CHAPTER - V

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

THE ORIGIN OF THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA:

The idea of community development is gaining

wide acceptance among the developing nations. Local

initiative and self-help existed in ancient and modern

societies. But in the post-war world it has become more

comprehensive in character. It has been confined to

voluntary efforts and technical skills. It has been

redesigned in its organization as an organic component

of national economic and social development programme. Such

comprehensive and organized community development programmes

have been taken up in developing countries. The situation

and conditions commonly found in these countries have

necessiated the launching of such programmes. The principal

features of this situation are poverty of the people and

their Government, a very low level of production due to

employment of primitive methods of production, lack of

resources for investment in development work and a very low

rate of capital formation, considerable unemployment and

more under-employment and isolation of some rural

communities. They form a large chunk of the rural population

and their social and community life is often in state of

disintegration and decay. The magnitude of illiteracy is

very high and the people have a very low capacity to take

advantage of scientific and technological advances because

they have neither the resources nor the knowledge.

EARLY EFFORTS AND APPROACHES IN INDIA:

There were some magnificent beginnings in

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community development work in India since the beginning of

the twentieth century. They suffered from limitations in

scope and organization and from lack of continuity. These

efforts awakened interest in village uplift and became the

basis for more comprehensive national programmes of

community development later.

RURAL RECONSTRUCTION SCHEME OF SIR DANIEL HAMILTON IN

SUNDARBAN, BENGAL:(19 0 3):

As early as 1903 Sri Daniel Hamilton had

experimented with creating model villages along co-operative

lines in Sunderban region of Bengal. This work continued

with the organization of a Central Co-operative Bank and

Co-operative Marketing Society in 1924 and formation of a

Rural Reconstruction Institute in 1934. This institute

offered training in cottage industry.

SRINIKETAN RECONSTRUCTION WORK (1921):

Rabindranath Tagore was the pioneer of rural

reconstruction. As early as 1921, he started his rural

reconstruction work at Srineketan. There was close

congruence between his ideas and those of Gandhiji. He

emphasised the development of self-reliance and self-respect

in the village communities; the revival of ancient culture;

and physical, economic and social progress through the

adoption of modern methods and techniques. He established an

Institute of Rural Reconstruction and organized

demonstrations of improved and scientific farming. He

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established Sriniketan which foreshadowed the re-emergence

of rural industries. According to his plan the Institute was

to have links with the Government agencies; but it was

expected not to operate on the routine civil services

modus operand!. Nation^l^building is a gigantic task. It can

never be shouldered by an individual or a small group. All

the people need to participate in this challenging task. To

start with, this programme met with several obstacles and it

was almost on the throes of failure; but ultimately it

emerged as a successful educational endeavour.

THE GURGAON EXPERIMENT (1927);

Frank Lugard Brayne was an Assistant

Commissioner in Punjab with just a few years of service in

the Indian Civil Service cadre. After understanding the

rural problems, in 1927, he evolved what he called a new

technique of village development "the Gurgaon Scheme". He

emphasised the concept of self-help with the assistance and

guidance of the Government. The programme consisted of

institutional work, rural sanitation, development of

agriculture, education, co-operation, co-ordination and

social reform. Mr.Brayne strongly • believed that the village

development work should be launched on a large scale by a

special agency with its own staff, training institutions and

resources. A well conceived administrative arrangement was

evolved with its full time chairman, liaison officer,

village guide etc. The experiment definitely demonstrated

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the efficacy of the guide-system. The programme was a great

success. The programme, however, collapsed soon after the

withdrawal of Mr.Brayne from the scene.

MARTHANDAM PROJECT OF KERALA (1928):

Dr.Spencer Hatch, the American agricultural

expert of Young Men's Christian Association set up a project

in 1928 at Marthandam in Kerala to alleviate the poverty of

the rural masses. The "Rural Demonstration Centre" was an

extension centre to teach the poor in relying upon self-help.

In each Rural Demonstration Centre technical experts provided

guidance to about 100 village youth associations. The Village

Youth Associations could undertake a variety of activities;

and served about 40 surrounding villages.

The activities consisted of social and economic

improvement by organizing literacy drives; small-scale rural

industries that could provide employment to the villagers

during their spare-time; bee-keeping, animal husbandry,

poultry farming; working with school teachers and students;

and organizing summer schools for training of teachers and

others.

Special emphasis was laid on limited area of

coverage and intensive activities. For the first time a well

conceived and properly organized scheme of reconstruction was

launched after a thorough and careful study and analysis of

the local conditions and needs.

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SEVAGRAM PROJECT OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (1931):

Imbued with the Gandhian Philosophy of "quest

for tr.uth" this constructive programme was started at Wardha
in 1931. There was no set targets of work but it was realised
that every village must grow its food crops and cotton, have

a reserve for its cattle, maintain a village hall, school,

panchayat, water works and play ground.

THE BARODA PLAN (1933):

The Baroda plan of V.T.Krishnamachari was

introduced in 1933, when he was the Dewan of Baroda State.

The movement aimed at having wider and comprehensive

programme for bringing about rapid changes in rural life. The

movement believed that rural reconstruction could not be

effective if it was not intensively and effectively executed

in a limited area. The developmental effect was expected to

spread to the neighbouring areas. It emphasized the

augmentation of agricultural production through efficient

organization of supplies, services and credit. The plan

recognized the role of panchayats, co-operatives and schools

as centres of activities and of local leaders as promoters of

change.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT (1935):

It was established in 1935 by the Central

Government on the recommendation of the Royal Commission on

Agriculture. The purpose behind the establishment was to

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create a machinery for development of agriculture, rural

industries and allied subjects. Similar Departments were

established in the various Provinces under instruction from

the Central Government.

GROW MORE FOOD CAMPAIGN (1942):

The scheme was launched by the Central
Government on all India basis in 1942 after the recurrence of

famines and acute scarcity of food grains in Bengal. As the

name of the scheme indicates, only agricultural development

programmes were undertaken. Trained fieldworkers were

employed to distribute improved seeds, fertilizers; and

organize demonstrations.

FIRKA DEVELOPMENT SCHEME (1946):

This scheme was initiated by the Madras

Government in 1946. It aimed at the attainment of the

Gandhian ideal of Gram Swaraj by training in educational,

economic, sanitary and other areas of village development. It

aimed at making the people self-confident and self-reliant.

The activities included provision of village communications,

rural water supplies, improvement of sanitation, expansion of

co-operative societies and panchayats in villages, rural

electrification, development of khadi and other village

industries and carrying out programmes of improvement in

agriculture and animal husbandry. The scheme aimed at

tackling social problems through short term and long term

plans for development. The provincial Firka Development

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Officer was in overall charge of the programme. He worked

with the District Collector and assisted by Rural Welfare

Officer and 5 to 10 trained Gram Sevakas of the rank of

Revenue Inspector . The scheme was merged with the National

Extension Services in 1953-54. The main aim of the scheme was

to make village (Firka) self-sufficient through their own

resources.

NILOKHERI EXPERIMENT (1947):

The designer of this experiment was Mr.S.K.Dey,

a trained engineer. He was one of the refugees from Pakistan

during 1947. Mr.Dey took the initiative and the leadership in

organizing the internal as well as the external resources for
solving the refugee problem. A vocational-cum-training centre

was started at Kurukhetra to utilize the talents of refugees

like weaving, printing, tailoring etc. This experiment was an

example for solving not only the refugee problem but a

demonstration for bringing about changes in the socio­

economic conditions of rural India. This experiment was a

milestone in the evolution of extension in community

development in the country. Mr.Dey's experiment, known as the

scheme of "Mazdoor Manzil", aimed at attaining

self-sufficiency. It was an effort to fight against poverty,

ignorance and disease.

INDIAN VILLAGE SERVICE (1948):

It was started by Missionaries in 1948. It aimed

to improve the quality of life in the villages. The work was

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carried out by well educated persons, through the technique

of personal contact, informal discussions and guidance.

ETAWAH PILOT PROJECT (1948):

The project was sponsored by Uttar Pradesh

Government in 1948. The distinguishing features of the pilot

project were: (i) an attempt to synthesise the various

viewpoints into a comprehensive and coherent picture of rural

development based on the combined efforts of Government and

public; (ii) adoption of experimental approach to find out

what would work and what would not and why; (iii) testing out

on a small scale in a small area the numerous ideas,

programmes and organizational set-up with a view to selecting

them for large scale application in other areas. The

achievement of this project was very significant.

SARVODAYA PROGRAMME (1950):

In 1950, some followers of Mahatma Gandhi

particularly Vinoba Bhave formulated a practical plan of work

to give Sarvodaya the real shape. It was popular in

Maharashtra and Gujarat States. Its main features were

simplicity, non-violence, dignity of labour and

reconstruction of human values by raising the standard of

living through scientific development of agriculture, revival

of village panchayats etc. Sarvodaya was designed to bring

about social and economic revolution peacefully. It aimed at

educating people to serve others instead of exploiting them.

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Long before independence, extension techniques

had been tried in India under the inspiration of Mahatma

Gandhi near Wardha. His constructive programme for rebuilding

the life of rural India, on which he laid so much stress and

which he made an integral part of his non-violent struggle,

was in keeping with the philosophy of community development.

The principal plans of his programme were communal harmony,

removal of untouchability, prohibition, use of khadi, the
promotion of village industries, empowerment of the under

privileged classes and women, full development and

utilisation of local resources, the promotion of economic

equality, a self-sufficient village economy and self-reliant

village community.

Gandhiji wanted the villagers to feel that India

was their own country. Ilis experiments, therefore, at

Sabaramati and Sevagram had been experiments of his ideal of
rural reconstruction. As a part of his constructive programme

he set up the All India Village Industries Association and

the Hindustani Talim Sangh to promote Basic Education as per

the economic and socio-cultural needs of the people.

V.T.Krishnamachari's contribution to the

evolution of the concept of community development in the post

independence era may be said to be most singular. He was of

the view that effecting improvement in all aspects of rural

life and changing the outlook of the agriculturists should be

the main aim of the rural extension service. The Report of

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the Grow More Food Enquiry Committee, hee.^u uy

V.T.Krishnamachari, published in 1952 paved the path for the

idea of Community Development evolving itself from a

haphazard incidental and piecemeal agricultural policy

through stray, scattered and inadequate attempts at rural

development to the full fledged community development

programme launched in 1952. In this report he observed,

"All aspects of rural life are interrelated and

no lasting results can be achieved if individual

aspects of it are dealt in isolation..... It is

only by placing this ideal of bringing about an

appreciable improvement in the standard of rural

life and making it fuller and richer-before the

country and ensuring that the energies of the

entire administrative machinery of the states

and the best unofficial leadership are directed

to plan for its realisation that we can awaken

mass enthusiasm and enlist the active interest

and support of the millions of families living

in the country-side in the immense task of

bettering their own conditions".^

The entire pre-1951 period.-has .been full of

valuableexperiences and experiments.The accumulated fund of

ideas were utilised in designing the community approach to

development. The Planning Commission of India, while

formulating the First Five Year Plan (1951-56), observed that;

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"these lessons from the experiences of the past have been

brought together in the conception and concrete formation of

2
Community Development Programme".

All these experiments of rural development work

and the Grow More Food Campaign proved that rural development

was a continuous and invisible process; and to be successful

it must embrace all aspects of rural life. The experiments

also provided suggestive answers to many important questions

raised before the Planning Commission. Thus the Community

Development Programme as envisaged in 1952 was a blending of

all experiments in the past. It was the synthesis of

divergent approaches characteristic of the diverse

socio-cultural and economic situations that prevail in

different parts of India. The Community Development Programme

was a concerted multi-pronged attack on the vicious circle of

illiteracy, ignorance, ill-health, superstitions, agriculral

backwardness, the sick village industries and the decadent

village life. It streamlined all the earlier attempts into a

coherent and complete concept of rural development.

TOE OONgrrnilTOllAh FOUNDATION OF (XM^UHITY DE^EIOPMEHr IN INDIA;

After four years of India's, freedom she could

find a way of solving the problems for which the struggle for

freedom had been fought. The blueprint of future India came

in the shape of the First Five Year Plan. On 1st April 1951,

the country launched its First Plan. On 2nd October 1952, the
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Community Development and Extension Programme was launched.

It aimed to subserve the real needs of the rural masses with

local resources. The founding fathers of the Indian

Constitution envisaged the total transformation of the rural

life. Directive Principles of State Policy specifically

exhorted the Government to strive towards this goal.

Article 40 specifically lays down that local

institutions be endowed with suitable powers to serve as

units of local Government. It stated# "40 - The State shall

take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with

such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them

3
to function as units of self Government".

"43 - The State shall endeavour to secure by

suitable legislation or economic organization or in any other
way to all workers - agricultural, industrial or otherwise -

work, a living wage, conditions of work ensuring a decent

standard of life and full enjoyment of leisure and social and

cultural opportunities and in particular, the State shall

endeavour to promote cottage industries on an individual or

4
co-operative basis m rural areas".

"47 - The State shall regard the raising of the

level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people

and the improvement of public health as among its primary

duties and in particular the State shall endeavour to bring
about prohibition of the consumption, except for medical
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purposes, ofintoxicating drinks and of drugs which are

5
injurious to health".

"48 - The State shall endeavour to organize

agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific
lines and shall in particular take steps for preserving and

improving the breed and prohibiting the slaughter of cows and

calves and other milch and draught cattle".®

In fulfilment of the constitutional obligations

as stated above, the Planning Commission of India continues

to give due attention to the Community Development Programme.

The draft of Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74)

explicitly described this objective in the following words.

"Planning in India has thus to organize the

efficient exploitation of the resources of the

country, increase production and step up the

tempo of economic activity in general and

industrial development in particular to the

maximum possible extent. The basic goal is a

rapid increase in the standard of living of the

people, through measures which also promote

equality and social justice. Emphasis is placed

on the common man, the weaker sections and the

less privileged. It is laid down that planning

should result in greater equality in income and

wealth, that there should be progressive

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reduction of concentration of incomes, wealth

and economic power and that benefits of

development should accrue more and more to the

relatively less privileged classes of society

and in particular the scheduled castes and the

scheduled tribes whose economic and educational

interest have to be promoted with special care.

Rapid economic development which is oriented

towards establishing social justice must involve

refashioning of socio-economic institutions. In

part, the social objectives will be the end

result of economic development but in a large

measure their realisation will depend on how the

course of development is charted and to what

extent an appropriate structure of

socio-economic institution is evolved and

operated. The strengthening of democracy in its

social and economic aspect has to be attained

through this refashioning. It means that major

economic decisions and decisions regarding socio

economic relationships will be made by agencies

informed with social purpose, that there will be

a devolution of functions and that there will be

be scope for experimentation. Democratic values

are given effect to by encouraging the growth of

a feeling of participation on the part of the

small man, the promotion of enterprise among the

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disadvantaged classes and the creation of a

sense of involvement in the transformation of

7
society among all sections of the community".

THE INSIGHTS FROM CROSS CULTURAL EXPERIENCES:

Community development programme is not a special

feature of the development programme of India alone. In fact,

any country which has., to develop the rural sector of its

economy and to bring the rural population into the main stream

of national life has to adopt some sort of community

development programme. A number of Afro-Asian countries have

adopted community development programmes. The basic concept of

the programme remains the same, but there is difference in

degree of emphasis laid by each country to suit its

requirement.

The concept of the Community Development

Programme depends on the social set up of the community where

such programme is undertaken and may mean different things to

different communities. It may be right to say that the

Government agencies in almost all the African countries have

become, to a great extent, initiators of community development

programmes. This is necessary when those countries are racing

against time in efforts to narrow down the gap between them

and the developed countries.

NIGERIA :
The special feature of Nigerian Government is
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that it had appointed community development advisory

committees from village to state level, so that members of the

communities would be able to discuss their feelings towards any

project to be undertaken. In this process, it is important to

note that the community development worker lives in the

environment of the community, imbibes a spirit of love and

affection towards the values and culture of the same. He never

tries to impose his own values upon the community. This would

mean the establishment of a relationship of confidence with

the people, the use of the relationship to induce them to find

out and formulate their felt needs and induce them to engage

in relevant self-help projects.

Another novel feature is the adoption of "Model

Village Scheme". The Government of North Western State of

Nigeria had approved the village improvement scheme in its

administrative areas and had alloted funds for its

implementation. To start with, in each administrative area,

one village was selected to facilitate their effective

operation.

All the community development workers submit

regular reports on community development activities in their

areas. These are documented and at the end of the year

compiled and processed to determine the winner. The

performance of the best worker was given wide publicity.

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MALAYASIA :
Malayasia also made a significant contribution

in the field of community development and had several

difficulties to encounter. In Malayasia, in the past, the

/ rural/urban\, people did not get the best that could have been

given to them by Government. Some of the reasons for this

were: (1) inter-departmental jealousy in the course of

day-to-day execution of Government functions, conflicting

departmental policies at lower levels in the rural areas; (2)

lack of co-ordination between departments in what they were

trying to do for the rural areas; (3) lack of complete

day-to-day co-operation between Government Officers in the

field mostly due to lack of understanding of each other's

task; {4} the thinking of every department that its function

was the most important; (5) lack of proper planning in the

departments aimed at fitting into a master plan for rural

areas; (6) lack of a master plan at all levels for the purpose

of achieving the maximum development in the rural areas; and

(7) lack of sufficient directive control at the top to ensure

that Government in the rural areas functions as an efficient

machinery manned by a purposeful single-minded team, and

driven towards the goal of rural development.

The first requirement was, therefore, the

elimination of the existing barriers to development, so that a

congenial developmental climate is generated. This was followed

by the provision of local leadership and Governmental support.
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This was provided by the deputy primeminister Tun Rajak. His

capacity for decision-making, thinking and planning together

with his ability to put them into action, produced for

Malayasia a pattern of development unique in the history of

developing nations. Tun Rajak properly designed and propelled

the implementation through the following decisions.

The development programme would be implemented

by clear-cut directives. At district, state and federal

levels, teams would be established to work together on the

implementation of developmental projects. Each team, at each

level, would set up and maintain a development operations room

so that a new system of day-to-day reporting of programme

would be adhered to. Delays on project could be easily

spotlighted and the reasons for them quickly diagnosed. It was

emphasised that time was short and every moment must be

utilised to the full. Instructions were issued that result must

be achieved and that there was no place for doubt that the

developmental plan would not succeed. The developmental

programmes were launched in phases, one at a time, but running

concurrently when launched. Each district development team

prepared and completed a Rural Economic Development plan for

the district.

The development teams were given the following

directives on how to conduct their business.

1) Meetings: The purpose of meeting is, by discussion, (i) to

examine given problems/ proposals for development; (ii) to

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ensure that no aspect of such problems/proposals had been

ignored; (iii) to reach agreement; and (iv) to decide upon the

necessary action.

2) Principles followed in committee: (i) Talks were only means

to an end; (ii) discussion in itself would not produce

results; (iii) discussion must be translated into action.

3) Singleness of purpose: (i) Every member of a committee

during general discussion had a right, indeed a duty, to state

his views with the utmost frankness; (ii) once decision had

been arrived at, every member had an equal duty to support

the majority decision.

4) Results: The keynote of action stressed by Rajak in all

briefings, meetings and speeches on development was

concentrated in one word "RESULTS" which he constantly used.

Each operation room had a large chart spelling out exactly

what he meant by results.

A review of the Malayasia Development Plan was

carried out after two and a half years of implementation and
statistics showed that in many cases targets had not only been

achieved but they had exceeded the expectations.

PHILIPPINES:
The fundamental concept of community development

as adopted by the Philippine Government is that it is the

process by which, the efforts of the people themselves are

united with those of the Government with a view to improving

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the economic, social and cultural conditions of communities,

to integrate these communities into the life of the nation and

enable them to contribute fully to national development. Its

distinctive features were the participation of the people

themselves in efforts to improve their levels of living with

reliance, as much as possible, on their own initiative and the

provision of technical and other services in ways which

encourage initiative, self-help and mutual help and make them

effective. They should be awakened to the realization that

mobilizing their own human and material resources lying

dormant, will mean better food, better roofs on their heads,

better schools and other facilities for their children and

themselves to enjoy.

The operational goal, as sought by the programme

through its implementing agency, PACD (Presidential Assistant

on Community Development), enables the establishment of

pre-conditions for take-off at the level of development which

will enable the village to continue its growth through own

initiative and with the least assistance from outside.

The ultimate objective of the Philippine

community development programme was to establish a system of

communities or body-politic capable of solving an increasing

number of their own problems.

The programme seeks to achieve this objective

through: (1) education, training and informing programmes;
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(2) community projects; (3) comprehensive planning; and (4)

research programme. These tools were calculated to bring about

increased production and income, better health and sanitary

conditions, improved facilities such as roads, schools,

markets, recreational units and better living conditions of

the people in rural areas.

The village was the fundamental unit of

community activities with which the community development

programme is concerned. The village council, therefore, apart

from being the basic unit of Government was at the same time

organizational nucleus for community development. The success

of the programme depended upon local leaders. The focus of

programme operations and of the agency was on the promotion of

strong, viable and dynamic village councils.

Co-ordination was carried out through community

development councils organized at the different administrative

levels of the Government. At provincial level, there were

organized provincial community development councils composed

of the Governor as Chairman, a Provincial Development Officer

as executive Secretary and the senior provincial

representative of national agencies as members. This body

planned, co-ordinated and administered the programme. It

determined priorities in terms of community development

activities and set targets of achievement.

At the municipal level, there was a Municipal

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Community Development Council which was composed of the Mayor

as Chairman, Municipal Development Officer as Secretary and

the representatives of technical services and agencies as

members. Two private citizens who had demonstrated interest and

were active in community development also served as members on

this council.

One of the recognised problems in project

implementation was to make people work longer and spend time

in the undertaking. While they donated sincerely their labour,

they were also concerned about their family's day to day

needs. The community aided programme(whereby food commodities-

were given to volunteer workers, had also been devised.

THAILAND :
With the aim of improving the standard of living

of rural people socially, economically, culturally and in

order to promote self-reliant communities with a sense of

social and political responsibility, the Community Development

Programme in Thailand was started in 1956.

The objectives of their programme were:

(1) increase in family income by acceleration of production
from agriculture and village industries; (ii) improvement and

construction of existing and new public facilities with active

participation of people; (iii) improvement of health and

sanitation; (iv) promotion of education and juvenile training;

(v) fostering local governments-, and (vi) promotion of

village culture.
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To achieve these aims and objectives, all

ministries and concerned departments jointly framed

development policies at national and provincial levels with a

priority focus on village development. For providing

effective, prompt and timely assistance in community

development related technical matters, provinces had been

grouped into regions called "The Community Development

Technical Assistance Centres". There were nine such centres to

be set up according to a scale of priority. The first two

centres were set up in the North-Eastern and Southern

Thailand.

Women Associations called Smakom Satree, Youth

Organizations called Yovakasikorn Clubs in the pattern of the

4-H clubs of U.S.A. and Farmers' Organizations were formed to

help and spread the working of Community Development.

Village Council called Muban Council was set up at the village

level. Over five villages there was a committee called Tambol,

formed by five representatives, one from each village. Over 15

such committee centres there was a district called Ampur. Each

Tambol or group village centre had extension agents in

agriculture, veterinary, health etc.

THE IDEOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT :

The highest premium that community development

programme places on its ideological character is the cultural

evolution of the community. As Arther E.Morgan, a former

Chairman of Tennessy Valley Authority, has put it:

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"This process of cultural evolution could take

place only in the small social groups -

villages - in which nearly all of the humanity

has lived throughout the long ages until very

recent times.... These traits of mutuality

which men get by living together in intimate

relationship — which includes intimate

acquaintance, mutual confidence, regard and

responsibility, a sharing of the risks and

opportunities of life and a feeling of oneness -

turn a group into a social organism. They have

not only individual characters and minds, but a

group character and a group mind. It is this

interwoven and interrelated complex of social

traits and social personality which we have in

mind when we speak of community as a quality of

society. We wish to make these points clear:

first, that no human society of any kind can

continue to exist without some degree of mutual

confidence, goodwill and responsible

brotherhood; second, that the more fully these

qualities are developed in any society the

stronger and the better that society will be;

third, that by and large these qualities are not

'born in the blood' but are acquired after birth

by association with those who have them; and

fourth, that throughout the ages of human

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experience the most favourable environments for

the development of these qualities has been the

intimate, face-to-face social group which we

8
call the small community".

Keeping in view the above statement it can be

deduced that: (i) Community Development is a process of change

from the traditional way of living to progressive ways of

living, (ii) It is a method by which people can be assisted to

develop themselves on their own capacity and resources, (iii)

It is a programme for accomplishing certain activities in

fields concerning rural people, (iv) It is a movement for

progress.

THE EMERGING CONCEPT OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT:

The term 'Community Development' encompasses the

efforts made or proposed towards advancement of community

interest, in general. It represents different approaches. In

the South-East Asian and African States, the term is used to

emphasise adult education. In the Indian context it is being

used to emphasise the totality of life in its various aspects,

viz. community organizations, social education, economic

improvement and people's involvement. Carl Taylor, commenting

on the loose way the term is conceived, stated that "this has

resulted in a great deal of confusion and lack of clear-cut

direction." 9
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According to Witte "Community Development in its

essential aspects is not a new idea, but in its application to

the problems of the underdeveloped areas, there have been some
rather original adoptations".^ Batten also subscribes to the

same thesis. The concept of community development has grown

out of the experience of the past. The old practices are

are examined afresh and the basic underlying principles are

identified and reiterated. The principles relevant for

community education are sought out, experimented and adopted

in different situations as per varying needs.

Community, of late, is being recognised more and

more as a dynamic interactive social system rather than as a

habitation. Community has a territorial base, a cultural

heritage and a social structure. Sociologists of the past used

to define communities as closely knit interdependent entities

with common customs and various inter-relationships and also,

with common leadership and social ties. These classical

concepts are undergoing radical changes under the impact of

modern science and technology. A metamorphosis is taking

place.

According to B.Mukherjee "Development connotes

growth or maturation. It implies the gradual and sequential

phases of changeGrowth may take place on its own due to

biological or physiological reasons. But development denotes

'progress' or 'change' towards consciously chosen and defined

direction through devised means. Thus the notion of

'development' has the implication of a ’purpose derived out of

values'.

According to Sanders "Community development is

related to two areas (a) economic development, and (b)

community organization. Economic development is achieved

through rural reconstruction, agricultural extension and

economic planning. Community organization encompasses the

building up of or reorganization of social institution, adding

new social values into the social system and consequent

12
promotion of adult education". In the words of U.C.Ghildyal

"Community development programme is an 'investment in man' and

has always stood for social change, economic development,

social justice and technological advancement for our society

through democratic process-all of them together at the same

13
time".

EXAMINATION OF SOME SELECT DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Community Development has various connotations

in different countries and in different situations. community

development is an ever changing and growing concept. Its scope

is in a constant state of flux and it is modified from time to

time to suit the changing conditions. Even in India, it had

various shades of meaning in different parts of this country

and has had differential semantic overtones. Broadly, the

various definitions of community (develolpmentN viewed it as a

J 141

"Process"; a "Method"; a "Programme" and a "Movement".

According to Batten "Community Development is a

process during which the people in the small community first

thoroughly discuss and define their wants and then plan and
14
act together to satisfy them".

Carl Taylor says "Community development is used

only to describe the methods by which the people living in

local communities become involved in helping to improve their

own economic and social conditions thereby becoming effective

working groups in programmes of national development. The term

community development programme is used to describe only those

administrative plans and operational procedures which

15
implement community development objectives".

Dickson discusses some basic ideas inherent in

the concept which appear more realistic than ideological.

According to him, "Community development is focussed on the

development of the people. It is a process and not an event.

Organization is required in this context. It is a dynamic and

unified problem-solving approach and not a static dogma. In

the process, education of the people is one of the end

products of community development besides other social and

economic amenities.

However the United Nations Organization has

defined community development as "the process by which the

efforts of the people themselves are united with those of the

 142 :

Governmental authorities to improve the economic, social and

cultural conditions of the communities to integrate these

communities into the life of the nation and to enable them to

contribute fully to national progress.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT:

In the Indian context, community development was

conceived in the beginning as a process of change in the rural

sector, particularly in the social and economic spheres.

Extension was devised as a method for application in this

process. As community development was primarily sponsored by

the Government, it had to contain a number of programmes which

could be assessed later in terms of their financial and

physical implications. In its ideological content, community

development was also conceived as a movement of rural

rejuvenation. The workers in the movement were considered as

missionaries devoting themselves to the cause of rural

service. Community development had a purpose, a sense of

urgency, and also a direction and hence to that extent, it

could be a movement for mass awakening and mass action. But as

all movements are destined to be, this movement also could be

only short - lived and in course of time, it fell into a

routine rigmarole of a bundle of programmes.

Community development was also conceived as an

integral part of the five year plans in India and the very

objective of the plans was to achieve economic and social

progress through the process of democratic planning. Community

development was also envisaged to work towards this goal in

the furtherance of not only economic and social development

but also in achieving economic, social and political justice

to the millions of this country. The institutions which were

traditionally dictatorial, now began to serve the process of

democratisation. Similarly, the powers which was centralised,

now began to be decentralised.

Without community development the country can not

progress. S.N.Majumdar, Chairman, Executive Council, National

Institute of Community Development, Hyderabad in explaining

'what is progress' has stated :

"By progress is meant the progress of the people,

not measured by the Western standards of national

income, or per capita income.... Progress is

change for the better..... There can be no

revolution except through change in what is in

the mind of the people. The mind of the

individual has to change. Thus the individual is

supreme. Efforts to induce change must be aimed

at the individual.... He forms part of a

community.The individual without a community is

lost, the community thrives on individuals. The

two are linked together. Our approach, therefore,

should be to the individual through the community

in which he lives and to the community through

 144

the individual. There is interaction between the

two. The community educates the individual and

X8
the individual educates the community."

THE OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT:

The objective of community development is
promotion of the all-round development of the communities-

economic, social and cultural. C.Narasimham opines that the

two essential elements in community development are :

"Participation by the people themselves, in efforts to improve

their level of living with as much reliance as possible in

their own initiative; and the provision of technical and other

services in ways which encourage initiative, self-help and

19
mutual help and make these more effective."

It started with the faith that villagers, even

though illiterate, know what their needs are and have the

desire to satisfy them or to stimulate such desires in them.

It was thought that if villagers were lethargic and

indifferent to progress, it was because they remained isolated

from the mainstream of national life and that once the

imagination of the people was stirred and their desire for

better living was stimulated, the primary objective of

community development in developing an individual as worthy

member of this village community and of the community as a

whole could be achieved. C.Narasimham has emphasised this

aspect of community development in the following words :

 145

"It is this faith that: constitutes the heart and

soul of community development. It is only by

getting villagers involved in the process of

improving themselves through their own efforts

that we can develop their capacity and

self-reliance, a co-operative way of life in them

and cohesion in the community. Thus it becomes

essential that a community development programme

should not only have the sanction but the support

and whole hearted participation of the millions

of persons living in the hundreds of thousands

villages. It is they who have to both accept and

execute the programme for their own improvement.

This is the true significance of people's

participation in a programme of community

20
development."

Community development approach aims at a sector

of planning and development which could largely be left to the

initiative of the people themselves. In this sector the

government is not expected to separate a system of social

security and welfare services directly. The grass-root

planning desired under such programme should leave the people

free to assess their needs, determine the priorities and

outline their strategies of action.

It aims at achieving positive results by

 146

mobilisation and utilisation of local resources - physical and

human. Decentralisation of development programme and

earmarking of specific areas to be developed largely through

local resources can ensure wider coverage as well as reduction

in costs. Besides, the delegation of responsibility to the

people will be a valuable educational experiment and

commendable investment in development of human resources.

Community development should be viewed as an

integrated process. Changes introduced in one area of culture

tend to ramify into other areas, their consequences may be

desirable and predictable in the area in which they are

introduced, but they may not be so in other areas. A

comprehensive and integrated planning should be made. Balanced

measures of change, therefore, should be introduced

simultaneously in the different aspects of a community's life.

According to S.C.Dube "Economic and technical resources of a

community cannot be developed without its social and

educational resources also being developed simultaneously. To

debate whether economic change should have precedence over

social change or whether the process must necessarily be

reversed would amount to indulging in a meaningless war of

words. The community development approach believes in working

simultaneously on the economic, the social and the

20
psychological frontiers of a community."

The entire community rather than particular

individuals or particular groups in it would be brought into
 147

the focus of the development programme. An organic view of the

community and its problems bar any possibility of orienting

the programmes exclusively to specific groups. Pressing needs

of particular groups should be attended to, but the community

context of these needs should never be lost sight of.

Community development is assumed to be a

programme of active participation. It seeks to stimulate and

activate the entire community, with a view to securing its

involvement in programmes of development. A community emerged

into activity can be expected to work for its betterment

progressively.

Community development does not rule out the

participation of governmental agencies, their partnership is

in fact assumed. It is realised that agencies outside the

community have a vital contribution to make to the development

process, but the role of these agencies should be limited to

that of catalytic agents. The central purpose of community

development will be lost if initiative is allowed to proceed

from the people to the outsiders.

Finally community development should be viewed as

an organic process. Ideally it should progressively build the

capacity of a community to absorb increasingly higher doses of

modern science and technology, thereby enabling its people to

improve their standard of living. As communities continue to

progress, their needs will inevitably continue to change. This

 148

would necessitate . shift in the targets and principles of

community development programmes. This should be treated as a

sign of good health rather than a cause of worry. If a

community development programme succeeds in building up

reserves for sustained growth in the community it should be

regarded as really successful.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND EXTENSION EDUCATION:

Community development is based on the faith that

the rural people have almost limitless capacity to fashion a

better life for themselves if properly aided by state action;

that they alone can solve the food problem of a country by

intensifying their effort to increase food production; and

that they alone can rebuild the community life. The State can

only create the favourable conditions for it and give

directions to the nation's growth, but for this growth the

main stimulus has to come from within the minds of the people

themselves expressed in a desire for better living and an

appreciation of the fact that better living can be realised

through self-exerted leadership and group effort. Community

development has to be a programme of stimulated and guided

change. It is not easy to make people change readily and

rapidly. "New ways of doing and thinking always create

psychological insecurities and sometimes create ethical and

spiritual insecurities. Change automatically creates

uncertainty about what is really happening and what can be

expected. Furthermore, old ways practised for generations are

I

149

likely to be considered sacred. Beliefs about their rightness

are taken as much for granted as the air the people

breathe".^

Community Development can not solve all the

problems facing the under-developed countries. That,it is only

a method by which Government assistance can be easily and more

effectively channelled to the people of the rural communities

to involve them in programmes of their own improvement through

fuller utilisation of their own resources, is often ignored.

Community development can never succeed wholly on

the basis of local resources which are always inadequate. To

quote from a report of the United Nations Economic and Social

Council, "to be fully effective, community self-help projects

require both intensive and extensive assistance by

Government....furthermore, the implementation of a community

development programme on a national scale requires adoption of

consistent policies, specific administrative arrangements,

recruitment and training of personnel, mobilisation of local

and natural resources and organization of research,

experimentation and evaluationEconomic and social

progress at the local level necessitates parallel, development.

22
on a wider national scale."

The purpose of extension education is to

change attitudes and practices of the people with whom the

work is done. While villagers are willing to change if

f

: 150 :

convinced that the recommended change will benefit them,

change almost always involves or appears to involve risk to

them because they live so near the level of subsistence. There

will be many in the community, often its conservative leaders

and custodians of the traditional way of life, whose position

of leadership or vested intrests are threatened by change and

they therefore oppose change. To induce change is therefore

necessary. Extension workers engaged in community development

must know this. They must know how and why people change and

how change takes place. They have to gain the trust and

confidence of the village people. They can succeed only if

they initiate change through activities with which the

villager, almost by necessity, is vitally concerned. And the

changes they suggest should yield sure results and early

enough. Dr.Carl Taylor emphasizes the use of group methods in

extension work. It facilitates the process of change. A group

will change more rapidly than will individuals, for when a

whole group decides to do something new there is some feeling

of security that helps to conquer the fear of danger they see

in change.

Extension work must be based on those needs which

people feel. But extension is also teaching people what to

want as well as how to work out ways of satisfying those

wants, and inspiring them to achieve their desires. The

principle of building up an Extension Programme around the
'felt needs' of the people, sound as it is, can also be over
 151

worked and oversimplified.

The essential characteristics of Community

Development Programme, as enumerated by B.Mukherjee are/

"First, the programme has to correspond to the

basic needs of the local communities; secondly,

it has to be an integrated and a multipurpose

programme that deals with all the major problems

of the people; thirdly, it must aim at utilising

fully local resources of manpower, material,

talent and leadership and their fullest

development, relying as little as possible on

outside help; fourthly, it must emphasise

permanent improvements that will build up the

people's capacity and confidence in themselves;

and lastly, it must distribute the benefits

evenly over the entire community and reduce the

economic and social disparities that exist

between the different classes in the

community."23

CONCLUSION:

Speedy alleviation of poverty is the crux of the

Community Development Programme. All efforts/ prior to the

Second World War, were sporadic and ; inco-ordinated. There was

an evident emphasis on quantity and speed. These programmes

lacked authentic rural orientation and understanding of the

rural scenario. Sometimes the industrial and urban approaches

 152

were adopted, which ill-suited the real needs of the masses.

In the initial stages of community development it

was viewed more as an experiment than as a comprehensive

programme. The resource allocation was inadequate and unevenly

distributed. The rural elites appropriated much of it, taking

advantage of the ignorance of the massees. It was a programme

designed centrally and imposed from above.

Right from 1951 till date there has been an

evident reappraisal of all community development programmes.

Many poverty alleviation schemes have been experimented, some

have succeeded and some have miserably failed. Three distinct

and different philosophies have been rolled into one while

formulating and implementing the Community Development

Programme. Consequently , different people have laid

differential stresses on these three aspects - rural

development, democratic decentralisation and promotion of

awareness among the masses through Extension Education.

Sometimes the philosophy and purpose of Extension Education

had been forgotten in the mad rush for statistical show of

development.

The culture of silence which engulfs the rural

masses can effectively be combated only through a well

designed operational programme of Extension Education.

Fundamental attitudihal changes have to be effected before any

programme of development can strike roots. Formal education is

too slow, too rigid and very often too irrelevant for the masses. The
 153

rural masses should be exposed to modern ideas through

different strategies of Extension Education. The high emphasis

on electronic media has adversely affected the indigenous

modes of learning. The search for the right mix of indigenous

and electronic media is an on-going process.

All studies relating to Extension Education in

India suffer from confusion. Sometimes democratic

decentralisation is mistaken for Extension Education.

Democratic decentralisation is the educative process that

instills the democratic spirit at the grass-root level. But it

is not the be-all and end all of Extension Education. At best

it is a constructive contributing factor.

Poverty alleviation through rural development

again can never be equated with Extension Education. It

provides the setting and the environment in which the

educational development of the rural masses can take place.

In this study the major focus is on Extension

Education. However the related processes of democratic

decentralisation and development could not be eliminated

altogether from this study, as they provide the operational

context for all extension activities.

REFERENCES:
1. V . X .Krishna- : "Report on Grow More Food Campaign",
machari c.f. B.Mukherjee's "Community
Development in India", ORIENT LONGMANS
LTD. 1961, BOMBAY, INDIA, pp.16-17
 154

2. Planning "First Five Year Plan 1951-56",

Commission PUBLICATIONS DIVISION, GOVT. OF INDIA,
NEW DELHI, 1951.

3. Govt, of India : "The Constitution of India - As

Amended upto the Constitution (56th
Amendment) Act 1987”, EASTERN BOOK
COMPANY, LUCKNOW, INDIA, 1988,
pp.29-30

4. Ibid., p.30
5 Ibid., p.31

6. Ibid., p.31

7. Planning "Fourth Five Year Plan 1969-74",

Commission PUBLICATIONS DIVISION, GOVT. OF INTIA,
NEW DELHI, 1969, pp.A-5

8. Arthur E. Morgan : "The Community of the Future and the

Future of the Community", HINDUSTANI
TALIM SANGH PUBLICATION, INDIA

9. Carl C.Taylor : "A Critical Analysis of India's

Community Development Programme",
MINISTRY OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND
CO-OPERATION, GOVT. OF INDIA, 1956

10. Witte : c.f. "Community Development

Promises, Performance and Prospects,
Article, Community Development and
Panchayati Raj Digest - C.D.Weak
Special Number”, Vol.2, No.2, OCTOBER
1970, NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT, HYDERABAD, INDIA, p.211

11. B.Mukherjee : Ibid., p.211

 155

12. I.T.Sanders : "Making Communities Better",

UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY PRESS,
KENTUCKY, U.S.A., 1953

13. U.C.Ghildyal : "Community Development : Retrospect

and Prospect" NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, C.D.WEEK
SYMPOSIUM, OCTOBER 1970, c.f.
"Community Development and Panchayati
Raj Digest - C.D.Week Special Number",
Vol.2, No.2, OCTOBER 1970, N.I.C.D.,
HYDERABAD, INDIA, p.269

14. T.R.Batten "Communities and Their Development",

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS,

15. Carl C.Taylor : Op.cit.

16. Dickson : c.f. "Community Development: Promises,

Performance and Prospects, Article,
Community Development and Panchayati
Raj Digest - C.D. Week Special Number",
Vol.2, No.2, OCTOBER 1970, N.I.C.D.,
HYDERABAD, INDIA, p.212

17. United Nations : c.f. B.Mukherjee's "Community

Development in India", ORIENT LONGMANS
LTD., 1961, BOMBAY, INDIA, pp.1-2

18. S.N.Majumdar : "Why Community Development ? Article,

Community Development and Panchayati
Raj Digest - C.D.Week Special Number",
Vol.2, No.2, OCTOBER 1970, N.I.C.D.,
HYDERABAD, INDIA, p. 69
I

; 156

19. C.Narasimham : "Impact of Community Development,

Article, Community Development and
Panchayati Raj Digest - C.D.Veek
Special Number", Vol.2, No.2, OCTOBER
1970, N.I.C.D., HYDERABAD, INDIA, p.72

20. : Ibid., p.73

21. 5,C.Dube : "Strategies of Community Development,

Article, Community Development and
Panchayati Raj Digest - C.D.Veek
Special Number”, Vol.2, No.2, OCTOBER
1970, N.I.C.D., HYDERABAD, INDIA,
p.126

22. United Nations c.f. B.Mukberjee's "Community

Economic and Development in India", ORIENT LONGMANS
Social Council
LTD., 1961, BOMBAY, INDIA, pp.13-14

23. B.Mukherjee : Ibid., p.60