognizable operational limitations should there
be uncertainty as regards the individual types of costs. How-
ever, this is not only necessary for the engine manufacturer
but also for the shipowner. Market research reveals that
sometimes there are still prejudices without any technical
basis, owing to poor results obtained with medium speed en-
gines in the past 10-15 years. The negative effect of the
*Numbers in parentheses designate References at end of
paper.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018

maintenance and spare parts costs is often overestimated, ered, both tasks (a parameter study for present geared plants
and this can be corrected only by means of an economic and the optimization for future plants) can be carried out
analysis on the basis of realistic figures. only with a computer.
In this study the figures used will be only those that have
already been confirmed by practical experience with MAN COMPARISON OF DIRECT FREIGHT COSTS
engines and with some similar engines of other builders.
We are certain that we have now collected sufficient oper- METHOD OF CALCULATION - The calculation is based
ating experience with medium speed geared plants and slow on the direct costs and not on the profit because detailed
two-stroke engines to enable us to make such a comparison figures of the profit margin included by the shipowners and
objectively. of the overheads are mostly not available. Similar inves-
The final part of this examination will investigate the tigations carried out by Steinert, Braun and Oldekop (8) on
future of the medium speed diesel. For this purpose the atomic merchant vessels, and by Kahle and Hung (9) on
present outputs and speeds of the medium speed geared plants industrial vehicles with gas turbine drive, have successfully
will serve as a basis for recognizing ways in which cost ad- used this method of comparing direct costs.
vantages of the geared plants over direct propulsion can be The following eight different types of costs were taken
improved. This optimization work gives a clue as to the for ship and propulsion plant:
direction which the future development work should take.
Such a calculation cannot, of course, include any figures 1. Depreciation and interest.
confirmed in actual operation, and so any assessment of the 2. Insurance costs.
results must be made with a great degree of caution. 3. Personnel costs.
Because of the great number of influences to be consid- 4. Service costs.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018

5. Fuel costs for main and auxiliary engines.

6. Lube oil costs' for main and auxiliary engines.
7. Maintenance and repair costs.
8. Equipment costs (costs of purchasing new equipment,
including spare parts).

The individual costs were determined first in dollars

per calendar day, and then, based on the carrying capacity,
speed, and employment of the ship, compared as dollar
per ton carried per nautical mile.
The output range was limited to 6,500-40,000 hp. That
is, two- to four-engine plants with the present medium speed
four-stroke engines of in-line and vee design were consid-
ered.
There resulted a total of 38 equations for the outputs,
prices, costs, and weights. The equations are of an empirical
nature and are approximations of data from our own company
and from the literature (1, 3-8, 10-13), most of them being
in the form of exponential functions. The input variables
of the calculation are the carrying capacity and the speed of
the ship. The carrying capacity is varied within the range
of the present large merchant vessels, that is, between 15,000
and 200,000 tdw, the ship's speed between 14 and 24 knots.
The 38 equations include, besides the carrying capacity
and the ship's speed, 14 variable parameters that are varied
within the range considered to be reasonable.
ASSUMPTIONS AND EMPIRICAL RESULTS - The 14 vari-
able parameters are listed in Table 1 and the most important
fixed parameters in Table 2. As previously mentioned, for
assumptions and empirical results, the investigation used
only those data that had been confirmed in service. Test
bed results and future results were not considered. Where
doubt existed, the figure that was more unfavorable for the
geared plant was always chosen except in those cases where
the parameter concerned was to be varied.
The improvement in the degree of propeller efficiency
was also included in the determination of the propulsion
outputs, this improvement being felt when lower propeller
speeds (which are possible with geared plants) are used. The
figures stated for the improvement in propeller efficiency
still vary greatly. In model tests, improvements of up to
12% per 30 revolutions of the propeller shaft were determined
on occasions. For the purposes of this paper, improvement
of 5% per 30 revolutions has been assumed, which is cer-
tainly cautious enough. Based on existing engines, the pro-
peller speed of direct-propulsion engines apparently decreases
as the output rises, starting from about 150 rpm at 6500 hp
down to about 105 rpm at 40,000 hp.
The calculation of the outputs also considered that power
required for auxiliaries becomes higher when carrying capacity
is greater. With the geared plant auxiliary, power can be sup-
plied not only by separate sets, as is the case with the direct-
propulsion engine, but also from the gearbox, that is, from
the main engine. A prerequisite for this is the use of a con-
trollable pitch propeller because generators with frequency
regulation are not yet available in this output range. In
such cases the output of the standby set, which operates
only very rarely, need be no more than a third of the total
power requirement of the auxiliaries.
West European prices of ships and propulsion plants (in-
cluding gearbox, coupling, and stern gear) were used as
the basis for the calculation of the depreciation, interest
and insurance costs. The slightly different price level for
ships in the United States has no significant influence on the
comparison. The price of the propulsion plant also included
the necessary spare parts and tools.
The prices of other parts Of the propulsion plant (exhaust
gas equipment, fresh water, sea water, and lube oil circuit,
starting equipment, and heavy fuel treatment plant) were
also checked, but the prices of equipment, taken as a whole,
were found to be practically the same for both propulsion
systems. For example, the higher price of the lube oil cir-
cuit with the medium speed engine was compensated by
the lower price of the starting equipment.
The percentages assumed for interest and insurance, inter-
polated with a depreciation period of 14-25 years, resulted
in a total debit of between 10.3 and 12.8% per annum.
Personnel costs also contain the costs of food as well
as holidays and social benefits available in West Europe.
There are no significant differences between geared plant
and slow engine plant because the same personnel can be
used. Therefore the different labor cost level in the United
States has an influence on the absolute freight cost, but not
on the comparison.
The service costs include all the day-to-day running costs
with the exception of fuel and lube oil. They are the same
for both propulsion plants.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018
The realistic figures quoted for the normal fuel consump-
tions can be also used for fuel consumption under unfavor-
able conditions after a fairly long period in operation.
Considerably better figures could be achieved from test bed
trials or from plants that are well maintained.
Today, both types of engines can use the same heavy oil
with the same degree of reliability, and therefore a heavy
fuel of the same quality could have been entered for both
plants. Statistics show, however, that 90% of all slow running
two-stroke engines operate on residual oils with a viscosity
of 800-1500 sec Redw. I, whereas the majority of the me-
dium speed four- stroke engines are run on viscosities of only
300-1000 sec Redw. I. From a technical point of view, this
difference is no longer necessary for fully developed, me-
dium speed, four-stroke engines. It had to be taken into
account, however, when selecting the average present-day
figures and this was done by assuming a somewhat better
oil quality for the medium speed engine.
Heavy fuel oil operation from pier to pier has been as-
sumed for both plants, that is, heavy fuel oil is also used
for part loads and maneuvers. Marine diesel fuel has been
taken as fuel for the auxiliary engines. It has also been
assumed that steam required for heating the fuel, and perhaps
also for heating the tanks, can be supplied by the exhaust gas
boiler and that the additional heat is the same with both
plants. Any fuel costs for cargo pumps are included in the
power requirement for the auxiliaries.
The mean lube oil consumption of 0.0027 lb/hp-hr (1.2 g/
hp-hr) for the medium speed engine ensures, in our ex-
perience, satisfactory heavy fuel oil operation. Lower con-
sumptions down to 0.0018 lb/hp-hr (0.8 g/hp-hr) have oc-
casionally been quoted for medium speed engines, but this
does not ensure an adequate detergent effect to counteract
the combustion products of the residual oil. This detergent
effect is necessary if favorable wear rates are to be achieved.
Of course, when the engine is run on diesel oil, the lube oil
consumption may be below 0.0027 lb/hp-hr (1.2 g/hp-hr)
and in gas operation it may be as low as 0.0018 lb/hp-hr
(0.8 g/hp-hr) or lower. It has been assumed that a mild
alkaline lube oil is used for the medium speed engine, as
is usually the case, whereas for the direct-propulsion engine
a somewhat more expensive, highly alkaline oil has been
taken. Heavy duty oil has been entered for the auxiliary
engines.
The most difficult task is to get realistic figures for the
present-day costs of maintenance, repairs, and spare parts
for both engine plants. Although statistical data are avail-
able for existing slow-running engines, most costs are not
clearly separated into costs for the ship and those for the
powerplant. From our own experience, however, and from
maintenance plans of other types of engines, fairly reliable
figures can be given for the scheduled engine maintenance
work.
Detailed investigations (3) have revealed that with the
medium speed engine, scheduled maintenance work does
not rise in proportion to the number of cylinders, as has
been assumed occasionally. Rather, because of the lower
weight of the parts to be moved, the increase is proportional
to the square root of the number of cylinders. Both our own
figures and those from other sources (6 and 7) show that
the time and expense involved in scheduled maintenance
work for the medium speed four-stroke engine is (0.5-1.0) x
(square root of the ratio of the number of cylinders) as
large as for the slow running two-stroke engine. A to-
tal labor cost of $10 per man-hour (including wages, over-
heads, allowances, traveling costs) has been included in the
calculation of the maintenance costs. Higher labor costs have
the same influence on the economics as a higher number of
working hours.
The higher cost of maintenance work, however, by no
means applies to the spare parts. According to the experience
we have had so far, the costs of spare parts per hp-hr are
the same for both engines, and have been assumed to be so
in our calculation. The medium speed engine requires a
considerably higher number of spare parts because of the
valves, but this is greatly compensated, for example, by
the cylinder liners for the loop-scavenged two-stroke engine,
which are approximately twice as expensive per horsepower.
The price of the pistons and piston rings of both engines is
about the same per horsepower, but if the cylinder covers
of the medium speed engine have to be replaced, they are
twice as expensive per horsepower as those of the simple
two-stroke engine with loop scavenging.
The latest experience, however, seems to indicate that
the spare parts costs for the medium speed engine are more
favorable than for the slow running two-stroke engine, as
a result of the lower wear rate, especially of the cylinder
liners, when expressed in percentages. Confirmed cylinder
wear rates of below 0.005% per 1000 hr have been obtained
with the MAN. VV 40/54 engine. This is approximately
half the wear rates that are considered favorable with slow
engines. Figures quoted by another manufacturer are in
the same range. The piston ring groove wear measured and
the radial piston ring wear are also so favorable (14).
It is quite possible that long term experience will reveal
that the spare parts costs for the medium speed engine are
even lower that those for the slow running two-stroke engine.
Several firms now offer complete maintenance agree-
ments, and these provide a good means of comparison. Such
maintenance agreements include all scheduled maintenance
work, all repair and spare parts costs, and a compensation
clause covering the risk taken. The cost per hp-hr of such a
maintenance agreement for medium speed powerplants of
10,000-20,000 hp is only about 15-20% higher than one for
slow speed two-stroke engines. The difference in the abso-
lute costs exactly corresponds to the difference in the sched-
uled maintenance work. This means that engine manufac-
turers consider spare parts and repair costs, as well as the
risk, to be the same for both plants, and that the only differ-
ence is in the amount of work involved.
Experience shows that downtime can be assumed to be
the same for both plants. The higher number of working
hours with the medium speed plant does not result in a longer
downtime because maintenance work on a multiengine plant
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018

can be carried out at the same time or even carried out on a

single engine during the trip. The usage factor is considered
later in the text.
Finally, the differences in weight of the two propulsion
plants were included. When the weights were calculated,
the same extent of equipment was taken as for prices, plus
the fluids in the engines. As the fuel and lube oil consumptions
are different in the two plants, the amounts of fuel and lube
oil that have to be carried for one journey vary, and this
fact must be considered. The lower weight of the medium
speed plant can, of course, not be fully utilized as a cargo
advantage, for shipbuilding reasons.
RESULTS OF FREIGHT COST COMPARISON - Fig. 3 shows
the results of the calculation of the direct freight costs for the
mean and most frequent values of the individual variables
in Table 1. The diagram shows the well-known extremely
large reduction in the direct freight costs when the carrying
capacity of the ship is increased. Based on a normal speed
of 16 knots, the direct costs fall to less than one-third when
the capacity is raised from 15,000 to 200,000 tdw.
It is well known (16) that the optimum profit occurs at 200,000 tdw, but that the advantage is great in the case of
the speed range of about 16 knots, and this has led to the smaller capacities. This comparison can be seen more clearly
fact that most bulk carriers and tankers are now operated at in Fig. 4, where the relative reduction of the direct freight
such speeds. This fact, however, cannot be seen from this costs is shown. These percentages may seem small. But if
diagram of the direct costs. As the receipts per ton and it is taken into consideration that the shipowner' s profit
per nautical mile (that is, the freight rates obtained) are is approximately 10% of the freightage and that the over-
constant in the first approximation, the profit for the shipowner head saving is a further 10%, an approximate picture of
per calendar day rises with the speed of the ship in accord- the increase in profit for the shipowner (which may go as
ance with the larger amount of cargo transported per calen- high as 30%) can be obtained. Smaller ships have this great
dar year. In this way the optimum profit occurs at speeds of advantage because the price and the weight of the marine
around 16 knots. This optimum can be shifted to higher propulsion plant are relatively large compared with the price
speeds if higher freight rates can be obtained for quality of the ship and the carrying capacity. For with the large,
freight (refrigerated and container ships) at greater speeds. slow ships, the influence of the price and weight of the main
Fig. 3 clearly shows that the freight cost advantage of engine plant is not so great. With the small, fast vessels,
the geared plant is not very large in the range of 100,000- there is also the aforementioned space advantage.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018

What are the factors leading to this freight cost advan-

tage of the geared plant? Fig. 5 shows a breakdown of the
cost advantage for two ships, one with a large advantage
and one with a small advantage. Interest, depreciation, and
insurance have been incorporated in the capital costs. The
differences in the equipment, personnel, and other operating
costs are small and have not been included in the diagram.
An express container ship has been chosen as an example
of a small, fast vessel with a considerable cost advantage.
The relatively high cost advantage of 2.7% is due to the more
favorable capital costs and the high cargo advantage. A
considerable part of these advantages is, however, absorbed
by the higher costs of lube oil and maintenance for the
medium speed engine. The medium speed geared plant is
therefore a particularly good choice for an express container
ship.
Another case for comparison is a large tanker with a
capacity of 200,000 tdw and a speed of 16 knots. The reached with the geared plant. The advantage is obvious
cargo advantage is slight, but the saving in capital costs as far as the bulk freighter is concerned, but for the tanker,
just manages to compensate the higher costs of lube oil it is not quite clear at first why the slight cost advantage,
and maintenance of the medium speed plant. which is apparently only 0.9%, induced the shipowner to
The calculation for both plants was based on a propeller choose the medium speed geared plant. Actually, the de-
speed of 90 rpm. Since the speeds of the slow two-stroke cisive factor was the possibility of driving the generators
engines are low (and thus economical), at these high out- from the gearbox (that is, from the main engine), which
puts it will give no advantage in fuel consumption. The has a very great influence on the economics of the plant.
losses in the gearbox are, however, again fully compen- The prime costs remain unchanged to a great extent, as
sated by the propulsion advantages. A striking feature is the costs of the auxiliary drive and the necessary control-
that the lube oil costs seem to be an even more important lable pitch propeller cancel out the saving realized by dis-
factor than the increase in the maintenance costs. pensing with the diesel auxiliary sets. There is, however,
Fig. 6 gives a breakdown of the types of costs for a freighter a considerable saving in fuel because the electric energy
and tanker actually being built or in operation (5) with typi- can be supplied by the main engine, which has a lower fuel
cal present-day outputs. The striking feature here is that consumption and which runs on heavy fuel oil. Furthermore,
in both cases there is a gain in fuel costs, as the speed of the maintenance costs of the auxiliary sets, which are con-
the direct-propulsion engine is unfavorable at these lower siderable, are saved.
outputs and is far above the favorable speed that can be Fig. 7 shows the change in the calculation of the direct
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018

freight costs as a result of such a plant. The advantage ob-

tained by supplying electric power through the gearbox is
all the greater when specific power requirements of the
auxiliaries rise higher. As a result, even with large carrying
capacities, the freight cost advantage now reaches appre-
ciable amounts. Fig. 8 shows that these advantages derive
from an improvement in the fuel costs and, to a somewhat
smaller extent, in the maintenance costs. Other types of
costs are hardly affected.
For the parameter range shown in Table 1, the variation
of the equipment costs, the personnel costs, the distance
per journey, the period of depreciation, and the utilization
of the cargo advantage led to a change of less than 0.5% in
the direct freight costs.
The economics of the plants were especially sensitive
to changes in certain influences and these factors, which
are particularly interesting, are illustrated in Figs. 9 through
15.
Fig. 9 shows the influence of the quality of the heavy
fuel oil. It can be seen that the limitation that some ship- oil consumption is the most unfavorable cost item of the
owners impose on their medium speed engine plants by us- medium speed engine, it is not realistic to quote a figure
ing somewhat better heavy fuel oils than those used for slow that is too low (for example, 0.0018 lb/hp-hr, or 0.8 g/hp-
two-stroke engines has a great effect on the geared engine hr) because if the lube oil consumption is reduced too much,
plant. The same heavy fuel oil used for slow two-stroke this inexorably leads to an increase in wear, which then re-
engines can be used for the geared plants without any loss sults in a rise in the equipment, repair, and maintenance
in reliability. If this were done for all sizes of ships, the costs. The degree to which the lube oil consumption and
cost advantage would rise by 0.7% at 16 knots and by as much maintenance and repair costs are correlated is not known,
as 1.0% at 20 knots. Fig. 9 reveals, however, that a medium and consequently cannot be included in the calculation.
speed engine that can run only on heavy fuels with a vis- Fig. 11 shows the influence of the fuel consumption of
cosity of around 300 sec Redw. I no longer offers any cost the geared engine, this factor being almost as important.
advantages. The quality of the heavy fuel oil is therefore If the fuel consumption of 0.350 lb/hp-hr obtained with
a factor of considerable importance even when the changes production engines in service on heavy fuel oil could be
are only small. reduced to 0.335 lb/hp-hr, as has been achieved on the test
As can be seen in Fig. 10, the economy of the plants is bed, this would lead to a considerable improvement in the
greatly influenced by the lube oil consumption, and it be- direct costs. At 16 knots it would give an improvement of
comes clear why engine manufacturers like to quote the 0.8% and at 20 knots, 1.1%. It must not be forgotten here
smallest possible figure to the customer. Although the lube that the latest and biggest slow two-stroke engines (for ex-
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018
ample, MAN KZ105/180) have made great progress in fuel
economy as a result of increases in turbocharging and higher
firing pressures. These results must be included in the cal-
culation as a benefit of the slow two-stroke engines. It is
certain, however, that the medium speed engine is no longer
competitive if the fuel consumption rates at 0.365 lb/hp-hr,
as some engines do.
Reducing the propeller speed, which is possible with geared
plants, leads to an improvement in the fuel costs, since re-
duced speed improves propulsion efficiency and the installed
output also reduces first costs. Between 80-100 rpm, which
is the normal range for large ships with geared plants, the
beneficial effect is not very great, as can be seen in Fig.
12. However, to achieve an economic advantage, a reduc-
tion in propeller speed of at least 10 rpm below the speed
of the slow two-stroke engine is necessary so as to compen-
sate gear losses.
Of interest is the fact that the effect of higher mainte-
nance costs for the geared plant (Fig. 13) is secondary to
the lower costs of lube oil and fuel. This was shown in Figs.
5 and 6. It should also be borne in mind that the mainte-
nance costs in Figs. 5 and 6 were regarded only as additional
costs. Neither was it taken into consideration that with the
geared plant, a part of the maintenance work can be carried
out by the crew and therefore this expense is already in-
cluded in the personnel costs.
As the ratio of the number of cylinders becomes more
and more unfavorable as the outputs rise, the influence of
changes in the maintenance costs for large outputs is appre-
ciable; for small outputs, however, it is insignificant. Even
with a 100,000 tdw/16 knot ship, variation of the mainte-
nance costs of the slow two-stroke engines alters the cost
advantage by only 0.7%. But the influence is substantial
in the high output range of 30,000-40,000 hp. Although the
exhaust valve maintenance work that has been necessary
so far when the geared plant is operated on heavy fuels is
a nuisance, it is not a very significant factor as far as the
costs are concerned.
It should be remembered when comparing the mainte-
nance costs that extreme simplification of the maintenance
work has been achieved with the latest slow two-stroke en-
gines by means of special tools and devices. Equivalent
facilities must also be offered by the medium speed engine.
In Fig. 14, a further influence is shown, the importance
of which should not be underestimated. It has been assumed
for this figure that the slow-running engine can be bought
10-20% cheaper than is at present possible in West Europe,
the price of the ship and the price of the geared plant being
the same. Such a price reduction (a rationalization meas-
ure) cancels out to a great extent the cost advantage of the
geared plant. The purpose of this diagram is to show that
the cost advantage is greatly influenced by changes in the
price of the slow-running engine. Consequently, a shipyard
that can build two-stroke engines very cheaply may be less
interested at the moment in the medium speed engine.
Also of interest is the influence of ship usage (Fig. 15)
on the economy of the plant. The advantage for the ship
with a medium speed geared plant increases (particularly
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018

10

at high outputs) as time usage lowers, that is, fewer days

at sea. This is due to the fact that the partly unfavorable ASSUMPTIONS FOR FREIGHT COST OPTIMIZATION -
operating costs are less important when the ship is used less. The task is by no means easy when the following problems
In particular, the advantages of the cheap propulsion plant are considered. Although a reduction in the propeller speed
are even more evident in the case of a fast ship with a rel- means a reduction in the output installed and the fuel costs,
atively low employment, such as a general cargo liner. it also produces an increase in the price of the shafting. An
The basic conclusion that can be drawn from Figs. 9-15 is increase in the engine speed causes a reduction in the price
that the distance between curves is greater at 20 knots, and of engine and gearbox. A rise in cylinder output means
that the economy of the fast ship is considerably more sen- reduction in engine price and maintenance costs. On the
sitive than the slow ship to all cost influences arising from other hand, there are limitations to the mean effective pres-
the propulsion plant. If the parameters for the operating sure and the mean piston speed insofar as reliability is con-
costs are favorable, however, particularly great advantages cerned and these limitations also exist for future engines.
can be obtained for the small, fast ship when medium speed The result is that the cylinder output rises in inverse pro-
geared plants are used. portion to the engine speed squared, that is, both cylinder
output and engine speed cannot rise together.
FREIGHT COSTS AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT There also exist the following requirements: The number
of cylinders for a multiengine plant must remain between
METHOD OF CALCULATING OPTIMIZED FREIGHT COSTS 12 and 72 (ranging from 6-cyl in-line engines to 18-cyl
In the comparisons made so far, the propeller speed of vee engines). The engine speed must remain below 600
the geared plant was varied, whereas the cylinder output and rpm so as to be able to control wear and combustion in heavy
the speed of today's medium speed four-stroke engine was fuel operation. The smallest propeller speed is a function
kept constant. However, medium speed engines with higher of the carrying capacity as the diameter of the screw is
cylinder outputs are being designed at the moment. The limited for certain sizes of ships. Finally, the cylinder out-
idea of further increasing the speed of the present medium put should not exceed 1000 hp, which is the cylinder output
speed engines has also been discussed. Which way is correct? of the largest medium speed engines in development today.
For an optimization of the cost advantage, the three vari- A prerequisite for such an optimization for the future
ables of propeller speed, cylinder output, and engine speed is, above all, that the specific cost variables such as fuel
will be freely varied, and the task will be to find out which and lube oil consumption and specific maintenance costs
combination of these three variables will produce the greatest must not become less favorable than in the case of today's
advantage, as regards direct freight costs, for the medium engines, as pointed out in the next section.
speed geared plant. For a ship with a given size and speed, The problem of optimization is not particularly difficult
the optimum engine plant is to be found. This could, of with three variables and the secondary conditions indicated,
course, also be done by calculating all combinations of although it is impossible immediately to get an overall pic-
the three variables, but the work involved would be exten- ture. The real problem is to linearize the exponential func-
sive. There are optimization calculation systems, however, tions and the secondary conditions for this task. The reason
such as the Simplex process, which enable an optimum value why the attempt here succeeds in achieving a reasonable
to be determined from linear equation systems with secondary degree of accuracy is that the variables vary only within a
conditions, by means of systematic trials with a computer. narrow range, and consequently the individual cost functions
This process has been applied here. can be approximated and linearized.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018
RESULTS OF FREIGHT COST OPTIMIZATION - The re-
sult of this optimization work is given in Fig. 16. The op-
timum data for a speed of 16 knots are shown as a function
of the carrying capacity. From previous discussion, the re-
sult could have been expected.
The most favorable propeller speed is always the mini-
mum permissible speed for the given size of ship. The un-
favorable influence of the price and the weight of the stern
gear and gearbox is therefore outweighed by the advantages
of having a smaller propeller speed.
It is noteworthy that the optimum cylinder output is always with two-stroke medium speed engines has shown that the
the maximum one available. It decreases from the assumed
maximum cylinder output of 1000 hp only in the case of
smaller ships, since otherwise the number of cylinders for a
double engine plant would become too low. The optimum
engine speed is in each case the maximum permissible speed a few others with medium speed two-stroke engines) support
for the given cylinder output. This result clearly shows that
it is more correct to increase the cylinder output than to
increase the engine speed, when higher cost advantages are
to be obtained.
The purpose of Fig. 17 is to show how the cost breakdown
would now look for the aforementioned example of the
100,000 tdw/16 knot tanker, where the cost advantage so far
has been slight. The direct cost advantage now rises from
0.9 to 2.3%, that is, to a range that was attainable with the
previous engines in smaller fast ships. This improvement
is due, above all, to the decrease in the prime costs and
the reduction in the maintenance costs resulting from the
lower number of cylinders. There is also a certain advan-
tage as regards fuel and lube oil costs, since the optimum
speed of 80 rpm is below the 90 rpm assumed in the previous the two-stroke engine, whereas this is the factor that pro-
analysis.
With such a larger engine, a direct cost advantage of more speed four-stroke engine. The ports also make it more diffi-
than 2% can be obtained at outputs up to 40,000 hp through-
11
out the carrying capacity and speed range. Consequently
the advantage achieves a greater independence from the
deviations and variations of the other parameters.
It is therefore no longer absolutely necessary to exploit
the freight cost advantage of having the auxiliaries driven
by the main engine, to obtain a cost advantage. In any case,
this has not yet been carried out with ships over 100,000 tdw
because controllable pitch propellers or generators with fre-
quency regulation are necessary.
Some of the previous parameters were also varied during
the optimization calculation in order to discover their in-
fluence on the design of the optimum plant. For example,
for the 100,000 tdw/16 knot tanker, the oil consumption
was varied to 0.0036 lb/hp-hr (1.6 g/hp-hr); the utilization
of the cargo advantage was reduced to only 25%; the annual
employment of the ship to only 0.4 calendar days at sea;
and the annual costs of interest, depreciation, and insurance
were modified to 9%, and maintenance costs were changed
to those of the KZ engine. Nevertheless, in all these cases,
the plant with the highest cylinder output was the most eco-
nomical.
For the multicylinder high output engine to have a clear
economic advantage in high-powered plants, it was essen-
tial that the reliability of the engine in heavy fuel operation
and all the costs should not be less than those of the present
medium speed four-stroke engine.
Detailed investigations have revealed that all these re-
quirements can be fulfilled with the larger medium speed
four-stroke engines just as satisfactorily as with the present
medium speed four-stroke engines. For the very high cyl-
inder outputs, the two-stroke process would seem at first
sight to be an obvious choice. Yet this solution is not
being used by our company because all experience gained
requirements that the reliability and operating costs should
remain the same can hardly be fulfilled. The following
reasons (which have been carefully investigated and which
are corroborated by previous experience of our firm and
this decision. These reasons are only briefly mentioned here:
1. Assuming the output, the swept volume, and the speed
to be the same, the thermal loading of the two-stroke en-
gine is considerably higher than for the four-stroke engine.
The heat transferred to the liner, piston, and cylinder cover
from the combustion chamber is at least about 30% higher.
More intensive cooling is required, and the reliability of
the engine plant is affected to a certain degree.
2. Cylinder and piston lubrication of two-stroke engines
must be kept within close limits, to prevent the ports from
becoming carbonized. On the other hand, adequate cylin-
der lubrication is absolutely necessary in heavy oil opera-
tion. Consequently the detergent effect of the lube oil nec-
essary to obtain favorable wear rates is not possible with
duces the excellent wear rate achieved with the medium
cult for the lube oil to be distributed evenly.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018
12
3. Most of the problems are involved in controlling the
change of the charge. Adequate scavenging, which can
easily be managed with slow two-stroke engines becomes
a problem in the medium speed two-stroke engine as the
speed rises, since the time available for the preexhaust proc-
ess when the gases flow out does not increase with the speed.
In turbocharged two-stroke engines, the discharge of the
gases from the cylinder is also disturbed by the reflection
of the preexhaust waves at the turbine. Furthermore, the
higher specific air flow rate required for adequate scaveng-
ing makes it necessary to have greater air and exhaust flow
areas and larger exhaust turbochargers. These dificulties
with the change of the charge lead to a number of material
disadvantages as follows:
(a) Greater limitations as regards speed and mean piston
speed than with the four-stroke engines are necessary.
(b) The fuel consumption is higher.
(c) Generally speaking, the engines can be built only in
groups of 3 cyl with a 120 deg firing interval, which produces the cost advantages
considerable leaps in output between the various engines.
(d) At part loads, additional blowers or other measures
are mostly necessary and, contrary to the four-stroke engine, stroke
when the turbochargers fail, the two-stroke engine can no
longer operate.
(e) The incomplete scavenging also involves a higher
degree of contamination in heavy oil operation and places
greater demands on the lubrication.
Due to these circumstances, the few medium speed two-
stroke engines built today have only slightly higher specific economic calculations show, however, that it is definitely
outputs related to volume and weight than four-stroke en-
gines, contrary to initial expectations.
In view of the conclusions outlined above, we consider
the medium speed four-stroke engine to be the correct solu-
tion for cylinder outputs of around 1000 hp. Fig. 18 shows
what such an engine will look like. Although the output
will be approximately twice as high, the specific weight
will decrease by about 20%, leading to reduction in prime
costs. Even more favorable is the improvement of the out-
put related to the space enclosed (based on the external di-
mensions of the engine), which will be about 50% less. All
the proven design features of the medium speed engines with
outputs of about 500 hp per cylinder are being retained, and
so the development work can be carried out quickly. It can
also be said that the operation behavior of this new genera-
tion of medium speed engines will be just as favorable.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
The calculation and economic investigations of marine
plants that use the present medium speed four-stroke en-
gines show that clear limits can be found within which an
engine plant with medium speed four-stroke diesels pre-
sents advantages over the slow two-stroke engine, as regards
the direct freight costs. The advantages are particularly
great with small, fast vessels. The advantage is higher if
the usage factor is low.
It has been found that to achieve low freight cost, special
importance must be attached to the lube oil and fuel costs.
Low fuel consumption is, however, not the only factor as
far as low fuel costs are concerned. It must also be possible
to use the same cheap heavy fuels as those used by two-stroke
engines. Besides these two factors, which are the two most
important influences, maintenance costs also play an i m -
portant part in the competitiveness of the plants.
Finally, there must be no increase in the capital costs
of such an engine. Instead, they must be reduced proportion-
ately to those of the slow running, direct propulsion engine,
through rationalization procedure, so that the cost advantage
can be retained.
The still very slight cost advantage of large ships over
100,000 tdw can be improved appreciably if the auxiliaries
are driven by the main engines through the gearbox.
In the optimization considerations for tomoirow' s larger,
medium speed, four-stroke engines, it has been found that
can be further improved if the maximum
possible cylinder outputs are taken. It has been shown that
larger cylinder outputs are possible with medium speed four-
engines and that such engines are being developed.
It has further been shown that the four-stroke process is to
be preferred for these outputs.
A certain amount of caution should be observed, however,
when considering the results of economic investigations.
The proof that the assumptions made in the economic calcu-
lation are correct is not obtained until after the plant is
installed and the shipowner has drawn up his accounts. The
worthwhile to continue intensively the development of me-
dium speed geared plants for marine propulsion.
Economic calculations such as this will always include
errors to a certain extent because the model on which the
calculation is based just cannot correspond 100% to reality.
Nevertheless, the degree of accuracy obtained in this inves-
tigation is a valuable guideline to present and future utiliza-
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Leeds, Monday, September 24, 2018

13

tion of the medium speed four-stroke diesel for marine pro- 7. J. Neumann and J. Carr, "The Use of Medium-speed
pulsion. Geared Diesel Engines for Ocean-going Merchant Ship Pro-
pulsion, " The Institute of Marine Engineers, 1966.
REFERENCES 8 . C . Steinert, W. Braun, and W. Oldekop, "Wett-
1. W. A. Kilchenmann, "Slow-speed versus High-speed bewerbsmoglichkeiten für Atomhandelsschiffe," Atomwirt-
Diesel Engines for Marine Propulsion," Naval Eng. J., No. 6 schaft, 10 (1966), 435-442.
(1964), 425-437. 9. G. W. Kahle and H. M. Hung, "Turbine-powered
2. S. Hansen and H. Klintop, "Motor Tanker of 100,000- Industrial Diesel and Gas Turbine Progress, H. 3 (1967), 61-62.
250,000 t, a Technical and Economic Study," The Motor 10. D. Wustrau, "Uberblick und Bemerkungen zum Ent-
Ship, No. 10 (1966), 306-310. wurf grosser Schiff," Schiff und Hafen, 16 (1964), 1155-
3. K. Zinner, "A Comparison of High-powered Single- 1157.
engine and Multi-engine Plants for the Propulsion of Mer- 11. F. Bast, " Die Grenzen des Grosstankers," VDI-Nach-
chant Ships." ASME Paper 39, Oil and Gas Power Conference, richten (1966), No. 46, 1-2.
1967. 12. C. Breitenstein, " Schiffselektrotechnik," VDI-Zei-
4. J. Keylwert, Diskussionsbeitrag zum Vortrag "Zylin- tung, 102 (1960), 1561.
essorgred und Zylinderzahl," (Zinner, K.), STG Tagung, 13. G. Mau, V. Gassner, and H. Volcker, "Kostenunter-
1966. suchungen von Schiffen mitkonventionellem und Kernenergie-
5. B. Blomstergren, "Application of Medium-Speed En- antrieb," München, 1965.
gines to Merchant Ships," The Motor Ship, No. 2 (1967), 14. K. Luther, "The MAN RV, VV 40/54 Engine: Develop-
508-512. ment and Service Results," The Motor Ship, No. 7(1967),
6. B. Blomstergren, "Some Comparison of Geared vs. Suppl. 19-23.
Direct Coupled Diesel Machinery," The Motor Ship, No. 7 15. P. Kayser, "Bestimmung der optimalen Geschwindig-
(1967), Suppl., 10-13. keit fur ein Massengutschiff," Hansa, 98 (1961), 2471-2473.

This paper is subject to revision. Statements and opinions
advanced in papers or discussion are the author's and are
his responsibility, not the Society's; however, the paper has
Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
been edited by SAE for uniform styling and format. Discussion will be printed
with the paper if it is published in SAE Transactions. For permission to publish
this paper in full or in part, contact the SAE Publications Division and the
authors.
16 _ page booklet. Printed in U.S.A.