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Adolescents' Participation in Organized Activities and Developmental Success

2 and 8 Years After High School: Do Sponsorship, Duration, and Intensity
Matter?

Article  in  Developmental Psychology · June 2008

DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.814 · Source: PubMed

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Developmental Psychology Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association
2008, Vol. 44, No. 3, 814 – 830 0012-1649/08/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.814

Adolescents’ Participation in Organized Activities and Developmental

Success 2 and 8 Years After High School: Do Sponsorship, Duration, and
Intensity Matter?
Margo Gardner, Jodie Roth, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn
Teachers College, Columbia University

Using data from the National Education Longitudinal Study, the authors examined relations between
educational, civic, and occupational success in young adulthood and the duration and intensity of
participation in organized activities during high school. They also examined these relations as a function
of sponsorship (i.e., school- vs. community-sponsored organized activities). They found that youths who
participated in organized activities for 2 years demonstrated more favorable educational and civic
outcomes in young adulthood than those who participated for 1 year. More intensive participation was
also associated with greater educational, civic, and occupational success in young adulthood—
particularly among youths who participated in activities for 2 years. Educational attainment often
mediated the relations between temporal measures of participation and young adult civic and occupa-
tional outcomes. With the exception of analyses examining occupational success, findings varied little as
a function of sponsorship. Of note, analyses revealed that both temporal measures of participation were
positively associated with young adult outcomes as many as 8 years after high school.

Keywords: organized activities, extracurricular activities, after-school activities, positive youth develop-
ment, young adulthood

Growing evidence demonstrates positive associations between
participation in organized activities outside of school hours and
positive youth development (Feldman & Matjasko, 2005; Ma-
honey, Larson, & Eccles, 2005).1 Studies suggest that participation
in organized activities is associated with fewer problem behaviors,
better academic performance, and better psychosocial adjustment
(Mahoney et al., 2005). Recent findings also suggest that relations
between participation in organized youth activities and positive
outcomes may extend into young adulthood (e.g., Zaff, Moore,
Papillo, & Williams, 2003). Accordingly, interest in organized
youth activities has surged among families, policymakers, and
researchers during the last decade. More than half of American
teenagers participate in organized activities (Mahoney, Harris, &
Eccles, 2006), and recent federal, state, and city initiatives aim to
increase access to these activities (e.g., federal 21st Century Com-
munity Learning Centers, California’s Proposition 49, Chicago’s
After School Matters initiative).
Despite consensus on the overall value of organized activities,
questions remain regarding the extent to which specific dimen-
sions of participation (e.g., duration and intensity) are associated
with short- and long-term success. Additionally, there is little
consensus on the pathways linking participation in organized ac-
Margo Gardner, Jodie Roth, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, National Center
for Children and Families, Teachers College, Columbia University.
This research was supported by Grant 2501 from the William T. Grant
Foundation.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Margo
Gardner, National Center for Children and Families, Teachers College,
Columbia University, Box 39, 525 West 120th Street, New York, NY
10027. E-mail: gardner@tc.edu
tivities to later developmental success. In this study, we investigate
whether the duration and intensity of participation in organized
school- and community-sponsored activities during adolescence
are associated with educational, civic, and occupational success in
young adulthood. We also explore one of the possible pathways
linking participation in organized activities and positive young
adult outcomes: We examine the extent to which educational
successes associated with participation in organized youth activi-
ties may facilitate opportunities for greater civic and occupational
success during young adulthood.
Organized Activities and Positive Youth Development
The literature on positive youth development provides a useful
framework for conceptualizing how youths’ experiences during
the after-school hours may contribute to development. Theory and
research on positive youth development emphasize the plasticity of
human development and suggest that cultivating positive, support-
ive relationships with people and social institutions encourages
healthy development (Lerner et al., 2005; Roth, Brooks-Gunn,
Murray, & Foster, 1998). According to this perspective, organized
activities encourage healthy development because they provide
more developmental supports and opportunities than other com-
mon after-school pursuits, like watching television or hanging out
with friends. These supports and opportunities may include (a)
physical and psychological safety, (b) appropriate structure, (c)
supportive relationships, (d) opportunities to belong, (e) positive
1
Organized activities is a catchall phrase that includes any activity or
program supervised by an adult that involves other youths and meets
outside of school hours on a regular basis (Mahoney et al., 2005).

814
 ORGANIZED ACTIVITIES AND DEVELOPMENTAL SUCCESS
social norms, (f) support for efficacy and mattering, (g) opportu-
nities for skill building, and (h) the integration of family, school,
and community efforts (Eccles & Gootman, 2002).
Various nomenclatures have been used to describe the healthy
outcomes associated with participation in activities that offer these
kinds of supports and opportunities. One influential taxonomy,
termed “the five Cs,” assigns these outcomes to five categories: (a)
competence in academic, social, and vocational areas; (b) confi-
dence or a positive self-identity; (c) connections to community,
family, and peers; (d) character or positive values, integrity, and
moral commitment; and (e) caring and compassion (Lerner, Fisher,
& Weinberg, 2000). Preliminary evidence supports the theoretical
contention that these five Cs load onto a single higher order latent
construct and that all five Cs therefore make essential contribu-
tions to individuals’ abilities to thrive in adolescence and adult-
hood (Lerner et al., 2005). Although research on this higher order
thriving construct is still limited, empirical evidence supports
positive relations between participation in organized after-school
activities and many of the individual five Cs (see Roth & Brooks-
Gunn, 2003a, 2003b).
The issue of self-selection, however, remains an obstacle to
definitive conclusions about the causal role of participation in
organized activities. Because participation in organized activities
is voluntary and constrained by personal factors (e.g., motivation,
skills, financial resources) and institutional factors (e.g., availabil-
ity, transportation, costs), selection undoubtedly plays a role in the
link between participation in organized activities and developmen-
tal success. Indeed, modest and mixed findings from randomized
studies of after-school programs— one of the many types of orga-
nized activities that youths participate in—suggest that the robust
findings observed in many nonexperimental studies may capitalize
on the influence of self-selection (see Harvard Family Research
Project, 2006, for a review of experimental studies of after-school
programs). One approach that reduces, but does not eliminate, the
influence of self-selection in nonexperimental research is to con-
trol for factors known to predict both participation in organized
activities and positive outcomes. The studies reviewed below,
which informed our research questions, included such statistical
controls unless otherwise noted.
Dimensions of Participation in Organized Activities
Different organized activities offer different opportunities and
supports for development and may therefore encourage different
“Cs” (Larson, Hansen, & Moneta, 2006; Roth & Brooks-Gunn,
2003a, 2003b). Youths also differ with respect to the length (i.e.,
duration) and frequency (i.e., intensity) of their participation in
organized activities (Simpkins, Little, & Weiss, 2004) and may
thus have varied opportunities for developmental gains. Yet, with
relatively few recent exceptions, extant research typically com-
pares the outcomes of nonparticipants with the outcomes of those
who participate in any type of organized activity for any length of
time (see Feldman & Matjasko, 2005, for a review). In the present
study, we examine associations between three dimensions of par-
ticipation in organized activities during adolescence—sponsorship
(i.e., school vs. community sponsored), duration, and intensity—
and the development of educational, civic, and occupational suc-
cesses in young adulthood.
815
Some investigations of sponsorship suggest that participation in
school- versus community-sponsored activities should be differ-
entially associated with specific outcomes. In particular, some
argue that participation in school-sponsored activities may be more
strongly associated with educational outcomes (e.g., Kaufman &
Gabler, 2004). A corollary to this view is that participation in
community-sponsored activities should be more strongly associ-
ated with civic outcomes. The reality, however, is that school-
sponsored activities do not always focus on academics (e.g., ser-
vice clubs, team sports), and community-sponsored activities do
not always focus on promoting civic involvement (e.g., community
arts programs, sports leagues).
Accordingly, findings on the relations between sponsorship and
outcomes are mixed. Analyses of data from the National Education
Longitudinal Study (NELS) indicate that participation in school-
sponsored, but not non-school-sponsored, extracurricular activities
during high school predicts higher grades in 12th grade and higher
rates of college attendance 2 years later, even after controlling for
prior grades (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). Similar analyses of NELS
data indicate that more intensive participation in school-sponsored,
but not non-school-sponsored, activities is positively associated
with attending a competitive postsecondary institution (Swanson,
2002). In contrast, other longitudinal studies have found that
youths who participate in school- or community-sponsored activ-
ities demonstrate similar educational outcomes (e.g., Casey, Ripke,
& Huston, 2005), and at least one cross-sectional study found that
participation in community-sponsored activities is associated with
better educational outcomes than participation in school-sponsored
activities (Brown & Evans, 2002). There is also little support for
the contention that participation in community-sponsored, versus
school-sponsored, activities leads to greater civic involvement.
Analyses of data from NELS and the National Longitudinal Study
of Adolescent Health indicate that political involvement during
adulthood is more strongly tied to participation in school-
sponsored activities than to participation in community-sponsored
activities during adolescence (McFarland & Thomas, 2006). The
extent to which sponsorship is associated with differences in youth
and young adult outcomes therefore remains unclear.
Researchers have just begun to consider whether differences
among youths in temporal dimensions of participation are associ-
ated with differences in positive outcomes (see Roth, Malone, &
Brooks-Gunn, 2007, for a complete review). There are at least two
reasons to expect such associations. First, research suggests that
relationships with adult leaders, peers, and institutions may at least
partly explain the association between participation in organized
activities and positive developmental outcomes (Eccles & Goot-
man, 2002; Roth et al., 1998). These relationships take time to
develop, and those who participate over longer periods of time
may be more likely to benefit from them. Second, those who
participate frequently, over an extended period of time, may reap
the rewards of lengthier and more frequent exposure to the oppor-
tunities and supports that organized activities provide.
Reviews of a variety of types of after-school activities and
programs (e.g., Eccles & Gootman, 2002; Feldman & Matjasko,
2005; Roth et al., 2007) reveal a dearth of studies on participation
duration. A few recent studies, however, have identified associa-
tions between participation in organized activities over multiple
years and positive adolescent and young adult outcomes—
particularly educational outcomes. Longitudinal analyses of a large
816 GARDNER, ROTH, AND BROOKS-GUNN
sample of high school students indicate that although there are no
differences in grades or attitudes toward school between nonpar-
ticipants and 1-year participants in school-sponsored activities,
youths who participate for 2 or 3 years earn higher grades, dem-
onstrate more positive attitudes toward school, and have greater
academic aspirations than nonparticipants (Darling, 2005; Darling,
Caldwell, & Smith, 2005). Analyses of NELS data also reveal
positive relations between participation in organized activities over
three waves of data collection during middle and high school (vs.
two waves or fewer) and multiple young adult outcomes (i.e.,
college attendance, voting, and volunteering at age 20; Zaff et al.,
2003). Finally, analyses of data from the Carolina Longitudinal
Study demonstrate positive associations between participation in
high-school-sponsored activities over 2 years (vs. 1) and college
attendance at age 20, particularly for youths with lower interper-
sonal competence (Mahoney, Cairns, & Farmer, 2003).
Findings on the relations between participation intensity and
youth development are also limited and somewhat mixed. For
instance, some have found significant positive associations be-
tween the number of hours that adolescents devote to school-
sponsored extracurricular activities and varied academic outcomes
(e.g., high school grades, academic attitudes and aspirations, post-
secondary attendance; Darling, 2005; Marsh & Kleitman, 2002),
whereas others have identified only marginally significant rela-
tions between time spent in school-sponsored extracurricular ac-
tivities and adolescents’ grades (Cooper, Valentine, Nye, & Lind-
say, 1999). The link between academic outcomes and the intensity
of youths’ participation in community-sponsored activities is
equally unclear. Although some evidence suggests that the inten-
sity of adolescents’ participation in community-sponsored activi-
ties is positively associated with achievement test scores (Cooper
et al., 1999), studies have also found negative (Marsh & Kleitman,
2002) and nonsignificant relations (Cooper et al., 1999) between
more intensive participation in non-school-sponsored activities
and grades during adolescence. Finally, recent studies of partici-
pation intensity measured without regard to sponsorship suggest
that intensity may be positively associated with concurrent (Rose-
Krasnor, Busseri, Willoughby, & Chalmers, 2006) but not longi-
tudinal (Busseri, Rose-Krasnor, Willoughby, & Chalmers, 2006)
measures of high school academic functioning.
Further complicating the picture, findings from a few studies
indicate that at high levels, intensive participation may be associ-
ated with adverse adolescent and young adult outcomes, particu-
larly in the academic domain (Cooper et al., 1999; Marsh &
Kleitman, 2002). These findings have been used to make the
argument that too much time in organized activities distracts
students from other important experiences (e.g., family time,
schoolwork) and hinders development. This position, termed the
overscheduling hypothesis (Mahoney, Harris, & Eccles, 2006),
draws support from a tempered version of a zero-sum theoretical
model, which suggests that at high levels of intensity, commit-
ments to extracurricular activities compete with commitments to
academic activities and adversely affect academic performance
(see discussion of the zero-sum and threshold model in Marsh &
Kleitman, 2002). Adverse consequences are often observed only
among youths who participate at extremely high levels, however
(Cooper et al., 1999; Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). For instance,
recent analyses of adolescents’ time diaries from the Panel Study
of Income Dynamics—Child Development Supplement II found
that among some youths (often African American), participating in
organized activities for more than 20 hr per week predicted slightly
lower scores on a few measures of well-being (e.g., self-esteem,
frequency of parent–adolescent discussions) as compared with less
frequent participation (Mahoney et al., 2006). Participating at this
high level generally predicted more positive outcomes than non-
participation, however. Moreover, among those participating less
than 20 hr per week, more frequent participation generally pre-
dicted better well-being (e.g., reading achievement, psychological
adjustment, lack of substance use, and good parent–adolescent
relationships). These findings support the contention that within
the normal range, more intensive participation is often associated
with more positive outcomes.
The Present Study
Extant research suggests that relations between participation in
organized activities and positive youth and young adult develop-
ment may vary as a function of sponsorship, duration, and inten-
sity. Several unanswered questions remain, however. First, inves-
tigations of these three dimensions rarely overlap. It is therefore
unclear whether and to what extent the implications of sponsor-
ship, duration, and intensity vary as a function of each other. For
instance, we know very little about differences in the associations
between temporal participation measures and youth development
across sponsorship categories. Additionally, it is unclear whether
the positive associations between participation intensity and youth
development vary as a function of duration. For instance, partici-
pation duration may be so strongly associated with positive out-
comes that among, youths who score high on duration, more
intensive participation offers few additional benefits. The benefits
related to high scores on duration may represent the ceiling of
benefits attributable to participation in organized activities.
Second, although some researchers have examined associations
between participation in organized activities and young adult out-
comes immediately following high school (i.e., age 20, or 2 years
after high school), the lack of available follow-up data has, until
recently, prevented the examination of relations between partici-
pation and outcomes later in young adulthood. Thus, it is unclear
whether the positive outcomes associated with participation in
organized activities are maintained throughout young adulthood.
We address this question, examining positive young adult out-
comes both 2 and 8 years after high school. We focus on outcomes
in three domains that are developmentally relevant for young
adults: educational attainment, civic engagement, and occupational
success. These three domains tap into four of the five Cs: Educa-
tional attainment reflects positive development in the academic
area of the first C; civic engagement (e.g., volunteering, voting)
reflects positive development in select aspects of the third, fourth,
and fifth Cs; and occupational success reflects positive develop-
ment in the vocational area of the first C. Because our data do not
contain a measure of the second C (i.e., confidence and positive
identity), it was not possible to examine relations between partic-
ipation measures and the higher order “thriving” construct that
arises from the five Cs.
Finally, it is important to acknowledge that young adults who
are successful in one domain are often successful in others. For
instance, U.S. Census data indicate that a greater percentage of
college-educated young adults (67%) than non-college-educated
 ORGANIZED ACTIVITIES AND DEVELOPMENTAL SUCCESS
young adults (38%) voted in a recent election (Holder, 2006).
College-educated young adults also earn more income than non-
college-educated young adults (U.S. Department of Education,
2005). One plausible explanation for this pattern of findings is that
postsecondary education heightens civic awareness and opens the
door to career opportunities that are unavailable to those who do
not continue their education beyond high school. Consequently,
we examine the extent to which educational attainment mediates
positive relations between participation duration and intensity in
adolescence and civic and occupational success in young adult-
hood. To our knowledge, prior studies have not explicitly exam-
ined these pathways.
In summary, using a national longitudinal data set, we attempt to
address three sets of unanswered questions:
1. Is the duration of youths’ participation in organized activities
during high school positively associated with educational, civic,
and occupational success as few as 2, and as many as 8, years after
high school? Do these relations vary as a function of sponsorship?
2. Among those who participate in organized activities during
high school, is more intensive participation linearly associated
with better educational, civic, and occupational outcomes 2 and 8
years after high school? Or, are there diminishing returns in young
adult outcomes at very high levels of intensity? Do associations
between intensity and young adult outcomes vary as a function of
duration? Do relations between intensity and young adult out-
comes vary as a function of sponsorship?
3. Are associations between temporal participation measures
and positive civic and occupational outcomes mediated by educa-
tional attainment?
In an effort to reduce the influence of selection biases, our
analyses control for demographic characteristics (gender, race/
ethnicity, and socioeconomic status) that have been linked to
participation in organized activities (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002;
Wimer et al., 2006) and to developmental success in young adult-
hood (Holder, 2006; Lopez & Kirby, 2005; Planty, Regnier, &
Owings, 2003; U.S. Department of Education, 2005). Although it
was impossible to control for performance on prior measures of
outcome variables (i.e., our models predict young adult outcomes
that have no adolescent equivalents), we control for a variety of
academic, behavioral, and familial constructs that capture impor-
tant dimensions of adolescents’ overall adjustment. Prior findings
from NELS suggest that constructs in these domains have signif-
icant implications for participation in organized activities and
positive young adult outcomes (e.g., Marsh & Kleitman, 2002;
Zaff et al., 2003). We acknowledge that many other unmeasured
characteristics may influence selection into activities, and that the
power to draw causal inference is therefore limited.
Method
Sample
Data for the present study come from NELS, a national, longi-
tudinal study that began with an assessment of 24,599 8th graders
during the spring of 1988. Follow-up assessments were adminis-
tered during 10th grade (N ⫽ 19,394; 70.8% of 8th graders plus
1,970 new responders added at 10th-grade follow-up), 12th grade
(N ⫽ 19,220; 69.6% of 8th graders plus 2,093 new responders
added at 10th- and 12th-grade follow-ups), 2 years after high
817
school (N ⫽ 14,915; 56.2% of 8th graders plus 1,093 new re-
sponders from 10th- and 12th-grade follow-ups), and 8 years after
high school (N ⫽ 12,144; 46.3% of 8th graders plus 760 new
responders from 10th- and 12th-grade follow-ups).2 The sample
for the present study includes those who completed assessments in
10th grade, 12th grade, and 2 and/or 8 years after high school (N ⫽
14,038). From this sample, we excluded those who had dropped
out of high school because they lacked data on school-based
extracurricular activities (n ⫽ 2,009). Additionally, students who
had moved to a new high school between 10th and 12th grades
(n ⫽ 848) or who had missing data on this variable (n ⫽ 152) were
excluded owing to potential substantive differences in their high
school experiences. The analytic sample consists of the remaining
11,029 students (56.9% of the 10th-grade sample).3
Using the entire sample of individuals who had completed at
least one of the surveys administered at 10th grade, 12th grade, 2
years after high school, or 8 years after high school (N ⫽ 20,557),
we compared our analytic sample (N ⫽ 11,029) with excluded
youths (N ⫽ 9,528) on three demographic dimensions: gender,
race/ethnicity, and parent education. There were no significant
differences between the analytic and excluded samples with re-
spect to gender composition. There were, however, differences
among the two samples on race/ethnicity and parent education.
Relative to the analytic sample, excluded youths were less likely to
be Asian/Pacific Islander (3.9% excluded vs. 7.6% analytic),
␹2(1) ⫽ 101.249, p ⬍ .001, and more likely to be Hispanic (13.5%
excluded vs. 12.1% analytic), ␹2(1) ⫽ 7.190, p ⬍ .01, or Native
American (1.4% excluded vs. 0.9% analytic), ␹2(1) ⫽ 9.292, p ⬍
.01.4 Parents of excluded youths, relative to parents of youths in
the analytic sample, were also less likely to have obtained at least
some postsecondary education (68.4% excluded vs. 71.1% ana-
lytic), ␹2(1) ⫽ 14.962, p ⬍ .001. Table 1 presents demographic
information for the analytic sample.
2
The number of new responders at 10th and 12th grades that we report
(i.e., those who did not complete a questionnaire at 8th grade but did
complete a questionnaire at 10th or 12th grade) differs from a similar set
of numbers provided in official NELS documentation. The NELS docu-
mentation reports the number of individuals added to the 8th-grade sample
at the 10th- and 12th-grade follow-ups (the resulting 10th- and 12th-grade
samples are referred to as “freshened” samples). However, in NELS
documentation, the Ns for youths added to the freshened samples at 10th
and 12th grades reflect only those added to the number of sampled
8th-grade youths (N ⫽ 26,432). Not all sampled youths completed an
8th-grade questionnaire, however. The Ns for new responders reported in
this article—which also include nonresponders sampled at 8th grade who
completed 10th- and/or 12th-grade questionnaires—are larger than the Ns
reported for youths in the freshened 10th- and 12th-grade samples in NELS
documentation.
3
Sample sizes for each analysis vary from this figure owing to missing
data on the dependent and/or independent variables. The tables contain the
exact sample size for each analysis.
4
Frequencies for ethnicity and parent education reported for the analytic
sample in the text differ slightly from those reported for the analytic sample
in Table 1. Percentages reported in the text are based on 2 ⫻ 2 cross-
tabulations that use listwise deletion. In the text, missing data for individ-
uals in the excluded sample affect percentages reported for the analytic
sample.
818 GARDNER, ROTH, AND BROOKS-GUNN

Table 1
Frequencies and Descriptive Statistics for Participation, Outcome, and Control Variables

Frequencies Descriptive statistics

Variable N % M SD Min Max

Participation variables

Duration
School-sponsored activities
Nonparticipants 771 7.5
1-year participants 1,844 17.9
2-year participants 7,708 74.7
Community-sponsored activities
Nonparticipants 1,641 15.9
1-year participants 2,832 27.5
2-year participants 5,830 56.6
Intensity
School-sponsored activitiesa
1-year participantsb 1.06 1.28 0.00 5.00
2-year participantsc 2.19 1.24 0.00 5.00
Community-sponsored activitiesd
1-year participantsb 0.55 0.38 0.20 3.00
2-year participantsc 0.78 0.37 0.20 2.60

Young adult outcomes

Two years after high school

Postsecondary attendance
Yes 8,175 74.8
No 2,753 25.2
Volunteering
Yes 4,589 45.9
No 5,416 54.1
Voting
Yes 6,067 55.5
No 4,871 44.5
Eight years after high school
Postsecondary completion
Yes 3,727 40.5
No 5,484 59.5
Volunteering
Yes 3,114 34.1
No 6,029 65.9
Voting
Yes 4,111 45.0
No 5,019 55.0
Full-time employment
Yes 7,123 76.9
No 2,138 23.1
Prior year income $26,086 $20,955 $0 $500,000

Control variables

Gender
Male 5,439 49.3
Female 5,590 50.7
Ethnicity
Black 1,125 10.2
Hispanic 1,356 12.3
Asian/Pacific Islander 842 7.6
Native American 105 1.0
White 7,576 68.8
Parent education
Greater than high school 7,627 70.8
High school or less 3,139 29.2
10th/12th test scores 51.60 9.67 27.86 71.82
10th/12th problem behavior 0.55 0.74 0.00 4.00
10th/12th parental monitoring 2.21 0.58 1.00 3.00
a
School-sponsored intensity scores reflect the total number of hours spent in an average week on all combined school-sponsored extracurricular activities.
b
For 1-year participants intensity scores reflect the frequency of participation during the single year in which youth participated. c For 2-year participants
intensity scores reflect the frequency of participation averaged across 10th and 12th grades. d Community-sponsored intensity scores were computed by
averaging frequency scores across five activities (religious activities, community youth groups, music/art/dance lessons, sports lessons, and community
service).
 ORGANIZED ACTIVITIES AND DEVELOPMENTAL SUCCESS
Measures
Activity Participation Variables
Participation duration. At the 10th- and 12th-grade assess-
ments, students reported whether (i.e., yes or no) and at what level
(i.e., participant or leader) they participated in each of the follow-
ing school-sponsored activities during the past year: sports, cheer-
leading, pom-pom/drill teams, music groups, plays/musicals, stu-
dent government, academic honor societies, newspaper/yearbook,
service clubs, academic clubs, hobby clubs, and FFA/FHA/FTA
(Future Farmers, Homemakers, and Teachers of America) organi-
zations. Students also indicated how frequently they participated in
each of following five organized community-sponsored activities
during the past year: religious activities, community youth groups,
music/art/dance lessons, sports lessons, or community service.5
We used responses to these items to construct four dichotomous
measures of participation: participation in at least one school-
sponsored activity during 10th grade, participation in at least one
school-sponsored activity during 12th grade, participation in at
least one community-sponsored activity during 10th grade, and
participation in at least one community-sponsored activity during
12th grade.6
We constructed separate measures of the duration of youths’
participation in school- and community-sponsored activities using
these dichotomous participation variables. For each of these two
types of activities, youths who did not participate during 10th or
12th grade were assigned a score of 0 (nonparticipants), youths
who participated in 10th or 12th grade but not both grades were
assigned a score of 1 (1-year participants), and youths who par-
ticipated in both 10th and 12th grades were assigned a score of 2
(2-year participants). See Table 1 for frequencies.
Participation intensity. We used data on participation fre-
quency to construct intensity variables. Students reported the total
number of hours that they spent in an average week on all com-
bined school-sponsored extracurricular activities during 10th and
12th grades. We recoded these response scales for consistency
across 10th and 12th grades such that 0 ⫽ no participation in a
typical week, 1 ⫽ less than 1 hr per week, 2 ⫽ 1– 4 hr per week,
3 ⫽ 5–9 hr per week, 4 ⫽ 10 –19 hr per week, and 5 ⫽ 20 hr or
more per week. Students also indicated how often they participated
in each of the five aforementioned organized community-
sponsored activities at each assessment (0 ⫽ never or rarely, 1 ⫽
less than once per week, 2 ⫽ at least once/twice per week, and 3 ⫽
everyday/almost everyday). Frequency scores were averaged
across these five items within each assessment period to yield
separate 10th- and 12th-grade measures of community-sponsored
participation intensity.
Among 2-year participants, frequency scores were averaged
across 10th and 12th grades within sponsorship categories, yield-
ing separate measures of school- and community-sponsored par-
ticipation intensity. For 1-year participants, school- and
community-sponsored intensity scores reflect only the intensity of
participation during the year that youths participated. We present
descriptive statistics for all four intensity variables in Table 1.
Young Adult Outcome Variables
We used data collected 2 and 8 years after high school to
construct outcome variables in three domains: educational attain-
819
ment, civic engagement, and occupational success. In analyses of
outcomes 2 years after high school we examined only educational
attainment and civic engagement. We did not examine occupa-
tional measures 2 years after high school because many individuals
at this age are enrolled in school full time. We examined successes
in all three domains 8 years after high school. All outcome vari-
ables are described below, and descriptive statistics are presented
in Table 1.
Educational attainment. We used postsecondary attendance
(i.e., whether participants attended a postsecondary institution at
any time after completing high school) as a measure of educational
attainment 2 years after high school. Eight years after high school,
attainment was operationalized as completion of a 4-year postsec-
ondary degree. We used self-reports of young adults’ highest level
of education to construct these dichotomous variables.
Civic engagement. We examined two dimensions of civic
engagement: volunteering and voting. Dichotomous measures of
both outcomes were constructed 2 and 8 years after high school.
Two years after high school, we defined volunteering as partici-
pation in at least one service activity sponsored by a postsecondary
institution (i.e., volunteering services to fellow students, volun-
teering services to community groups) or a community-based
agency (e.g., organized volunteer work such as at a hospital,
volunteer work for trade or professional organizations). Eight
years after high school, volunteering was defined as participation
in one or more community-based service activities during the past
year (i.e., volunteering for youth organizations, civic/community
volunteering).
We used single items to measure voting 2 and 8 years after high
school. Two years after high school individuals indicated whether
they voted in a state, local, or national election during the past
year. Eight years after high school participants responded to the
same question but reflected on voting behavior over the prior 2
years.
Occupational success. We examined two measures of occu-
pational success: full-time employment and income. Eight years
after high school, a dichotomous measure of full-time employment
(i.e., 35 hr or more per week) was constructed using self-reports of
hours worked per week. Self-reports of annual income, measured
continuously, were also obtained for the year prior to the 8-year
post-high-school assessment (i.e., 1999). The income distribution
was positively skewed. Thus, we computed and used the natural
log of income in analyses.
5
Students also indicated whether they participated in organized activi-
ties at the 8th-grade assessment. Because data on participation intensity
were not collected during 8th grade, we used only 10th- and 12th-grade
activity data to construct participation variables.
6
The response scale for questions about community-sponsored partici-
pation ranged from 0 to 3, where 0 ⫽ never or rarely participate, 1 ⫽
participate less than once per week, 2 ⫽ participate at least once or twice
per week, 3 ⫽ participate every day or almost every day. These items were
recoded into dichotomous variables, where responses of never or rarely
were reassigned a score of 0, and responses ranging from less than once per
week to every day or almost every day were reassigned a score of 1. Thus,
a score of 0 may occasionally indicate very rare participation rather than
nonparticipation. Previous studies using NELS data have recoded and
dichotomized responses to these items in the same manner (e.g., Zaff et al.,
2003).
820 GARDNER, ROTH, AND BROOKS-GUNN
Control Variables
We controlled for gender (1 ⫽ female), race/ethnicity (four
dummy variables: Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, Native
American vs. White), and socioeconomic status (SES) in all mod-
els. We used a binary parent education measure as a proxy for SES
(1 ⫽ some education beyond high school). Additionally, we con-
trolled for three measures of individual and family adjustment. We
averaged (a) 10th- and 12th-grade scores on standardized tests
(i.e., composite of math and reading scores) to yield a composite
indicator of high school achievement; (b) 10th- and 12th-grade
scores on a measure of getting into trouble at school (0 ⫽ never
and 4 ⫽ 10 or more times per week) to yield a composite indicator
of high school behavior problems; and (c) 10th- and 12th-grade
scores on an item indicating parents’ knowledge of their children’s
friends’ parents (1 ⫽ knows none of friends’ parents and 3 ⫽
knows many of friends’ parents) to yield a composite indicator of
parental monitoring (see Table 1 for descriptive statistics). All
three adjustment variables were centered at their means.
Results
We followed a two-part analysis plan. First, we examined direct
and indirect relations between the duration of youths’ participation
in school- and community-sponsored activities during high school
and positive young adult outcomes 2 and 8 years after high school.
Second, we examined direct and indirect relations between participa-
tion intensity and young adult outcomes in two subsamples of youths,
1- and 2-year participants. We conducted analyses in Stata 8.0 (Stata
Corporation, 2003) using robust standard errors to account for the
clustering of participants within high schools. Because of the large
sample size and the number of models tested, we set the statistical
significance criterion at p ⬍ .01 in all analyses.
Participation Duration and Outcomes in Young Adulthood
Analyses examining participation duration proceeded in two
stages. First, we used linear regression (in analyses of income) and
logistic regression (in all other analyses) to examine the relations
between the duration of participation in school- and community-
sponsored activities and young adult outcomes, net of all controls.7
Duration variables were converted to dummy variables within each
sponsorship category, and 1-year participants were assigned to the
reference category (see Table 2 and Model 1 analyses in Table 3).8
Second, we tested the extent to which postsecondary attendance
(for 2-year outcomes) and completion (for 8-year outcomes) me-
diated relations between participation duration and young adult
civic and occupational outcomes. We followed Baron and Kenny’s
(1986) steps for testing mediation, which require (a) a significant
relation, c, between the independent and dependent variables; (b)
a significant relation, a, between the independent variable and the
mediator; (c) a significant relation, b, between the mediator and the
dependent variable while controlling for the independent variable;
and (d) a significant reduction in the relation between the inde-
pendent and dependent variables when the mediator is included as
a predictor in the model (in this step, the relation between the
independent and dependent variables is denoted c⬘). In keeping
with these guidelines, we tested for mediation only where prior
analyses identified a significant direct relation between duration
and the outcome (i.e., a significant c path) and a significant relation
between duration and our mediating variable, postsecondary atten-
dance or completion (i.e., a significant a path). When these criteria
were met, we included postsecondary attendance or completion as
an additional predictor in models predicting civic and occupational
outcomes (see Model 2 results in Tables 3, 5, and 6).
We used Sobel tests to determine the statistical significance of
indirect relations through postsecondary education when the above
described models revealed significant c, a, and b paths. The Sobel test
assesses the significance of the product a ⫻ b, which is approximately
equivalent to the quantity c – c⬘ when using linear regression (MacK-
innon, Warsi, & Dwyer, 1995). A standard error and z score for the
term a ⫻ b can be calculated using the following formulas: z score ⫽
ab/SEab, where SEab ⫽ (a2SEb2 ⫹ b2SEa2)1/2 (Baron & Kenny, 1986;
Sobel, 1982). Because the Sobel test was developed for use with
linear models, a and b coefficients and their standard errors were
appropriately transformed using procedures for logistic models out-
lined in MacKinnon and Dwyer (1993). The coefficients for the
indirect paths computed using the Sobel method are thus reported as
transformed indirect effects (TIEs). Results support complete media-
tion when (a) the TIE is significant and (b) introducing postsecondary
attendance or completion as a predictor reduces the relation between
duration and the outcome to nonsignificance. Partial mediation, on the
other hand, is supported when the TIE is significant but introducing
postsecondary attendance or completion as a predictor does not com-
pletely eliminate the significant relation between duration and the
outcome.
Direct Relations Between Participation Duration and
Educational Attainment
The duration of participation in school-sponsored activities was
positively associated with educational attainment (see Table 2). Al-
though 1-year participants and nonparticipants did not differ with
respect to postsecondary attendance 2 years after high school, the
odds of attending a postsecondary institution were 54% higher among
2-year participants than among 1-year participants (z ⫽ 6.15, p ⬍
.001). Eight years after high school, the odds of completing a post-
secondary degree were 36% lower among nonparticipants than
7
The goal of this study was to examine the relations between partici-
pation and intensity and young adult outcomes net of controls (rather than
to examine the attenuating effects of specific controls). We therefore do not
present results for models without controls. Tables for models without
controls are available from Margo Gardner upon request.
8
The primary goal of the analyses of participation duration was not to
determine whether 2 years of participation was associated with more
favorable outcomes than nonparticipation. As previously stated, numerous
studies have compared youths who participate in organized activities with
youths who do not participate. Our primary interest was in determining
whether 2 years of participation was associated with more favorable
outcomes than 1 year of participation. Thus, 1-year participants, rather than
nonparticipants, were assigned to the reference category. We did, however,
conduct preliminary bivariate analyses to check the assumption that 2-year
participants demonstrate better young adult outcomes than nonparticipants.
We found that, with one exception, 2-year participants showed more
favorable outcomes than both 1-year participants and nonparticipants. The
only deviation from this pattern was the absence of any differences among
the three participation categories with respect to full-time employment 8
years after high school.
 ORGANIZED ACTIVITIES AND DEVELOPMENTAL SUCCESS 821

Table 2
Direct Relations (Odds Ratios) Between Participation Duration and Educational Attainment

Postsecondary Postsecondary
attendance 2 years completion 8 years
Variable after high school after high school

Control variables
Female 1.30** 1.21*
Black 1.41** 1.32
Hispanic 1.54** 0.79
Asian/Pacific Islander 2.11** 1.93**
Native American 0.91 0.42
Parent education ⬎ high school 2.09** 2.13**
Test scores 1.10** 1.13**
Behavior problems 0.81** 0.83**
Parental monitoring 1.19* 1.30**
Duration variablesa
School-sponsored activities
0 years 0.78 0.64*
2 years 1.54** 1.78**
Community-sponsored activities
0 years 0.82* 0.76*
2 years 1.44** 1.49**
Wald ␹2 1,683.12** 1,719.45**
df 13 13
N 9,679 8,289

Note. Each column is a separate regression model that predicts postsecondary outcomes.
a
One-year participants are the reference group within each sponsorship category.
*
p ⬍ .01. ** p ⬍ .001.

among those who participated in school-sponsored activities for 1
year (z ⫽ –3.01, p ⬍ .01) and 78% higher among those who partic-
ipated in school-sponsored activities for 2 years than among those
who participated for only 1 year (z ⫽ 7.04, p ⬍ .001).
There were differences across all three community-sponsored
participation categories with respect to educational attainment (see
Table 2). Two years after high school, the odds of attending a
postsecondary institution were 18% lower among nonparticipants
than among 1-year participants (z ⫽ –2.62, p ⬍ .01) and 44%
higher among 2-year participants than among 1-year participants
(z ⫽ 5.43, p ⬍ .001). Eight years after high school, the odds of
completing a postsecondary degree were 24% lower among non-
participants than among those who participated in community-
sponsored activities for 1 year (z ⫽ –2.77, p ⬍ .01) and 49%
higher among those who participated in community-sponsored
activities for 2 years than among those who participated for only 1
year (z ⫽ 6.19, p ⬍ .001).
Direct and Indirect Relations Between Participation
Duration and Civic Engagement
Volunteering. Participation in school-sponsored activities was
positively associated with volunteering. Although 1-year partici-
pants and nonparticipants did not differ 2 years after high school,
Model 1 analyses (see Table 3) indicate that the odds of volun-
teering 2 years after high school were 56% greater among those
who participated in school-sponsored activities for 2 years than
among those who participated for 1 year (z ⫽ 6.45, p ⬍ .001).
Postsecondary attendance partially mediated this relation (see
Model 2, Table 3; TIE ⫽ .016, z ⫽ 5.54, p ⬍ .001). Eight years
after high school, Model 1 analyses (see Table 3) suggest that the
odds of volunteering were 46% lower among nonparticipants than
among 1-year participants in school-sponsored activities (z ⫽
– 4.69, p ⬍ .001) and 21% higher among 2-year participants than
among 1-year participants (z ⫽ 2.70, p ⬍ .01). The inverse relation
between nonparticipation (vs. 1 year of participation in school-
sponsored activities) and volunteering 8 years after high school
was partially mediated by postsecondary completion (see Model 2,
Table 3; TIE ⫽ –.004, z ⫽ –2.62, p ⬍ .01), and the positive
relation between 2 years (vs. 1 year) of participation in school-
sponsored activities and 8-year post-high-school volunteering was
completely mediated by postsecondary completion (see Model 2,
Table 3; TIE ⫽ .008, z ⫽ 4.23, p ⬍ .001).
Participation in community-sponsored activities was also
positively associated with volunteering. Two years after high
school, Model 1 analyses (see Table 3) indicate that the odds of
volunteering were 33% lower among nonparticipants than
among 1-year participants (z ⫽ – 4.94, p ⬍ .001) and 91%
higher among 2-year participants than among 1-year partici-
pants (z ⫽ 11.92, p ⬍ .001). Postsecondary attendance par-
tially mediated both of these relations (see Model 2 in Table
3; TIE n o n p a r t i c i p a n t s ⫽ – 0.006, z ⫽ –2.57, p ⬍ .01;
TIE2-year participants ⫽ 0.015, z ⫽ 5.00, p ⬍ .001). Eight years
after high school, Model 1 analyses (see Table 3) indicate that
although youths who participated in community-sponsored ac-
tivities for 1 year did not differ from nonparticipants, the odds
of volunteering were 69% greater among those who participated
in community-sponsored activities for 2 years than among those
who participated for only 1 year (z ⫽ 8.97, p ⬍ .001). The
positive association between 2 years of participation in
community-sponsored activities and volunteering 8 years after
822 GARDNER, ROTH, AND BROOKS-GUNN

Table 3
Regression Coefficients for Relations Between Participation Duration and Civic and Occupational Outcomes

Two years after high school Eight years after high school

Volunteering Voting Volunteering Voting Employment Income

Variable M1a M2 M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2

Controls
Female 0.99 0.97 0.93 0.92 1.29** 1.27** 0.98 0.97 0.44** — ⫺0.33** —
Black 1.33* 1.26* 0.75** 0.74** 1.68** 1.65** 1.34* 1.33* 1.06 — ⫺0.03 —
Hispanic 1.15 1.07 0.66** 0.65** 1.19 1.20 0.91 0.91 0.79* — ⫺0.05 —
Asian/Pacific Islander 1.07 1.00 0.35** 0.35** 1.11 1.08 0.52** 0.51** 0.66** — 0.00 —
Native American 1.52 1.53 0.74 0.76 1.79 1.84 1.03 1.04 0.64 — ⫺0.36* —
Parent ⬎ high school 1.35** 1.21** 1.41** 1.36** 1.21* 1.16* 1.11 1.10 0.97 — 0.02 —
Test scores 1.04** 1.02** 1.02** 1.02** 1.02** 1.01* 1.01** 1.01** 0.99 — 0.01** —
Behavior problems 0.90* 0.93 0.90* 0.91* 1.00 1.02 0.89* 0.90* 0.91 — 0.01 —
Parental monitoring 1.32** 1.28** 1.16** 1.15* 1.36** 1.34** 1.26** 1.25** 1.10 — 0.07** —
Durationb
School-sponsored
0 years 0.82 0.88 0.85 0.86 0.54** 0.54** 0.91 0.91 1.11 — 0.00 —
2 years 1.56** 1.47** 1.25** 1.21* 1.21* 1.18 1.21* 1.19* 1.11 — 0.03 —
Community-sponsored
0 years 0.67** 0.69** 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.76* 0.77* 0.99 — ⫺0.05 —
2 years 1.91** 1.85** 1.24** 1.21** 1.69** 1.64** 1.29** 1.27** 1.01 — 0.02 —
** ** **
Postsecondary education — 2.35 — 1.41 — 1.36 — 1.13 — — — —
Wald ␹2 or Fc 938.33 1,069.61 580.30 616.65 498.34 514.04 334.69 333.94 255.22 — 33.16 —
df 13 14 13 14 13 14 13 14 13 — 13, 1224 —
N 8,887 8,857 9,687 9,648 8,232 8,173 8,221 8,162 8,338 — 7,370 —

Note. Each column is a separate regression model that predicts civic or occupational outcomes. All coefficients are odds ratios from logistic models,
except for coefficients in income models, which are unstandardized betas from a linear model.
a
M1 ⫽ Model 1; M2 ⫽ Model 2. Dash indicates term or model was not tested. M2 was tested only when previous analyses (see Table 2) found direct
relations between duration and postsecondary attendance/completion and M1 analyses found significant direct relations between at least one of the four
duration variables in a given model and the outcome. b One-year participants are the reference group in each sponsorship category. c Multivariate Wald
chi-square values are reported for logistic models, and multivariate F statistics are reported for the linear income model (all are significant at p ⬍ .001).
*
p ⬍ .01. ** p ⬍ .001.

high school was partially mediated by postsecondary comple-
tion (see Model 2, Table 3; TIE ⫽ .006, z ⫽ 4.02, p ⬍ .001).
Voting. School-sponsored participation was associated with
voting only when youths participated for 2 years. There were no
differences between nonparticipants and 1-year participants on
voting 2 years after high school. Model 1 analyses (see Table 3)
indicate that the odds of voting 2 years after high school were 25%
higher among 2-year participants than among 1-year participants
(z ⫽ 3.69, p ⬍ .001), however. Postsecondary attendance partly
mediated this association (see Model 2, Table 3; TIE ⫽ .007, z ⫽
4.45, p ⬍ .001). Eight years after high school, although there were
no differences in voting between nonparticipants and those who
participated in school-sponsored activities for 1 year, Model 1 (see
Table 3) analyses indicate that the odds of voting 8 years after high
school were 21% higher among those who participated in school-
sponsored activities for 2 years compared with those who partic-
ipated for 1 year (z ⫽ 2.82, p ⬍ .01). This relation was not
mediated by postsecondary completion.
Community-sponsored participation was also associated with
voting. Although there were no differences between nonpartici-
pants and 1-year participants 2 years after high school, Model 1
analyses (see Table 3) indicate that the odds of voting 2 years after
high school were 24% higher among 2-year participants than
among 1-year participants (z ⫽ 4.10, p ⬍ .001). Postsecondary
attendance partially mediated this association (see Model 2 in
Table 3; TIE ⫽ .006, z ⫽ 4.15, p ⬍ .001). Eight years after high
school, Model 1 analyses (see Table 3) indicate that the odds of
voting were 24% lower among nonparticipants than among those
who participated in community-sponsored activities for 1 year
(z ⫽ –3.39, p ⬍ .01) and 29% higher among those who partici-
pated in community-sponsored activities for 2 years than among
those who participated for only 1 year (z ⫽ 4.62, p ⬍ .001). These
relations were entirely direct and not mediated by postsecondary
completion.
Direct and Indirect Relations Between Participation
Duration and Occupational Outcomes
Full-time employment. Model 1 analyses (see Table 3) re-
vealed no significant relations between the duration of participa-
tion in school- and community-sponsored activities and the odds of
full-time employment 8 years after high school.
Income. Model 1 analyses (see Table 3) revealed no signifi-
cant relations between the duration of participation in school- or
community-sponsored activities and income 8 years after high
school.
Participation Intensity and Outcomes in Young Adulthood
Intensity was measured differently for 1- and 2-year partici-
pants. For 2-year participants, intensity scores reflect the average
 ORGANIZED ACTIVITIES AND DEVELOPMENTAL SUCCESS 823

Table 4
Direct Relations (Odds Ratios) Between Participation Intensity and Educational Attainment

Postsecondary Postsecondary
attendance 2 years after completion 8 years
high school after high school

Variable M1a M2 M1 M2

Sample: 1-year participants

Control variables
Female 1.38* 1.23 1.21 1.23
Black 1.06 1.47 1.50 1.20
Hispanic 1.49 1.64** 0.83 0.82
Asian/Pacific Islander 1.81 4.93** 2.27* 2.72**
Native American 0.96 1.08 0.23 0.66
Parent education ⬎ high school 1.84** 1.97** 1.95** 1.67**
Test scores 1.08** 1.10** 1.13** 1.14**
Behavior problems 0.84 0.72** 0.79 0.78*
Parental monitoring 1.01 1.11 0.96 1.44**
Intensity
School-sponsored 1.22** — 1.19* —
Community-sponsored — 1.49* — 1.42
Wald ␹2 251.94** 453.83** 217.75** 420.45**
df 10 10 10 10
N 1,680 2,642 1,373 2,218

Sample: 2-year participants

Control variables
Female 1.34** 1.34** 1.29** 1.14
Black 1.72** 1.32 1.33 1.23
Hispanic 1.57** 1.38 0.79 0.75
Asian/Pacific Islander 2.01* 1.26 1.81** 1.62**
Native American 0.70 0.81 0.42 0.40
Parent education ⬎ high school 2.13** 2.09** 2.20** 2.24**
Test scores 1.10** 1.11** 1.13** 1.13**
Behavior problems 0.82** 0.87 0.84* 0.83*
Parental monitoring 1.26** 1.33** 1.32** 1.28**
Intensity
School-sponsored 1.31** — 1.26** —
Community-sponsored — 1.33* — 1.54**
Wald ␹2 1,122.36** 718.46** 1,346.93** 1,012.12**
df 10 10 10 10
N 7,356 5,557 6,394 4,855

Note. Each column is a separate model that predicts postsecondary outcomes.

a
M1 ⫽ Model 1; M2 ⫽ Model 2. Dash indicates term was not tested.
*
p ⬍ .01. **p ⬍ .001.

frequency of participation across 2 years. For 1-year participants,
intensity scores reflect the frequency of participation during a
1-year period. These differences necessitated separate analyses for
1- and 2-year participants.9 Analyses for both subsamples pro-
ceeded in three stages. First, we used logistic and linear regression
to examine direct relations between participation intensity and
young adult outcomes after including controls (see Table 4 and
Model 1 analyses in Tables 5– 6). School- and community-
sponsored participation intensity variables were entered as predic-
tors in separate regression models in order to prevent limiting the
sample to those who participated in both kinds of activities (i.e.,
because analyses use listwise deletion, cases with intensity data for
only one type of activity would be excluded from models exam-
ining both types of activities simultaneously). Second, we added
quadratic intensity terms to these models to test for nonlinear
relations. Quadratic models were considered an improvement over
linear models if the quadratic term was significant at p ⬍ .01 and
the model R2 or pseudo-R2 value increased significantly upon
including the quadratic term. Findings are reported only for qua-
dratic models that meet these criteria. Third, following the proce-
dure described for analyses of duration, we examined indirect
relations between participation intensity and young adult civic and
occupational outcomes via postsecondary attendance and comple-
tion (see Model 2, Tables 5– 6).
9
As noted above, intensity values were computed differently for 1-
versus 2-year participants. Consequently, it was not possible to construct a
single intensity variable to be used in analyses examining interactions
between duration and intensity. We conducted separate intensity analyses
for 1- and 2-year participants as an alternative to interaction analyses.
824 GARDNER, ROTH, AND BROOKS-GUNN
Direct Relations Between Participation Intensity and
Educational Attainment
More intensive participation in school-sponsored activities was
associated with greater educational attainment (see Model 1 anal-
yses, Table 4). Two years after high school, a one-unit increase in
school-sponsored participation intensity was associated with a
22% increase in the odds of postsecondary attendance among
1-year participants (z ⫽ 4.39, p ⬍ .001) and a 31% increase in the
odds of postsecondary attendance among 2-year participants (z ⫽
9.22, p ⬍ .001). Eight years after high school, a one-unit increase
in school-sponsored participation intensity was associated with a
19% increase in the odds of postsecondary completion among
1-year participants (z ⫽ 2.99, p ⬍ .01) and a 26% increase in the
odds of postsecondary completion among 2-year participants (z ⫽
9.51, p ⬍ .001). The addition of a quadratic school-sponsored
intensity term significantly increased the pseudo-R2 value for the
model predicting postsecondary completion among 2-year partici-
pants (R2linear model ⫽ .2325, R2quadratic model ⫽ .2333), F(1, 6382) ⫽
6.66, p ⬍ .01 (quadratic model intensity coefficients: ORlinear ⫽ 1.58,
z ⫽ 5.27, p ⬍ .001; ORquadratic ⫽ 0.95, z ⫽ –2.66, p ⬍ .01). The
positive association between school-sponsored participation intensity
and the odds of postsecondary completion reached a plateau at an
intensity score of 4.60.
More intensive participation in community-sponsored activities
was linearly associated with greater educational attainment (see
Model 2 analyses, Table 4). Two years after high school, a one-
unit increase in community-sponsored participation intensity was
associated with a 49% increase in the odds of postsecondary
attendance among 1-year participants (z ⫽ 3.27, p ⬍ .01) and a
33% increase in the odds of postsecondary attendance among
2-year participants (z ⫽ 2.65, p ⬍ .01). Eight years after high
school, more intensive community-sponsored participation was
not associated with postsecondary completion among 1-year par-
ticipants. A one-unit increase in community-sponsored participa-
tion intensity was, however, associated with a 54% increase in the
odds of postsecondary completion among 2-year participants (z ⫽
4.59, p ⬍ .001).
Direct and Indirect Relations Between Participation
Intensity and Civic Engagement
Volunteering. More intensive participation in school-
sponsored activities was generally associated with better odds of
volunteering. Two years after high school, Model 1 results (see
Table 5) indicate that a one-unit increase in school-sponsored
participation intensity was associated with an 18% increase in the
odds of volunteering among 1-year participants (z ⫽ 3.85, p ⬍
.001). The addition of a quadratic school-sponsored intensity term,
however, significantly increased the pseudo-R2 value for this
model (R2linear model ⫽ .0418, R2quadratic model ⫽ .0507), F(1,
1467) ⫽ 13.75, p ⬍ .01 (quadratic model intensity coefficients:
ORlinear ⫽ 1.88, z ⫽ 5.06, p ⬍ .001; ORquadratic ⫽ 0.88, z ⫽ –3.95,
p ⬍ .001). Among 1-year participants, the odds of volunteering 2
years after high school increased as intensity increased from 0 (no
participation during a typical week) to 2.41 (between 1– 4 and 5–9
hr per week) but decreased thereafter. Moreover, the odds of
volunteering were slightly lower above an intensity score of 4.83
(nearly 20 hr per week) than at an intensity score of 0. This
curvilinear relation was not mediated by postsecondary attendance
(i.e., the quadratic term for school-sponsored participation inten-
sity among 1-year participants did not predict postsecondary at-
tendance). More intensive school-sponsored participation among
2-year participants, however, was linearly related to volunteering 2
years after high school (OR ⫽ 1.23, z ⫽ 9.57, p ⬍ .001). This
linear relation was partially mediated by postsecondary attendance
(see Model 2, Table 5; TIE ⫽ .025, z ⫽ 7.04, p ⬍ .001).
Eight years after high school, school-sponsored participation
intensity was not associated with volunteering among 1-year par-
ticipants. Among 2-year participants, however, Model 1 results
(see Table 5) suggest that a one-unit increase in school-sponsored
participation intensity was associated with a 14% increase in the
odds of volunteering 8 years after high school (z ⫽ 6.15, p ⬍
.001). Postsecondary completion partly mediated this relation (see
Model 2, Table 5; TIE ⫽ .010, z ⫽ 4.15, p ⬍ .001).
More intensive participation in community-sponsored activ-
ities was also associated with better odds of volunteering. Two
years after high school, Model 1 analyses (see Table 6) indicate
that a one-unit increase in community-sponsored participation
intensity was associated with a 46% increase in the odds of
volunteering among 1-year participants (z ⫽ 3.43, p ⬍ .01) and
a dramatic 196% increase in the odds of volunteering among
2-year participants (z ⫽ 12.91, p ⬍ .001). For 1-year partici-
pants, this relation was partially mediated by postsecondary
attendance (see Model 2, Table 6; TIE ⫽ .017, z ⫽ 3.06, p ⬍
.01). The TIE through postsecondary attendance was not sig-
nificant for 2-year participants. Eight years after high school,
Model 1 results (see Table 6) suggest that a one-unit increase in
community-sponsored participation intensity, though not asso-
ciated with volunteering among 1-year participants, was asso-
ciated with a 132% increase in the odds of volunteering among
2-year participants (z ⫽ 9.90, p ⬍ .001). Postsecondary com-
pletion partially mediated this association (see Model 2, Table
6; TIE ⫽ .005, z ⫽ 3.03, p ⬍ .01).
Voting. We found limited relations between school-
sponsored participation intensity and voting. Two years after
high school, Model 1 analyses (see Table 5) reveal no direct
relations between school-sponsored intensity and voting among
1- or 2-year participants. Eight years after high school, Model
1 results (see Table 5) indicate that a one-unit increase in
school-sponsored participation intensity was directly associated
with a 14% increase in the odds of voting among 1-year
participants (z ⫽ 2.92, p ⬍ .01). This relation was not mediated
by postsecondary completion. Among 2-year participants,
school-sponsored participation intensity was not associated
with voting 8 years after high school.
We also found few positive associations between community-
sponsored participation intensity and voting. Two years after high
school, more intensive participation in community-sponsored ac-
tivities was not associated with voting among 1-year participants.
Among 2-year participants, however, Model 1 results (see Table 6)
indicate that a one-unit increase in participation intensity was
directly associated with a 26% increase in the odds of voting 2
years after high school (z ⫽ 2.88, p ⬍ .01). This relation was not
mediated by postsecondary attendance (i.e., the TIE was not sig-
nificant). Similarly, 8 years after high school, more intensive
participation in community-sponsored activities was not associated
with voting among 1-year participants. Among 2-year participants,
 ORGANIZED ACTIVITIES AND DEVELOPMENTAL SUCCESS 825

Table 5
Regression Coefficients for Relations Between School-Sponsored Participation Intensity and Civic and Occupational Outcomes

Two years after high school Eight years after high school

Volunteering Voting Volunteering Voting Employment Income

Variable M1a M2 M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2

Sample: 1-year participants in school-sponsored activities

Controls
Female 0.99 — 0.85 — 1.45* — 0.90 0.89 0.38** — ⫺0.37** —
Black 1.09 — 0.67 — 1.75* — 0.94 0.93 1.20 — ⫺0.06 —
Hispanic 1.34 — 0.51** — 1.41 — 0.59* 0.60* 0.77 — ⫺0.12 —
Asian/Pacific Islander 0.95 — 0.29** — 0.95 — 0.51* 0.48* 0.86 — 0.09 —
Native American 1.94 — 0.51 — 1.98 — 0.57 0.59 0.41 — ⫺0.28 —
Parent ⬎ high school 1.45* — 1.23 — 1.32 — 1.00 0.98 0.85 — ⫺0.02 —
Test scores 1.03** — 1.01 — 1.01 — 1.01 1.00 1.00 — 0.01** —
Behavior problems 0.88 — 0.92 — 0.96 — 0.94 0.94 0.89 — 0.00 —
Parental monitoring 1.38* — 1.11 — 1.32 — 1.50** 1.52** 1.00 — 0.06 —
Intensity 1.18* — 1.07 — 1.10 — 1.14* 1.12 0.99 — 0.04 —
Postsecondary education — — — — — — — 1.35 — — — —
Wald ␹2 or Fb 65.73 — 69.35 — 38.21 — 52.51 56.31 55.73 — 11.55 —
df 10 — 10 — 10 — 10 11 10 — 10, 682 —
N 1,479 — 1,690 — 1,357 — 1,355 1,346 1,380 — 1,188 —

Sample: 2-year participants in school-sponsored activities

Controls
Female 1.08 1.05 0.99 — 1.28** 1.26** 1.01 — 0.46** 0.45** ⫺0.31** ⫺0.32**
Black 1.43** 1.34* 0.80 — 1.79** 1.76** 1.52** — 1.08 1.04 ⫺0.02 ⫺0.03
Hispanic 1.04 0.98 0.69** — 1.11 1.12 0.97 — 0.84 0.85 ⫺0.04 ⫺0.03
Asian/Pacific Islander 1.04 0.99 0.38** — 1.16 1.14 0.55** — 0.67** 0.64** 0.01 ⫺0.02
Native American 1.37 1.40 0.86 — 1.60 1.65 1.08 — 0.77 0.78 ⫺0.40 ⫺0.38
Parent ⬎ high school 1.40** 1.27** 1.49** — 1.26** 1.20* 1.22* — 0.99 0.93 0.03 0.00
Test scores 1.04** 1.03** 1.03** — 1.02** 1.01* 1.02** — 0.99* 0.98** 0.01** 0.00
Behavior problems 0.92 0.94 0.89* — 0.98 1.00 0.87* — 0.91 0.93 0.01 0.02
Parental monitoring 1.33** 1.29** 1.18** — 1.40** 1.38** 1.26** — 1.13 1.11 0.07** 0.06*
Intensity 1.23** 1.20** 1.04 — 1.14** 1.13** 1.04 — 1.08* 1.05 0.04** 0.03**
Postsecondary education — 2.26** — — — 1.33** — — — 1.61** — 0.23**
Wald ␹2 or Fb 437.64 531.95 336.88 — 227.10 244.25 157.25 — 200.17 226.58 34.03 40.59
df 10 11 10 — 10 11 10 — 10 11 10, 1149 11, 1147
N 6,866 6,847 7,355 — 6,355 6,311 6,346 — 6,431 6,381 5,715 5,676

Note. Each column is a separate regression model that predicts civic or occupational outcomes. All coefficients are odds ratios from logistic models,
except for coefficients in income models, which are unstandardized betas from linear models.
a
M1 ⫽ Model 1; M2 ⫽ Model 2. Dash indicates term or model was not tested. M2 was tested only when previous analyses (see Table 4) revealed direct
relations between intensity and postsecondary attendance/completion and M1 analyses revealed significant direct relations between intensity and outcomes.
b
Multivariate Wald chi-square values are reported for logistic models, and multivariate F statistics are reported for linear income models (all are significant
at p ⬍ .001).
*
p ⬍ .01. ** p ⬍ .001.

however, a one-unit increase in community-sponsored participa-
tion intensity was directly associated with a 34% increase in the
odds of voting (z ⫽ 3.67, p ⬍ .001; see Model 1 in Table 6).
Postsecondary completion did not mediate this relation.
Direct and Indirect Relations Between Participation
Intensity and Occupational Outcomes
Full-time employment. More intensive participation in school-
sponsored activities was not associated with employment among
1-year participants. Among 2-year participants, however, Model 1
results (see Table 5) reveal that a one-unit increase in school-
sponsored participation intensity was associated with an 8% in-
crease in the odds of full-time employment (z ⫽ 2.80, p ⬍ .01).
Postsecondary completion completely mediated this relation (see
Model 2, Table 5; TIE ⫽ .016, z ⫽ 5.31, p ⬍ .001). The intensity
of youths’ participation in community-sponsored activities was not
associated with full-time employment.
Income. Although more intensive participation in school-
sponsored activities was not associated with income among 1-year
participants, Model 1 results (see Table 5) reveal a positive asso-
ciation between school-sponsored participation intensity and in-
come among 2-year participants (␤ ⫽ .04, t ⫽ 5.50, p ⬍ .001).
Postsecondary completion partially mediated this association (see
Model 2, Table 5; TIE ⫽ .029, z ⫽ 7.00, p ⬍ .001). The intensity
of youths’ participation in community-sponsored activities was not
associated with income.
826 GARDNER, ROTH, AND BROOKS-GUNN

Table 6
Regression Coefficients for Relations Between Community-Sponsored Participation Intensity and Civic and Occupational Outcomes

Two years after high school Eight years after high school

Volunteering Voting Volunteering Voting Employment Income

Variable M1a M2 M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2

Sample: 1-year participants in community-sponsored activities

Controls
Female 0.99 0.95 1.00 — 1.39* — 0.91 — 0.38** — ⫺0.35** —
Black 1.26 1.16 0.71 — 1.53* — 1.30 — 0.94 — ⫺0.08 —
Hispanic 1.16 1.05 0.60** — 1.20 — 0.91 — 0.66* — ⫺0.10 —
Asian/Pacific Islander 1.18 1.01 0.32** — 0.91 — 0.40** — 0.65 — 0.02 —
Native American 1.84 1.81 0.54 — 2.52* — 1.41 — 0.62 — ⫺0.28 —
Parent ⬎ HS 1.42* 1.27 1.31* — 1.21 — 1.11 — 0.87 — ⫺0.05 —
Test scores 1.03** 1.01 1.02* — 1.02* — 1.01 — 1.01 — 0.01** —
Behavior problems 0.88 0.93 0.96 — 0.94 — 0.93 — 0.91 — 0.01 —
Parental monitoring 1.40** 1.36** 1.11 — 1.19 — 1.41** — 1.09 — 0.08 —
Intensity 1.46* 1.35* 1.22 — 1.27 — 1.02 — 0.90 — 0.01 —
Postsecondary education — 2.73** — — — — — — — — — —
Wald ␹2 or Fb 96.01 161.55 103.07 — 49.22 — 53.72 — 97.86 — 13.76 —
df 10 11 10 — 10 — 10 — 10 — 10, 878 —
N 2,387 2,376 2,648 — 2,206 — 2,201 — 2,242 — 1,983 —

Sample: 2-year participants in community-sponsored activities

Controls
Female 0.98 0.97 0.89 0.88 1.16 1.15 1.03 1.03 0.46** — ⫺0.30** —
Black 1.34* 1.29 0.77 0.76* 1.61** 1.61** 1.36* 1.36* 1.16 — ⫺0.04 —
Hispanic 1.12 1.08 0.64** 0.63** 1.15 1.17 0.96 0.96 0.89 — ⫺0.05 —
Asian/Pacific Islander 1.01 0.98 0.39** 0.39** 1.15 1.14 0.56** 0.56** 0.70* — 0.04 —
Native American 1.23 1.24 0.72 0.72 1.59 1.66 0.77 0.79 0.59 — ⫺0.72 —
Parent ⬎ high school 1.29* 1.18 1.45** 1.40** 1.18 1.13 1.06 1.05 1.06 — 0.06 —
Test scores 1.04** 1.03** 1.03** 1.02** 1.02** 1.02** 1.02** 1.02** 0.99* — 0.01** —
Behavior problems 0.87* 0.89 0.83** 0.83** 1.01 1.03 0.86* 0.87* 0.88 — 0.00 —
Parental monitoring 1.29** 1.25** 1.25** 1.23** 1.32** 1.30** 1.22* 1.20* 1.16 — 0.07* —
Intensity 2.96** 2.93** 1.26* 1.25* 2.32** 2.25** 1.34** 1.33** 0.88 — 0.00 —
Postsecondary education — 2.08** — 1.37** — 1.32** — 1.11 — — — —
Wald ␹2 or Fb 401.27 482.05 276.95 290.11 222.91 321.24 126.10 124.93 143.57 — 23.17 —
df 10 11 10 11 10 11 10 10 10 — 10; 1,088 —
N 5,202 5,184 5,561 5,542 4,817 4,791 4,813 4,787 4,872 — 4,314 —

Note. Each column is a separate regression model that predicts civic or occupational outcomes. All coefficients are odds ratios from logistic models,
except for coefficients in income models, which are unstandardized betas from linear models.
a
M1 ⫽ Model 1; M2 ⫽ Model 2. Dash indicates term or model was not tested. M2 was tested only when previous analyses (see Table 4) revealed direct
relations between intensity and postsecondary attendance/completion and M1 analyses revealed significant direct relations between intensity and civic or
occupational outcomes. b Multivariate Wald chi-square values are reported for logistic models, and multivariate F statistics are reported for linear income
models (all are significant at p ⬍ .001).
*
p ⬍ .01. ** p ⬍ .001.

Discussion have simply documented relations between participation duration

Consistent with extant theory and research, our findings dem-
onstrate that participation in organized activities during high
school is positively associated with educational, civic, and, to
some extent, occupational success in young adulthood. Our find-
ings extend prior research and suggest that adolescents who par-
ticipate in organized activities intensively and over a period of 2
years (vs. 1) are particularly likely to achieve these successes in
young adulthood. Perhaps most impressive, we found that the
associations between participation intensity and duration and pos-
itive development extend well into young adulthood, as many as 8
years after high school. The relations between temporal dimen-
sions of participation and young adult outcomes are not always
straightforward, however. Our findings build on prior studies that
and intensity and young adult outcomes (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002;
Swanson, 2002; Zaff et al., 2003), and suggest that we must
consider the complex interplay between duration, intensity, and
sponsorship, as well as the paths that link participation to young
adult outcomes (see results summary in Table 7). We highlight
these new findings as we discuss each of our research questions.
We first asked whether adolescents who participate in organized
activities over 2 years achieve greater young adult success than
those who participate for a single year. In keeping with limited
extant research (e.g., Mahoney et al., 2003; Zaff et al., 2003), we
found that although 1 year of participation in school- or
community-sponsored activities during adolescence was associ-
ated with some positive young adult outcomes, 2 years of partic-
 ORGANIZED ACTIVITIES AND DEVELOPMENTAL SUCCESS 827

Table 7
Summary of Direct and Mediated Relations Between Participation Variables and Young Adult Outcomes

Two years after high school Eight years after high school

Postsecondary Postsecondary
Variable attendance Volunteering Voting completion Volunteering Voting Employment Income

Duration analyses
School-sponsored
0 years NS NS NS ⫹ ⫹/P NS NS NS
2 years ⫹ ⫹/P ⫹/P ⫹ ⫹/C ⫹ NS NS
Community-sponsored
0 years ⫹ ⫹/P NS ⫹ NS ⫹ NS NS
2 years ⫹ ⫹/P ⫹/P ⫹ ⫹/P ⫹ NS NS
Intensity analyses
School-sponsored
1-year sample ⫹ ⫹q NS ⫹ NS ⫹ NS NS
2-year sample ⫹ ⫹/P NS ⫹q ⫹/P NS ⫹/C ⫹/P
Community-sponsored
1-year sample ⫹ ⫹/P NS NS NS NS NS NS
2-year sample ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹/P ⫹ NS NS

Note. NS ⫽ nonsignificant relation; ⫹ ⫽ significant direct relation; P ⫽ partial mediation (direct relation remains significant after adding postsecondary
predictor, but indirect path through postsecondary education is significant); C ⫽ complete mediation (direct relation is no longer significant after adding
postsecondary predictor, and indirect path through postsecondary education is significant); superscript q ⫽ quadratic relation.

ipation was associated with even greater odds of postsecondary
attendance and completion and greater odds of civic engagement 2
and 8 years after high school (see Table 7). This was true regard-
less of sponsorship. Prior analyses of NELS data have identified
positive relations between multiple years of participation in orga-
nized activities (measured without regard to sponsorship) and
educational and civic outcomes 2 years after high school (Zaff et
al., 2003), but our results are novel in that they suggest that (a) the
relations between participation duration and positive educational
and civic outcomes are maintained throughout much of young
adulthood (i.e., 8 years after high school) and (b) the relations
between participation duration and positive young adult outcomes
vary little as a function of sponsorship.
Although our analyses do not permit definitive conclusions
about causality, one explanation for the positive associations be-
tween participation duration and educational and civic outcomes is
that youths who participate over 2 years (as opposed to 1 year)
have more exposure to the developmental supports and opportu-
nities afforded by organized activities and therefore derive greater
benefits from participation. Another explanation is that longer
periods of participation facilitate the kind of positive interpersonal
relationships that are thought to encourage positive youth devel-
opment (Eccles & Gootman, 2002; Roth et al., 1998). Because our
measure of duration does not address changes in specific activities
between 10th and 12th grade (e.g., a switch from school orchestra
in 10th grade to school service clubs in 12th grade), the present
findings cannot be interpreted as clear support for the second
explanation. Both explanations should be investigated in future
research.
We did not find positive associations between participation
duration and occupational success in young adulthood (see Table
7). This was true regardless of sponsorship. This is not completely
surprising given results from recent analyses of NELS data sug-
gesting that participation in varsity and elite school sports (e.g., as
a team captain), but not intramural or junior varsity sports, is
positively associated with full-time employment and income in
young adulthood (Carlson, Scott, Planty, & Thompson, 2005).
These findings might be interpreted as evidence that intensity
plays an important role in predicting occupational outcomes, as
elite/varsity athletes likely invest significantly more time in sports
than intramural/junior varsity athletes. Consistent with this hypoth-
esis, our analyses revealed that more intensive participation in
school-sponsored activities among 2-year participants was, in fact,
associated with greater occupational success in young adulthood.
Participation in organized activities over longer periods of time at
lower levels of intensity, however, may not be sufficient to facil-
itate greater occupational success in young adulthood. It is unclear
why the same does not appear to be true for educational or civic
outcomes (i.e., why duration alone is sufficient to predict greater
educational and civic success). One plausible explanation stems
from the fact that entry into the workforce often occurs long after
exiting high school (i.e., after completion of postsecondary edu-
cation), and occupational success, unlike civic involvement, re-
quires a daily commitment. Associations between activity partic-
ipation and later occupational success may therefore occur only
after youths exceed a uniquely high participation threshold.
In our second research question, we asked whether more inten-
sive participation in school- or community-sponsored activities
during high school is associated with more favorable outcomes in
young adulthood. Consistent with studies that find positive rela-
tions between participation intensity and youth and young adult
outcomes (e.g., Darling, 2005; Marsh & Kleitman, 2002), we
found many positive associations between participation intensity
during high school and educational and civic outcomes in young
adulthood. As discussed previously, we also found some positive
associations between participation intensity and occupational out-
comes in young adulthood (see Table 7). Moreover, analyses
largely failed to support the overscheduling hypothesis—the no-
tion that very intensive participation limits opportunities for other
enriching experiences and hinders development (Cooper et al.,
828 GARDNER, ROTH, AND BROOKS-GUNN
1999; Mahoney et al., 2006; Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). We de-
tected only two curvilinear associations between participation in-
tensity and young adult outcomes. First, among 2-year partici-
pants, the positive relation between more intensive participation in
school-sponsored activities and the odds of postsecondary com-
pletion reached a plateau between 10 –19 and 20 hr per week.
Counter to the overscheduling hypothesis, however, the odds of
postsecondary completion did not decline between 10 –19 and 20
hr per week. Second, up to 4 hr per week, more intensive partic-
ipation in school-sponsored activities among 1-year participants
was positively associated with volunteering 2 years after high
school, but as participation increased to 5–9 hr per week, the odds
of volunteering declined. It is noteworthy, however, that for the
vast majority of 1-year participants (the 87% who participated 4 hr
per week or less), more intensive participation in school-sponsored
activities predicted greater odds of volunteering 2 years after high
school. In the context of all other results obtained in the present
study, these findings provide little evidence for the adverse con-
sequences of very intensive participation.
The positive associations between participation intensity and
young adult successes were not unconditional, however, and were
often contingent on the length of time that youths participated (see
Table 7). Among those who participated for 2 years, more inten-
sive participation in school- and/or community-sponsored activi-
ties was associated with more favorable educational, civic, and
occupational outcomes both 2 and 8 years after high school. This
suggests that more intensive participation in organized activities is
associated with gains in young adult outcomes beyond those
associated with participation over an extended period of time (i.e.,
2 years). On the other hand, among those who participated in
organized activities for only 1 year, there were very limited pos-
itive associations between participation intensity and young adult
outcomes. More intensive participation in school-sponsored activ-
ities among 1-year participants was ultimately (i.e., 8 years after
high school) associated with only postsecondary completion and
voting, and more intensive participation in community-sponsored
activities among 1-year participants was not associated with any of
the outcomes measured 8 years after high school. Prior studies of
NELS data have documented positive relations between participa-
tion intensity and postsecondary attendance (e.g., Marsh & Kleit-
man, 2002; Swanson, 2002), but to our knowledge, this is the first
study to explicitly consider the intersection of intensity and dura-
tion.
The present findings do not explain why more intensive partic-
ipation should be associated with fewer positive outcomes when
participation is limited to 1 year. One contributing factor may be
that adolescents who participate in organized activities for 1 year
tend to participate less frequently than youths who participate over
a period of 2 years (see Table 1). If the links between participation
intensity and positive development are at least partly explained by
greater exposure to the developmental supports and opportunities
provided by organized activities, one plausible explanation is that
youths must exceed a minimum intensity threshold (i.e., a mini-
mum amount of exposure to supports and opportunities) before
positive young adult outcomes are observed. The failure to find
consistently positive associations between intensity and young
adult outcomes among those who participated in organized activ-
ities for only 1 year might stem from the fact that too few of these
individuals exceeded the minimum intensity threshold. Our anal-
yses were not designed to address this question, however, and
future research is needed to determine how much time youths must
spend in activities before positive outcomes are observed (Riggs &
Greenberg, 2004).
Differences in the relations between participation intensity and
young adult outcomes as a function of sponsorship are also diffi-
cult to explain. Ultimately (i.e., 8 years after high school), we
found fewer associations between community-sponsored partici-
pation intensity and young adult outcomes than between school-
sponsored participation intensity and young adult outcomes. Dif-
ferences in the average frequency of youths’ participation in
school- versus community-sponsored activities may, for reasons
discussed in the preceding paragraph, partly explain this discrep-
ancy (i.e., on average, youths may spend less time in community-
sponsored activities than in school-sponsored activities). We can-
not make this determination on the basis of the present findings,
however, because our school- and community-sponsored intensity
scales are not equivalent. Future studies using more comparable
measures of school- and community-sponsored participation inten-
sity are needed in order to determine whether these discrepant
findings are a measurement artifacts, and if not, whether they may
be attributed to differences in youths’ participation intensity across
sponsorship categories.
Sponsorship also had noteworthy implications for the relation
between participation intensity and occupational outcomes. We
found that among 2-year participants, more intensive participation
in school-sponsored, but not community-sponsored, activities was
positively associated with full-time employment and income. One
plausible explanation, worthy of further research, is that school-
sponsored activities, relative to community-sponsored activities,
offer developmental supports and opportunities that are more
relevant for later occupational success. It is also possible that
specific types of school-sponsored activities are driving these
findings. As previously noted, recent analyses of NELS data show
that participation in elite school-sponsored athletics is positively
associated with full-time employment and income (Carlson et al.,
2005). If relations between participation intensity and occupational
outcomes are specific to school-sponsored sports, this would ex-
plain why we did not find associations between community-
sponsored participation intensity and occupational success. To test
this hypothesis, future investigations should examine relations
between participation intensity and occupational outcomes across
different types of activities (varsity sports vs. band/orchestra,
academic clubs, etc.).
In our final research question, we asked whether participation
duration and intensity are indirectly associated with positive young
adult civic and occupational outcomes via educational attainment.
Except for the fully direct associations between participation and
voting 8 years after high school, we found that all significant
relations between the duration of participation in organized activ-
ities during adolescence and young adult civic and occupational
outcomes were at least partly mediated by postsecondary atten-
dance or completion (see Table 7). Similar findings emerged in
analyses of participation intensity—particularly with respect to
outcomes measured 8 years after high school. With the exception
of relations between intensity and voting, all significant relations
between participation intensity and civic and occupational out-
comes 8 years after high school were at least partly mediated by
postsecondary completion. In other words, youths who partici-
 ORGANIZED ACTIVITIES AND DEVELOPMENTAL SUCCESS
pated in organized activities more frequently and/or over a longer
period of time were more likely to attend and graduate from a
postsecondary institution and, in turn, were more likely to volun-
teer and achieve occupational success 8 years after high school.
These findings are consistent with the notion that completion of a
4-year postsecondary degree encourages civic awareness and
opens the door to career opportunities that may be unavailable to
those who do not continue their education beyond high school. To
our knowledge, these findings are a novel contribution to the
literature on temporal participation measures and civic and occu-
pational success in young adulthood.
Although our findings make a relatively compelling case for the
value of intensive involvement in organized activities over a
period of more than 1 year, it is important to acknowledge several
limitations. First, although we have controlled for a number of
selection factors, it is never possible to control for all factors that
predict both participation and outcomes. Unmeasured selection
factors may at least partly account for the apparent relations
between temporal participation measures and positive young adult
outcomes. Likewise, we cannot rule out the possibility that selec-
tion at least partly explains the observed relations between post-
secondary education and civic and occupational outcomes. Recent
findings suggest that many of the cognitive and socioemotional
skills that predict educational attainment also predict occupational
outcomes (Heckman, Stixrud, & Urzua, 2006). We therefore cau-
tion against attributing a causal role to participation in organized
activities or to postsecondary attendance and completion. More-
over, we suggest that future studies include analyses that more
explicitly consider the role of selection (e.g., analyses examining
interactions between temporal measures of participation and youth
characteristics related to selection).
Second, our measures of participation are general and do not
assess several more specific dimensions of participation that have
probable implications for young adult outcomes. Although we
found that lengthier periods of involvement in organized activities
were associated with better young adult outcomes, our measure of
duration did not assess the continuity of youths’ participation in
specific activities (e.g., whether youths participated in band in 10th
and 12th grades or switched to an academic club in 12th grade).
Additionally, our measure of duration did not distinguish between
1-year participants who dropped out of activities after 10th grade
versus those who joined activities during 12th grade. Analyses
examining these detailed aspects of duration were beyond the
scope of the present study, but they are important steps for future
research. Conclusions about the value of more intensive participa-
tion must also be tempered by recognition of the imprecise method
of measuring participation frequency. Participation in some activ-
ities fluctuates markedly across seasons (e.g., marching bands
practice more intensively in the fall than in the spring) and may not
be adequately captured by measures of the frequency of partici-
pation in an “average” week. Intensity measures that do not ac-
count for these fluctuations (such as those available in NELS) may
result in inaccurately estimated intensity coefficients for youth in
seasonal activities (McHale, Crouter, & Tucker, 2001).
Third, we did not consider the implications of simultaneous
participation in more than one kind of activity. Our findings
suggest that school- and community-sponsored activities are sim-
ilarly associated with young adult outcomes, but it is impossible to
determine whether this is because school- and community-
829
sponsored activities are truly associated with similar young adult
outcomes or because adolescents who participate in one kind of
activity also participate in the other. This is a question we plan to
address in future research.
Finally, though the NELS data set lacks measures of activity
quality, it is important to point out that the positive relations
between participation duration and intensity and young adult out-
comes likely depend on the quality of the activities that youths
participate in. Several studies highlight the developmental risks
associated with participation in poor quality activities (e.g., Ma-
honey & Stattin, 2000; Smith & Smoll, 1997; Vandell, Shumow, &
Posner, 2005). Thus, we strongly caution against the conclusion
that intensive participation in any organized activity over a period
of more than 1 year, regardless of quality, should necessarily
predict positive young adult outcomes.
Despite these qualifications, the results of the present study clearly
suggest that greater involvement in organized activities during high
school, whether measured in terms of duration or intensity, is asso-
ciated with better odds of educational, civic, and, to some extent,
occupational success in young adulthood. Our findings further indi-
cate that adolescents who score high on both temporal dimensions of
participation (i.e., duration and intensity) may be particularly likely to
demonstrate advantageous outcomes as young adults. Finally, our
results show that, with few exceptions, the developmental implica-
tions of participation duration and intensity are similar across spon-
sorship categories. Although longer term, intensive participation in
organized activities was associated with occupational success only
among those who participated in school-sponsored activities, longer
term, intensive participation in school- or community-sponsored ac-
tivities was often associated with better educational and civic (partic-
ularly volunteering) outcomes. These findings provide a nuanced
view of the associations between participation in organized activities
and young adult development and extend prior studies that have
measured participation without regard to duration, intensity, or spon-
sorship. The mechanisms that link participation duration and intensity
to positive young adult outcomes remain poorly understood, however.
We find that educational success partly explains the link between
participation in organized activities and young adult civic and occu-
pational success, but the pathways that link participation duration and
intensity to educational success remain less clear. This is a critically
important question for future research, and the answer may be the key
to developing youth activities that prepare adolescents to meet the
challenges of young adulthood.
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Received January 5, 2007
Revision received October 17, 2007
Accepted November 29, 2007 䡲