CS8451 - Design and Analysis of Algorithms (Ripped From Amazon Kindle Ebooks by Sai Seena)

Strictly as per Revised Syllabus of
Anna University
Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)
Semester - IV (CSE/IT)
Design and Analysis of Algorithms

Mrs. Anuradha A. Puntambekar
M.E. (Computer)
Formerly Assistant Professor in
P.E.S. Modern College of Engineering, Pune
® TM
ISBN 978-93-332-2107-8
TECHNICAL
PUBLICATIONS
An Up-Thrust for Knowledge 9 7 8 9 3 3 3 2 2 1 0 7 8
(i)
Design and Analysis of Algorithms
Semester - IV (CSE / IT)
First Edition : January 2019
ã Copyright with Author
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should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and
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PUBLICATIONS
ISBN 978-93-332-2107-8
9 7 8 9 3 3 3 2 2 1 0 7 8
AU 17
9789333221078[1] (ii)

TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Problem to be solved
Algorithm created for

performing particular
task
Correct result
Input Output
Computer
Errors if any
TM

Algorithm Heading
It consists of name of algorithm, problem
description, input and output
Algorithm Body
It consists of logical body of the algorithm
by making use of various programming
constructs and assignment statement.
Algorithm name (p1,p2,....................,pn)
This keyword should Here write Write

be written first the name of parameters
an algorithm (if any)
TM

TM

value 1
TM

TM

GCD
Using Euclid algorithm Consecutive integer Finding the repetitive

checking algorithm factors
TM

TM

TM

TM

n 23
n
23 5
TM

k n
TM

Understand the problem
Decide on :
(1) Computational means
(2) Exact Vs. approximatesolving
(3) Data structures
(4) Algorithmic design techniques
Design an algorithm
Prove correctness
Analyze the algorihm
Code the algorithm
TM

TM

Using natural language
Algorithm
Pseudo code
Flow chart
TM

START Start state
Transition
Processing or assignment statements
Input-output statement
Conditional statement
STOP Stop state
Start
Input the
value of a
Input the
value of b
c= a+b
Display the
value of c
Stop
TM

TM

TM

TM

TM

TM

Computing best
case, worst case
Measuring and average
case efficiencies Measuring
space input size
complexity
Analysis of algorithms
Measuring
time Measuring
complexity Computing running
order of time
growth of
algorithms
TM

TM

3n 2 .
n 1
n  (1) = n times
 
for outer for initialization
loop of j
TM

2
n  (n+1) = n + n times
 
execution of execution of
outer i loop inner j loop
2
n  (n) = n times
 
2
n  (n) = n times
 
3n 2 4n 2
O n2
TM

T(n)  cop C(n)
Running time of Time taken by the Number of times the

basic operation basic operation to operation needs to be
execute executed
n2
TM

n
2 3
65536 n
32768
16384
2
n
8192
4096
2048
1024
n log2 n
512
256
n
128
64
32
16 log2 n
1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
TM

n0 n0
n0
f(n) c g(n)
c  g(n)
f(n)
n0 n
f(n) O(g(n))
n2
n2
n2
TM

(1) 2
( 2) 2
( 3) 2
' '
n0
TM

f(n)
c  g(n)
n0 n
f(n) (g(n))
2n 2 5
2 ( 0) 2 5
2 (1) 2 5
2 ( 3) 2 5
TM

2n 2 5
n3 (n) 2
c1 c2
c2  g(n)
f(n)
c1  g(n)
n
Theta notation f(n)  (g(n))
TM

c1 c2 n0
f1 (n) g 1 (n) f2 (n) g 2 (n)

f1 (n) + f2 (n) O(max(g 1 (n), g 2 (n))
m (n m )
a 1n 3 a 2n 2 a 3n c (n 3 )
O(n 2 ) O(2 n )
an
( g ( n))
TM

n log n
n 2 2n
n log n
n 2 2n
TM

35x 8 22x7 14 x5 2x 4 4x2 x 15
c g(n)
c g(n)
35x 8 22x7 14x5 2x 4 4x 2 x 15
x8
35(1) 8 22(1) 7 14(1) 5 2(1) 4 4(1) 2 1 15
TM

x8 (1) 8
n2
n3
2n
TM

( g(n)).
f1 (n) f2 (n) f1 (n) g 1 (n)

f2 (n) (g 2 (n)) f1 (n) f2 (n) (O(g 1 (n)), O (g 2 (n)))
f1 (n) f2 (n) f1 (n) O(g 1 (n))
f2 (n) O(g 2 (n)) f1 (n) f2 (n) O (g 1 (n) g 2 (n))
f1 f1 f2 c f1
f2 O(f1 f2 ) O (f1 ) O (f2 )
3n3 2n 2 10 O (n 3 )
f(n)
lim
n g(n)
n3
TM

4n 3 4n
3
105 n 4n 2 6n
n 3 4n 3 4n 105n 3 4n 2 6n O(n 3 )
2n 1
TM

n(n 1) n2 n
2 2 2
O (n 2 )
TM

n (n 1) n2 n
2 2 2
O (n 2 )
TM

n
2T n
2
n n
2T n
4 2
n
4T 2n
4
n n
4 2T 2n
8 4
n
3n
8
n
23 T 3n
23
n
2kT kn
2k
TM

n
n T logn n 2k n
n
n T(1) n logn
n
T C
3
n
T C
3
n
T C C
9
n
T 2C
9
n
T C 2C
27
n
T 3C
27
n
T kC
3k
3k n
n
T log 3 n C
n
T (1) log 3 n C
C log 3 n 1
T ( n 1) n 4
TM

n4
[T (n 2) (n 1) 4 ] n 4 T(n 1) T(n 2) (n 1) 4
T(n 2) (n 1) 4 n4
[T(n 3) (n 2) 4 ] (n 1) 4 n4
T(n 3) (n 2) 4 (n 1) 4 n4
[T(n 4) (n 3) 4 ] (n 2) 4 (n 1) 4 n4
T(n 4) (n 3) 4 (n 2) 4 (n 1) 4 n4
T(n k) (n k 1) 4 (n k 2) 4 (n k 3) 4 n4
T(n n) (n n 1) 4 (n n 2) 4 (n n 3) 4 + n4
T(0) 1 4 24 34 n4
n
T(0) n4
i 1
n n
T(0) n(n 4 ) n4 n4 1 n4 n
i 1 i 1
0 n5
(n 5 )
n
2T n
2
TM

Step 1 : Step 2 : Step 3 :
n n n
T(n)
n n n n n
T — T — — —
2 2 2 2
Step 4 :
n n
n n n
— —
2 2
n n n n
— — — — n
4 4 4 4
n n
n n n
— —
2 2
logn n n n n
— — — — n
4 4 4 4
n n n n n n n n
— — — — — — — — n
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
T(1) T(1) T(1) T(1) T(1)

TM

n
T ( n) 3T Cn 2
4
2 2
Cn Cn
n 2 n 2 n 2 3 2
C — C — C — —– Cn
4 4 4 16
2
3 2
—– Cn
log4n n 2 n 2 n 2 16
C — C — C —
16 16 16
n 2 n 2 n 2
C — C — C —
64 64 64
T(1) T(1) T(1) T(1)
n n
1 4i
i
4 4i
log 4 n i log 4 n 1 log 4 n 1
2
n
C
4i
2
n
3i C
4i
3
C(n 2 )
16
log 4 n
3 log 4 n n log 4 3 (n log 4 3 )
n 2n
T T O(n) ...
3 3
TM

2
2 2
n n ... 1
3 3
k
2
n
3
n n
O(n/3) O(2n/3) n
Log 3/2n
O(n/9) O(n/9) O ( 4n9) O ( 4n9) n
O (n log n)
log 3 2 n log 3 2 n
n
8T n2 (1)
2
n2 2n 2 22 n 2 23n2 24 n 2 2 log n – 1 n 2 8 log n

log n– 1
2k n 2 8 log n
k 0
log n– 1
n2 2 k ( 2 3 ) log n
k 0
TM

2
n 2
n
2
n 2 2 2
— n n n 2
2 + — + + — = 8 —– = 2 n
2 2 4
8 8 8
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
n n n n n n n n n 2
—
4
—
4
—
4
—
4
—
4
—
4
—
4
—
4
—
4 ) )
8 2
= 4 n
2 2
=2 n
log n–1 2
=2 n
T(1) T(1) T(1) T(1) T(1) T(1) T(1) T(1) T(1) log n
=8
log n– 1
2k
k 0
log n– 1
2k ( 2 log n – 1 ) (n)
k 0
(2 3 ) log n (2 log n ) 3 n3
n2 (n) + n 3
(n 3 )
(n 3 )
aT (n b) F(n)
TM

(n d )
(n d ) bd
(n d log n)
log ba
(n ) bd
n1
bd 21
log ba
(n )
log 2 4
(n )
(n 2 ) log 2 4 2
(n 2 )
TM

log 2 m
log ba
O (n )
log ba
(n )
log ba
(n log k n)
log ba
(n log k+ 1 n)
log ba +
(n )
n 1
T i 1 n 2
i 1
n
2T
2
n 1
T(i) 1
i 1
TM

 T(n) = T (n – 1) + 1
Putting value of equation (1)
T(n) = (T (n – 2) +1) +1
T(n 2) 1
 T(n) = T (n – 2) + 2
 equation (2)
T(n) = (T (n – 3) + 1) + 2
a0 a1
an 5 an 1 6 an 2
an 5a n 1 6a n 2
n
a0 a1 an
2 5 6
( 2)( 3)
TM

an A(2) n B(3) n
a0 A(2) 0 B(3) 0
a0
a1 A(2) 1 B(3) 1
a1
an 2n 3n
log 2 2
log 2 2
(n log 1 n)
log ba
(n log k+ 1 n)
log 2 2
(n log 2 n)
(n 1 log 2 n)
(n log 2 n)
TM

n2
n2
log 2 8
log ba
O (n )
log 2 8
O (n )
O (n 3 ) 1 O (n 3 1) O (n 2 ) f(n)
log ba
(n )
log 2 8
(n )
(n 3 )
n3
n3
log 3 9
log 3 9
(n )
(n 2 ) n3
f(n) (n) 1
(f(n))
(n 3 )
log 2 1
2k
20
TM

log ba
(n log k n)
log 2 1
(n log 0 n)
(n 0 1)
n0 1
log ba
(n log k+ 1 n)
log 2 1
(n log 0+ 1 n)
(n 0 log 1 n)
n0 1
9T (n 3) n
log a log 9
n b n 3 n2
log a
(n b ) (n 2 )
log b a
(n )
(n log 3 9 )
(n 2 )
(n 2 )
k T ( n k) n 2
TM

n
k T n2
k
2
n n n n
2T n2 T 2T
2 2 4 2
n n2
2 2 T n2
4 4
n n2
4T n2
4 2
2
n 3n 2 n n n
4T T 2T
4 2 4 8 4
n n2 3n 2
4 2 T
8 16 2
n n2 3n 2
8T
8 4 2
n 7n 2
8T
8 4
n 2k 1
2kT n2
2k 2k 1
n 2k 1
2kT Cn 2 c Constant
2k 2k 1
n
1 2k n log 2 n
2k
nT(1) Cn 2
n Cn 2 T(1) 1
(n) 2
TM

n
k T n2
k
log b a
n n log k k n1
n log k k
n1 1
f(n) i. e. n 2
(f(n))
(n 2 )
2T n/2 3 n 2
2 n 2
2T n/2 cn n 1
n 1
n
2
4
2
8
2
16
2
TM

n
2
2k
2
2k 1
2 k– 2
20
TM

n
W c. n
2
n
W c. n c. n
4
n
W c. n 2cn
8
n
W 3 cn
23
n
W 4 cn
24
n
W kcn
2k
2k
n
W kcn
n
2k
3k
TM

3 2 x(n – 2)
3(3 2 x(n – 3)
3 3 x(n – 3)
3 k x(n – k)
3 n– 1 x(n – (n – 1))
TM

3 n– 1 x(1)
3 n– 1 4
4 3n– 1
x(n – n) n n
x(0) n 2
0 n2 x(0) 0
n2
2k
x(2 k ) x(2 k / 2) 2 k
x(2 k– 1 ) 2 k
[x(2 k– 2 ) 2 k– 1 ] 2 k
x(2 k– 3 ) 2 k– 2 2 k– 1 2 k
TM

x(2 k– k ) 2 1 2 2 2 3 ... 2 k
x(2 0 ) 2 1 2 2 2 3 ....+2 k
x(1) 2 1 2 2 2 3 .... 2 k
1 21 22 2 3 ....2 k
2k 1 –1
2 2k – 1
2k
x (2 k ) 2 n –1
3k
x(3 k ) x(3 k– 1 ) 1
[x(3 k– 2 ) 1] + 1
x 3 k– 2 2
[x(3 k– 3 ) 1] + 2
x 3 k– 3 3
x(3 k– k ) k
x(1) = 1
3k log 3 n
x(3 k ) 1 log 3 n
TM

TM

T(n) = Probability of successful search  Probability of unsuccessful search
For elements 1 to n
in the list When there is
possibility of not
getting element
P P P
1 2 ...... i n (1 P)
n n n
P
(1+ 2 + ....+i) n (1 P)
n
P n(n + 1)
n (1 P)
n 2
(n + 1)
P n (1 P)
2
0 (n 1)
n (1 0)
2
1(n + 1)
n (1 1)
2
TM

(n + 1)
2
TM

TM

Count or time
Count or time
n n
(a) Input obtained gives (b) Input obtained gives
linear characteristic logarithmic graph.
The efficiency = M(n) The efficiency = M(log2n)
TM

TM

TM

TM

M (n 1) 1
M (n 2) 1 1 M (n 2) 2
(n)
A B C
TM

A B C
1
32
4
5
A B C
3 1
4
5 2
TM

A B C
1
4 2
5 3
A B C
1 3
2
5 4
A B C
21
3
5 4
TM

TM

2 2 M (n 2) 2 1
2 3 M (n 3) 2 2 21 1
2 4 M (n 4) 23 22 2 1
2 i M (n i) 2i 1
2i 2
... 2 1
2 i M (n i) 2i 1
(2 n 1) (2 n )
n disks
(n–1) disks (n–1) disks
(n–2) disks (n–2) disks (n–2) disks (n–2) disks
2 2
2 2
1 11 1
1 1 1 1
TM

n 2
n 2
n 2 n 2
n 2
TM

n 2 n 2 n 4
D n 4 1 1 D n 4 2
D n 8 1 2 D n 4 D n 8 1
D n 8 3
2k
D (2 k ) D (2 k 1) 1
D (2 k )
D (2 k ) D (2 0 )
D (2 k ) D (2 k ) 0
D (2 k )
D (2 k ) D (2 k 1) + 1 D (2 k 1) = D (2 k 2)+1
[D (2 k 2 ) + 1] +1 D (2 k 2) = D (2 k 3)+1
[D (2 k 3
) + 1] + 2 = [D (2 k 3
) + 3]
TM

D (2 k i) +i
D (2 k k
)+k
D (2 0 ) + k
D (2 k )
n 2k
k log 2 n
log 2 n (log 2 n)
TM

n th
r2 r 1
b b2 4ac
2a
r2 r 1
TM

r1 r2
b b2 4ac 1 1 4 (1 1)
r1
2a 2 (1)
1 1 4
2
1 5
r1
2
b b2 4ac 1 1 4 (1 1)
r2
2a 2
1 1 4
2
1 5
r2
2
Ar1n Br2n
r1 r2
n n
1 5 1 5
A B
2 2
0 0
1 5 1 5
A B
2 2
TM

1 1
1 5 1 5
A B
2 2
1 5 1 5
A B
2 2
1 5 1 5
B +B
2 2
1 5 1 5
B
2 2
1 5 1 5
B
2
2 5
B
2
B[ 5]
1
5
1
5
1
5
n n
1 5 1 5
A B
2 2
n n
1 1 5 1 1 5
5 2 5 2
TM

(1 5) 1 (1 5)
,
2 2
1 1
( )n ( 1) n
5 5
1 5
2
1 1 5
2
1 n 1) n ]
[( (
5
1 1) n
(
5
1 n
5
n
( )
TM

TM

Searching the maximum element from
an array
If any value is larger than current

Max_value then set new Max_value by
obtained larger value
n 1
1
i 1
n
Using the rule 1= n n
i 1
TM

If any two elements in the array are
similar then return False indicating
that the array elements are not
distinct.
C worst (n)
n 2 n 1
C worst (n)
i 0 j i+ 1
C worst
n 1 n
1 1 n k 1 is the rule.
j i+ 1 i k
n 2
(n 1 i)
i 0
TM

n 2 n 2
(n 1 ) i
i 0 i 0
n 2
(n 2) (n 1)
(n 1) 1 n
2 n (n 1)
i 0 i
2
i 1
n 2
(n 2) (n 1)
(n 1) 1
2
i 0
n
1 (n 1 1) n
i 1
(n 2) (n 1) n 2
(n 1) (n 1) 1
2
i 0
2 (n 1) (n 1) (n 2) (n 1)
2
2 (n 2 2n 1) (n 2 3n 2) / 2
(n 2 n) / 2
1 2
n
2
(n 2 )
b00 b01
a a a 1 2
00 01 02
1 2 3
b10 b11
a a a 3 4
10 11 12
4 5 6
2 3 b20 b21
5 6 3 2
TM

a 00 b 00 a 01 b 10 a 02 b 20 a 00 b 01 a 01 b 11 a 02 b 21
a 10 b 00 a 11 b 10 a 12 b 20 a 10 b 01 a 11 b 11 a 12 b 21
1 1 2 3 3 5 1 2 2 4 3 6
4 1 5 3 6 5 4 2 5 4 6 6
22 28
49 64
TM

n 1 n 1 n 1
1
i 0 j 0 k 0
n 1 n 1
n n 1
i 0 j 0 n
n 1 j 1
n2
i 0
n3
n3
3
(n )
log 2 n
log 2 n 1
(log 2 n)
log 2 n
TM

Q1 Q2
Interchange
Q2 the names Q1
Q1 and Q2
10 20 30 10 20 30
TM

Q1 Q2
Interchange
Q2 Queue names Q1
10 20 10 20
Q1 Q2
Interchange
Q2 Queue names Q1
10 10
TM

O(n 2 )
O(n 2 )
TM

Algorithmic visualization
Dynamic algorithm
Static algorithm
visualization
visualization
(includes continuous
(includes still images)
movie-like presentations)
TM

TM

TM

TM

(n)
amn m . . . a1n a0 O(n m ).
a mn m a m– 1 n m– 1 a m– 2 n m– 2 ... a 0
a im
m
A am
i 0
a 00 a 11 a 22
n
A 1 A n1
i 0
A O n1
n
A n A n2
i 0
A O n2
n
A n2 AO n3
i 0
m
A n A O nm
i 0
O nm
TM

TM

n0 n0
n0
f(n) c g(n)
n0
c1 c2
c1 c 2 g(n)
f1 (n) f2 (n) f1 (n) g 1 (n)

f2 (n) (g 2 (n)) f1 (n) f2 (n) (O(g 1 (n)), O (g 2 (n)))
f1 (n) f2 (n) f1 (n) O(g 1 (n))
f2 (n) O(g 2 (n)) f1 (n) f2 (n) O (g 1 (n) g 2 (n))
TM

c 1n 2 c2 n
c3
TM

n0 n0
n0
c g(n)
c g(n) n0
C1 C2
C 1 g(n) C 2 g(n)
TM

n2
n2
n(n – 1) n2
2 30
n2
25
20
15
10 n (n – 1)
2
5
0 1 2 3 4 5
TM

500
(2i – 1)
i= 1
500 500
500 501
2i – 1 2 – 500
2
i= 1 i= 1
500
2i – 1 i2
i= 1
O(n) 2
n 0
TM

log ba
O (n )
log ba
(n )
log ba
(n log k n)
log ba
(n log k+ 1 n)
log ba +
(n )
TM

an
TM

an
TM

an
an
25
to ...... ti ....... ti+j ....... ti+m – 1 ....... tn–1 text
po ..... pj ......... pm–1 pattern
matched pattern found in text
TM

0 th
TM

TM

TM

TM

TM

TM

TM

TM

Text 0 0 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 0
 
Trial#1 0 0 0 0 1
Trial#2 0 0 0 0 1 
Pattern
matching  
0 0 0 0 1
TM

5 996
[Total character compared] [1000 zeros 4 matched zeros]
1 996
x, y P x, y
2 2
d Pi , Pj xi – xj yi –yj
Pi Pj
n–1
j i 1
TM

S P1 , P2 , P3 ... Pn
H S
Convex Not a convex
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
TM

Step 13 Step 14
1 Extreme
2 points
7
6
8 3
5
4
Convex Hull
Pi
TM

1
2 2
1
4 3
4
2 3
5
TM

2
a b
5 3
8 7
1
c d
wi vi
wi vi
TM

wi vi
wi vi
wi vi
wi vi
wi vi
wi vi
wi vi
wi vi
wi
wi
wi
i th j th
TM

job job job job
1 2 3 4
2, 1, 3, 4
1, 2, 3, 4 >
1, 2, 4 , 3
1, 2, 3, 4 >
< 1, 3, 4 , 2
1, 4 , 2, 3
1, 4 , 3, 2
2, 1, 3, 4 >
2, 1, 4 , 3
2, 3, 1, 4 >
TM

2, 3, 4 , 1
2, 4 , 3, 1
2, 4 , 1, 3
3, 1, 2, 4
3, 1, 4 , 2
3, 2, 1, 4 >
3, 2, 4 , 1
3, 4 , 1, 2
3, 4 , 2, 1
4 , 1, 2, 3
4, 1, 3, 2
4 , 2, 1, 3
4 , 2, 3, 1
4 , 3, 2, 1
4 , 3, 1, 2
2, 1, 3, 4 >
TM

g(n) if n is small
T(n 1 ) T(n 2 ) ...........T(n r ) + F(n) when n is sufficiently large
Problem of size n
Sub problem 1 Sub problem 1

of size n/2 of size n/2
Solution to Solution to
sub problem 1 sub problem 2
Solution to original
problem
TM

(a0 + ... an–1)
(a0 ... + an/2–1) (an/2+ ... + an–1)
Solution 1 Solution 2
Solution to
(a0 + ... + an–1)
T(n) = a T(n/b) + f(n)
Time for
size n/b
Time for Number of Time required for
size n subinstances dividing the problem
into subproblem
bk
T (b k ) aT (b k b) f (b k )
aT (b k 1) f(b k )
a [aT(b k 2) f(b k 1 )] f (b k )
a 2 T (b k 2) af (b k 1) f (b k )
T (b k 2)
a 2 [aT (b k 3) f (b k 2 )] af (b k 1) f (b k )
a 3 T (b k 3) a 2 f (b k 2) af (b k 1) f (b k )
TM

a kT (b k k) ak 1 f (b 1 ) ak 2 f (b 2 ) ... a 0 f (b k )
[a kT (1) a k 1 f(b) a k 2 f (b 2 ) ... a 0 f(b k )]
ak ak ak
a kT(1) f(b) f (b 2 ) ... f (b k )
a a2 ak
ak
f(b) f(b 2 ) f(b k )
a k T(1) ... +
a a2 ak
k f(b j )
a k T(1)
j 1 aj
log bx log ba
a x
ak
log bn log ba
ak a n
k
a k T(1) f(b j ) a j
j 1
log bn
log ba
n T(1) f(b j ) a j
j 1
TM

O(nlog n) + O(1) + O(1)
Efficiency For choosing the

of sorting last element
the
elements
For choosing the
first element
TM

?
Left sublist Right sublist
TM

Left Right
sublist sublist
TM

T(n) = T(n/2) + c
Time required to compare
left and right sublists Constant time required
to compare middle
element
) 2
) 3
TM

(1) (log 2n) (log 2n)
TM

TM

TM

log n
TM

TM

TM

0 1 2 3 4 5
10 20 30 40 50 60
Left Right
sublist Mid sublist
Array A [ ]
 40 50 60
Mid
TM

10 20 30 40 50 60 NULL
temp
10 20 30 40 50 60 NULL
mid
temp ?
40 50 60 NULL
mid
TM

3 14 27 31 39 42 55 70 74 81 85 93 98
Cw log 2 n 1
log 2 (n 1)
log 2 (13+ 1)
3 14 27 31 39 42 55 70 74 81 85 93 98
Mid
element
55
3 14 27 31 39 42 70 74 81 85 93 98
Mid Mid
TM

55
27 81
3 14 31 39 42 70 74 85 93 98
55
27 81
3 39 70 93
NULL 14 31 42 NULL 74 85 98
Number of
comparisions
Key for successful
55 [1] search
value
[2] 27 81 [2]
[3] 3 [3] [3] [3]

39 70 93
[4] [4] [4] [4] [4] [4]
NULL 14 31 42 NULL 74 85 98
yes 1 1 1 1 41
C avg 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 6
13 13 13 13 13
TM

55
27 81
3 39 70 93
NULL 14 31 42 NULL 74 85 98
Unsuccessful
search
1 1
C no
avg 3 2 4 12
14 14
54
14
TM

70 20 30 40 10 50 60
Divide Divide
70 20 30 40 10 50 60
Divide Divide
70 20 30 40 10 50 60
Divide Divide
70 20 30 40 10 50 60
Merge Merge
20 70 30 10 40 50 60
Merge Merge
20 30 70 10 40 50 60
Merge Merge
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
18 29 68 32 43 37 87 24 47 50
18 29 68 32 43 37 87 24 47 50
18 29 68 32 43 37 87 24 47 50
18 29 68 32 43 37 87 24 47 50
18 29 32 43 37 87 47 50
18 29 37 87
18 29 68 24 37 87
18 29 32 43 68 24 37 47 50 87
18 24 29 32 37 43 47 50 68 87
This is the sorted list
TM

38 27 43 3 9 82 10
Divide Divide
38 27 43 3 9 82 10
Divide Divide
38 27 43 3 9 82 10
Divide
38 27 43 3 9 82 10
Merge Merge
27 38 43 3 9 10 82
Merge Merge
27 38 43 3 9 10 82
Merge
3 9 10 27 38 43 82
is a sorted list
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
122 25 70 175 89 90 95 102 123
122 25 70 175 89 90 95 102 123
122 25 70 175 89 90 95 102 123
122 25 70 175 89 90 95 102 123
122 25 89 175
25 122 90 95 102 123
25 70 122
25 70 89 122 175 90 95 102 123
25 70 89 90 95 102 122 123 175
TM

Dividing
phase 286 45 278 368 475 389 656 788 503 126
286 45 278 368 475 389 656 788 503 126
286 45 278 368 475 389 656 788 503 126
286 45 278 368 475 389 656 788 503 126

Combining
phase
45 286 278 368 475 389 656 788 126 503
45 278 286 368 475 389 656 788 126 503
45 278 286 368 475 126 389 503 656 788
45 126 278 286 368 389 475 503 656 788
This is the sorted list
TM

12 24 8 71 4 23 6 89 56
12 24 8 71 4 23 6 89 56
12 24 8 71 4 23 6 89 56
12 24 8 71 4 23 6 89 56
12 24 8 71 4 23 6 89 56
8 12 24 71 4 6 23 89 56
8 12 24 71 4 6 23 56 89
6 6 8 12 23 24 56 71 89
This is a sorted list
TM

low high
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
70 20 30 40 10 50 60 Merge sort (A, low, mid)
4
1 This list is further
subdivided This list can be
subdivided
0 1 2 3
70 20 30 40
2 This list is
3 This list
subdivided can be Merge sort (A, mid+1, high)
subdivided
70 20 30 40 10 50 60
This list
7 Combine 5 can be
Combine two
subdivide
sublists in
temp array 6 10 50 10
Combine two
sublists
20 70 30 40 9 Combine two
sublists
8 Combine
these two 10 50
20 30 40 70 sublists
10 50 60
11 Combine two
sublists
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
TM

Array A (left sublist) Array A (right sublist)
Applicable part of
20 30 40 70 10 50 60 Algorithm
 
i j
Initially k = 0. Then k will be incremented


temp 

0  e
k get l s e p a r t
s ex o
ecute f a l g o r i t hm 
d

A (left sublist) A (right sublist) 
20 30 40 70 10 50 60
 
i j

Applicable part of
20 30 40 70 10 50 60 Algorithm
 
i j
k = 1. It is advanced later on
temp
10 20 
if part of algorithm 
0 1  gets executed 
k
moves ahead
Array A (left sublist) Array A (right sublist) 


20 30 40 70 10 50 60

 
i j
TM

20 30 40 70 10 50 60
  Applicable part of
i j Algorithm
Now k=2
temp
10 20 30 
if part 
0 1 2  gets executed 
k
moves ahead


20 30 40 70 10 50 60

 
i j
A (left sublist) A (right sublist)

Applicable part of
20 30 40 70 10 50 60
Algorithm
 
i j
temp 
ed
execut 
10 20 30 40 if part gets 

k


20 30 40 70 10 50 60
 
i j

Applicable part of
20 30 40 70 10 50 60
Algorithm
 
i j
temp 

10 20 30 40 50 els
e 
 gets par
ex t
k ec
uted


20 30 40 70 10 50 60
 
i j
TM

Applicable part of
20 30 40 70 10 50 60
Algorithm
 
i j
temp

10 20 30 40 50 60 
 
k
else
part of algorithm
gets executed


20 30 40 70 10 50 60
 
i j

Applicable part of
20 30 40 70 10 50 60
Algorithm
 
i j
temp
ecuted 
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 t his part gets ex 

TM

TM

(n d logn)
nd
bd
21
(n log 2 n)
(n log 2 n)
n 2k
TM

2k
2T c 2k n 2k
2
T (2 k ) 2T (2 k 1) c 2k
T (2 k ) 2T (2 k 1) c 2k
2 [2T (2 k 2
) c 2k 1
] c 2k
2 2 T (2 k 2
) 2 c 2k 1
c 2k
2k
2 2 T (2 k 2) 2 c c 2k
2
2 2 T (2 k 2) c 2k c 2k
T (2 k ) 2 2 T (2 k 2
) 2c 2 k
T(2 k ) 2 3 T (2 k 3) 3c 2 k
2 4 T (2 k 4) 4c 2 k
2 k T (2 k k) k c 2k
2 k T (2 0 ) k c 2 k
T(2 k ) 2 k T (1) k c 2 k
T (2 k ) 2k 0 k c 2k
T (2 k ) k c 2k
2k
log 2 n
log 2 n cn
TM

(n log 2 n)
(n log 2 n)
(n log2n) (n log2n) (n log2n)
TM

We compare elements from left sublist
and right sublist. If element in the left
sublist is lesser than the element in the
right sublist then copy that smaller
element of left sublist to temp array
We compare elements from left sublist

and right sublist. If element in the right
sublist is lesser than the element in the
left sublist then copy that smaller
element of right sublist to temp array
Reached at the end of right sublist and

elements of left sublist are
remaining, then copy the remaining
elements of left sublist to temp
Reached at the end of left sublist and

elements of right sublist are remaining,
then copy the remaining
elements of right sublist to temp
TM

TM

Elements that are Pivot element Elements that are
less than pivot greater than pivot
A[0] ... A[m–1],A[m],A[m+1]...A[n–1]
These elements are Mid These elements are

less than A[m] greater than A[m]
TM

TM

i
Now we have left sublist Now we have right sublist
TM

TM

Now consider this

sublist for sorting
TM

TM

5 3 1 9 8 2 4 7
Low high
5 3 1 9 8 2 4 7
Pivot i j
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 3 1 9 8 2 4 7
Pivot i i i jj
Swap A [i] and A [j]
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 3 1 4 8 2 9 7
Pivot ii jj
Swap A [i] and A [j]

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 3 1 4 2 8 9 7
Pivot i j
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 3 1 4 2 8 9 7
Pivot j i
TM

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 3 1 4 5 8 9 7

Pivot has
occupied its
proper position
0 1 2 3 5 6 7
2 3 1 4 8 9 7
Pivot i jj Pivot i j
Swap A [i] and A [j] Swap A [i] and A [j]
2 1 3 4 8 7 9
Pivot i j Pivot i j
0 1 2 3 5 6 7
2 1 3 4 8 7 9
Pivot j i Pivot j i
As j < i Swap As j < i Swap
A [Pivot] and A [j] A [Pivot] and A [j]
0 1 2 3
1 2 3 4 7 8 9
Pivot has Pivot has

occupied its occupied its
proper position proper position
2 3
3 4
Pivot i/j
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
TM

TM

n
T n T n
T(n) = + +
2 2 Time required
for partitioning
the sub array
Time required Time required
to sort left to sort right
sub-list sub-list
TM

time required
n
n items
n–1
n – 1 items
1
....
n – 2 items
2
....
n – 3 items
3
1
n (n 1) 1 2
n
2 2
(n 2 )
(n 2 )
TM

n 1
1
(T(i) T(n 1 i) cn)
n
i 0
2
(T(0) T(1) ..... T(n 2) T(n 1) cn)
n
2(T(0) T(1) ..... T(n 2) T(n 1) cn 2 )
(n 1)T(n 1) 2(T(0) T(1) ..... T(n 2) c(n 1) 2 )
nT(n) (n 1)T(n 1) 2T(n 1) 2cn c 2T(n 1) 2cn

(n 1)T(n 1) 2cn
T(n) T(n 1) 2c
n 1 n n 1
T(n) T(n 1) T(n 2) T(2) T(1)

....
n 1 n n 1 3 2
T(n 1) T(n 2) T(2) T(1) T(0)
....
n n 1 3 2 1
2c 2c 2c 2c
.....
n 1 n 3 2
T(n) T(0) 1 1 1 1
2c ....
n 1 1 2 3 n 1 n
T(n) T(0) 1 1 1 1
+ 2c ....
n 1 1 2 3 n n+1
2c(H n 1 1)
1 1 1
Hn 1 ......
2 3 n
T(n)
c log n
n 1
(n + 1)c log n
TM

(nlog n)
(nlog n)
TM

TM

Heap construction
Heap sort
Deletion of maximum key
TM

Stage I : Heap construction
Array representation of heap

14
14 12 9 8 7 10 18
12 9
We start
heapifying
8 from
7 10 18
bottom
14
Heapifying
this 14 12 18 8 7 10 9
tree
12 18
8 7 10 9
18
18 12 14 8 7 10 9
12 14
8 7 10 9
Stage II : Maximum deletion
18
18 12 14 8 7 10 9
12 14 Swap with last node

in heap
8 7 10 9
TM

9
9 12 14 8 7 10 18
12 14
8 7 10 18 Delete
it and put it
at the end in array
14
14 12 9 8 7 10 18
12 9 Heapified
8 7 10
14 10 10 12 9 8 7 14 18
swapping
12 9 12 9
8 7 10 8 7 14 Delete it
and put
in the array
at the end
10
12 9 Heapify 10 12 9 8 7 14 18
8 7 14
12
swap
10 9 12 10 9 8 7 14 18
8 Heap to be
7
processed
10 9 7 10 8 12 14 18
Heap to be
8 12 Delete processed
it
10 9 7 10 9 8 12 14 18
Heap to be
8 processed
TM

7 10 10
Heapify
9 7 9 8 9
10
8 8 7
10 8 9 7 12 14 18
10 7
Swap
and 7 8 9 10 12 14 18
8 9 8
delete 9
10
9 9 8 7 10 12 14 18
7
Heapify
8 7
8 9
7
9 7 8 9 10 12 14 18
Swap
8 9 Delete
8 7
8 8 7 9 10 12 14 18
7
Heapify
7
8
TM

7
8
7 8 9 10 12 14 18
Swap 8
7
7
7 8 9 10 12 14 18
8 Delete
7 8 9 10 12 14 18
7
List is sorted using
heap sort method.
4 4 2
7 7 2 7 4
2 2 1
7 4 1 4 2 4
1 7 7
TM

1
2 4
7 3
1 3
Swap
1
2 4 2 4
Queue
7 3 7 1 Delete
and insert
in queue
3 2 7
Swap
1 2
2 4 3 4 3 4
Queue
7 7 2 Delete
and insert
in queue
7 3 4
Swap
3 4 7 4 7 3 Delete
and insert in queue
1 2 3
TM

4 7
Swap
7 4 Delete 1 2 3 4
and insert
in queue
7 Delete it 1 2 3 4 7
and insert
in queue This is sorted
list of elements
TM

E
A S
Y Q U E
S T I O N
A S
Y Q U E
S T I O N
TM

E
A S
Y Q U E
S T I O N
E E
A S Y S
Y Q U E A Q U E
S T I O N S T I O N
E Y
Y S E S
T Q U E T Q U E
N
S A I O S A I O N
TM

Y Y
T S T S
E Q U E S Q U E
S A I O N E A I O N
is a final heap.
T U
S Q S E
E A I O N
7 7 9
7
3 3 9 3 7
9 9 9
3 7 5 7 5 7
5 3 3 1
TM

9 9 13
5 7 5 13 5 9
3 1 13 3 1 7 3 1 7
13 13
5 9 5 11
3 1 7 11 3 1 7 9
13 13 13
5 11 5 11 15 11
3 1 7 9 15 1 7 9 5 1 7 9
15 3 3
15
13 11 is a required
Max heap.
5 1 7 9
15 3
Swap 13 11 13 11 15
5 1 7 9 5 1 7 9
3 15 Delete
it and
place it
in array
TM

3 13 13
13 11 3 11 5 11
5 1 7 9 5 1 7 9 3 1 7 9
13 Swap 9
5 11 5 11 15 13
3 1 7 9 3 1 7 13
Delete it
and place
it in array
9 11
5 11 5 9
3 1 7 3 1 7
11 7
Swap
5 9 5 9 15 13 11
3 1 7 3 1 11
Delete it
and place
it in array
7 9
5 9 5 7
3 1 3 1
TM

9 1
5 7 Swap 5 7 15 13 11 9
3 1 3 9
Delete it
and place
it in array
7 3
1 Swap
5 1 5 1
5 7
3
7 delete
3 it and
place it in array
15 13 11 9 7
3 5 Swap 1
Delete it
5 1 3 1 3 5 and place
it in array
15 13 11 9 7 5
1 3 1
3 1 Swap 3 Delete it
and place
it in array.
15 13 11 9 7 5 3
1 Delete it
and place 15 13 11 7 5 3 1
9
it in array
is sorted in descending order.
TM

5 5 5 5
16 16 22 16 22
45
5 5 5 2
45 22 45 22 2 22 5 22
16 16 2 16 45 16 45
2 2 2
5 22 5 10 5 10
16 45 10 16 45 22 16 45 22 18
2 2
5 10 5 10
16 45 22 18 16 45 22 18
30 30 50
TM

2
2
5 10 5 10
16 45 22 18 16 12 22 18
30 50 12 30 50 45
2 2 2
5 10 5 10 1 10
16 12 22 18 16 1 22 18 16 5 22 18
30 50 45 1 30 50 45 12 30 50 45 12
2 10
16 5 22 18
30 50 45 12
Min Heap
TM

4 2 3 4
42
34
168 0
10 Position
0
10 Position
1260 padding 0 at units position 1
10 Position
1
10 Position
1428
42 34 4 10 1 2 10 0 * 3 10 1 4 10 0
4 3 10 2 4 4 2 3 10 1 2 4 10 0
a b
c 2 10 2 c 1 10 1 c 0
c2 a 1 b1
c0 a 0 b0
c1 a 1 a 0 * b1 b0 c2 c0
a1 a0
b1 b0
a b
42 34 a1 a0
b1 b0
c0 , c1 , c2
c2 a 1 b1
TM

4 3
c2
c0 a 0 b0
2 4
c0
c1 a1 a0 b1 b0 c2 c0
4 2 3 4 12 8
6 7 20
c1
a b c 2 10 2 c 1 10 1 c 0
12 10 2 22 10 1 8
a b
a b
c 2 10 n c 1 10 n/2 c0
c2 a1 b1
c0 a0 b0
c1 a1 a0 b1 b0 c2 c0
c2 a 1 b1
c0 a 0 b0
c1 a1 a0 b1 b0 c2 c0
TM

2k
C 2k 3 C 2k / 2
C 2k 3 C 2k 1
3 3 C 2k 2
3 3 3 C 2k 3
3k C 2k k
3k C 20
3k C 1 20
C 2k 3k
n 2k log 2 n
3 log 2 n
n log 2 3 a log b c c log 2 a
n 1.58
TM

(a) Is a convex hull (b) Is not a convex hull
(p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , ... p n )
p1 p n/ 2
p n/ 2 1 pn
TM

(a) Arrange the elements (b) Find the convex hull with
in sorted order adjacent points
(c) Merge the lower and upper (d) Concatenate the joined
hulls by dotted lines hulls together
(f) Concatenate it in one hull.

(e) Merge the left and right hull Then merge upper and lower hulls
(g) Concatenate the two convex hulls to form a final convex hull.
TM

(n log n)
(n 2 )
TM

x0
TM

n–1
j i 1
TM

g(n) if n is small
T(n 1 ) T(n 2 ) ........... T(n r ) + F(n) when n is sufficiently large
TM

(1) (log 2n) (log 2n)
C worst (n) C worst n 2 1
C worst (1)
TM

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–15 –6 0 7 9 23 54 …
A [mid]
4 5 6
… 9 23 54 …
A [mid]
A [mid]
TM

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
123 23 1 43 54 36 75 34
Low Mid High

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
123 23 1 43 54 36 75 34
123 23 1 43 54 36 75 34
123 23 1 43 54 36 75 34
123 23 1 43 54 36 75 34
Merge
23 123 43 54 36 75
1 23 123 34 36 75
1 23 43 54 123 34 36 75
1 23 34 36 43 54 75 123
This is sorted list
TM

a1 a0 b1 b0 – c 2 c0
C worst log 2 n 1
log 2 13 1
TM

(nlogn)
n n
T T cn
2 2
Timefor
Timetaken Timetaken combining
by left by right two
sublist to sublist to sublists
get sorted get sorted
n
2T cn
2
2k ,
2k
2T c 2k
2
T(2 k ) 2T(2 k– 1 ) c 2 k
TM

T(2 k ) 2(2T(2 k– 2 ) + c 2 k– 1 ) + c 2 k
2 k– 1
2 2 T(2 k– 2 ) + 2 c + c 2k
2
2 2 T(2 k– 2 ) + 2 c 2 k
T(2 k ) 2 3 T(2 k– 3 ) + 3 c 2 k
2 k T(2 k– k ) + k c2 k
2 k T(1) + k c2 k
2 k (0) + k c2 k
T(2 k ) k c 2k
2k , log 2 n
log 2 n n c
(n log n)
2101 1130
c2 21 11
c0 01 30
c1 (21+ 01) (11+ 30) – (c 2 + c 0 )
22 41 – [(21 30) ( 01 30)]
21 11
c2 2 1
c0 1 1
c1 (2+ 1) (1+ 1) – (2 + 1)
TM

3 2– 3
21 11 2.10 2 + 3.10 1 1
01 30
c2 0 3
c0 1 0
c1 (0 + 1) ( 3 + 0) – (0 + 0)
01 30 0.10 2 + 3.10 1 0
22 41
c2 2 4
c0 2 1
c1 (2 + 2) ( 4 + 1) – (8 + 2)
22 41 8.10 2 + 10.10 1 2
2101 1130 231.10 4 + (902 – 231 – 30) 10 2 30
(x 1 , y 1 ), (x 2 , y 2 )
(x 3 , y 3 )
x1 y1 1
x2 y2 1 x1 y 2 + x 3 y 1 + x2 y 3 – x 3 y 2 – x2 y 1 – x1 y 3
x3 y3 1
P3 (x 3 , y 3 )
P1P2
TM

TM

TM

TM

n th
TM

d 1  1, d 2  4, d 3  6, n  3,
N  8
d 1  1, d 2  4 , d 3  6, n  3, N  8
TM



d1  1
d2  4
d3  6
c [ i, j ]  1  c [ 1, j  d 1 ]
c [ i, j ]  c [ i  1, j ]
[ i] [ j] ( c[ i  1, j] , 1  c[ i, j  d i ])
c [1, 1] with i  1, j  1, d 1  1
1  c [1, j  d 1 ]
1  c [1, 1 – 1 ]
1  c [1, 0]
 c[1, 1] 1
c [2, 1] with i  2, j  1, d 2  4
c [ i  1, j ]
c[ 1, 1]
 c[2, 1]
c [3, 1] with i  3, j  1, d3  6
TM

c [ i  1, j ]
c [ 3  1, 1 ]
c[ 2, 1 ]
 c[3, 1]
c [1, 2] with i  1, j  2, d 1  1
1  c [1, j  d 1 ]
1  c [1, 2  1]
1  c [1, 1]
 c[1, 2]
c [2, 2] with i  2, j  2, d 2  4
c [ i – 1, j ]
c [1, 2]
 c[2, 2]
c [3, 2] with i  3, j  2, d3  6
c [ i – 1, j ]
c [2, 2]
 c[2, 2]
c [1, 3] with i  1, j  3, d 1  1
1  c [1, j  d 1 ]
TM

1  c [1, 3 – 1]
1  c [1, 2]
 c[1, 3]
c [2, 3] with i  2, j  3, d 2  4
c [ i – 1, j ]
c [ 1, 3 ]
 c[2, 3]
c [3, 3] with i  3, j  3, d3  6
c [ i – 1, j ]
c [ 2, 3 ]
 c[3, 3]
c [1, 4] with i  1, j  4, d 1  1
1  c [1, j  d 1 ]
1  c [1, 4 – 1]
1  c [1, 3]
 c[1, 4]
c [2, 4] with i  2, j  4, d 2  4

TM

min  c [i  1, j ],1  c i, j  d[i]  
min c [2  1,4 ], 1  c 2, 4 – 4 
min c [ 1,4 ] 1  c 2, 0  
 c[2, 4]
c [3, 4] with i  3, j  4, d3  6
c [ i – 1, j ]
c [ 2, 4 ]
 c[3, 4]
c [1, 5] with i  1, j  5, d 1  1
1  c [1, j – d 1 ]
1  c [1, 5 - 1]
1  c [1, 4]
 c[1, 5]
c [2, 5] with i  2, j  5, d 2  4

min  c [i  1, j ], 1  c i, j  d 2  
min c [1, 5 ], 1  c 2, 5  4  
min c [1, 5 ], 1  c 2, 1  
min 5, 1  1
 c[2, 5]
c [3, 5] with i  3, j  5, d3  6
TM

c [ i – 1, j ]
c [ 3 – 1, 5 ]
c [ 2, 5 ]
 c[3, 5]
c [1, 6] with i  1, j  6, d 1  1
1  c [1, j – d 1 ]
1  c [1, 6 – 1]
1  c [1, 5]
 c[1, 6]
c [2, 6] with i  2, j  6, d 2  4

min  c [i  1, j ],1  c i, j  d 2 
min c[1, 6 ], 1  c 2, 2 
 c[2, 6]
c [3, 6] with i  3, j  6, d3  6

min  c [i  1, j ],1  c i, j  d 3  
min c[2, 6 ], 1  c 3, 0 
 c[3, 6]
c [1, 7] with i  1, j  7, d 1  1
TM

1  c [1, j  d 1 ]
1  c [1, 6]
 c[1, 7]
c [2, 7] with i  2, j  7, d 2  4

min  c [i  1, j ],1  c i, j  d 2  
min c[1, 7 ], 1  c 2, 3 
 c[2, 7]
c [3, 7] with i  3, j  7, d3  6

min  c [i  1, j ],1  c i, j  d 3 
min c[2, 7 ], 1  c 3, 1  
 c[3, 7]
c [1, 8] with i  1, j  8, d 1  1
1  c [1, j  d 1 ]
1  c [1, 7]
 c[1, 8]
c [2,8] with i  2, j  8, d 2  4

min  c [i  1, j ],1  c i, j  d 2  
TM

min c[1, 8 ], 1  c 2, 4 
 c[2, 8]
c [3, 8] with i  3, j  8, d3  6

min  c [i  1, j ],1  c i, j  d 3  
min c[2, 8 ], 1  c 3, 2 
 c[3, 8]
d1  1
d2  4
d3  6
4 units  1coin
 4 units  1coin
8 units  2 coins
TM


 
TM



 

 
 C i – 1, j, 1  C i, j – d i

C 1,4 , 1  C 2, 4 – 4 
TM

C 1,4 , 1  0
 C i – 1, j, 1  C i, j – d i

C 1,5, 1  C 2,1 
  , 1  

 C i – 1, j, 1  C i, j – d i

C 2,5, 1  C 3,0 
 ,1  0
 C i – 1, j , 1  C i, j – d i
TM

C 1,6, 1  C 2,2 
 C i – 1, j, 1  C i, j – d i

C 2,6, 1  C 3,1
2, 1  
1

 C i – 1, j , 1  C i, j – d i
C 1,7 , 1  C 2,3
  , 1  

 C i – 1, j, 1  C i, j – d i

C 2,7 , 1  C 3,2 
 , 1  1
   
   
 

TM

d1  2  1 coin
d 3  5  1 coin


TM


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
d1 = 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
d2= 4 0 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 2 3
d3 = 6 0 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 2 3
Total
number
of coins
TM



Initialising first
 column by 0

Using this nested

 for loops the table
values are computed
   
  
min  c[i  1, j], 1  c i, j  d[i]
Total number of
coins in the change
(nN)
n
(a  b) n  
k
(0  k  n)
TM


TM


TM

0 1
1 1 1
2 1 2 1
We have obtained
3 1 3 3 1 C(4,2) in above
example
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1
6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
C (6,3) = 20
TM

k i 1 n k
  1    1
i 1 j 1 i k 1 j 1
k n
 [(i  1)  1  1]   (k  1  1)
i 1 i k 1
n
 1  (n  l  1)
i l
k n
 (i  1)   k
i 1 i  k+1

n
[ 1  2  3  ... (k  1)]  k  1
i  k +1
(k  1) k n
 k  1
2 i  k +1
(k  1) k
2
(k  1)k
 k(n  k  1  1)
2
(k  1) k
2
k2 k
  nk  k 2
2 2

TM

TM

TM

TM

a b
d c
Vi Vj Vi Vj
i th j th
a b c d
a b As no edge from
a 0 1 0 0 b to d, value
is 0.
b 0 0 1 0
c 0 0 0 1 Edge from
d c c to d
d 1 0 0 0
Digraph Adjacency matrix
TM

Path
b-c-d
d-a-b-c-d
Graph Transitive closure
R(0) , ... , R(k 1) , ... , R(k) , ... R(n)
R(0) R(0)
R(0) R(0)
R(1)
R(1) R(0)
TM

R(k)
R(k) R(k 1)
R(n) R(n)
R(n)
R(0)
a b c d
Here we have
a b a 0 1 1 0 considered only
direct edges from
(0) b 0 0 1 0 each source
R = vertex. If the
c 0 0 0 1
direct is edge
d c d 1 0 0 0 is present make
1 in matrix.
The boxes at row
(1)
and column are for getting R
a b c d
Here intermediate
a b a 0 1 1 0 vertex is 'a' and
using 'a' as
(1) b 0 0 1 0 intermediate vertex
R = we have to find
c 0 0 0 1 destination vertices
d c d 1 1 0 0 with path length of
2. For instance from d
to b a path exists
with a as intermediate
vertex.
a b c d
a b
a 0 1 1 0
(2)
R = b 0 0 1 1
c c 0 0 0 1
d
d 1 1 1 1
TM

R(1)
a b c d
a b
a 0 1 1 1
(3)
R = b 0 0 1 1
c c 0 0 0 1
d
d 1 1 1 1
a b c d
a b
a 1 1 1 1
(4)
R = b 1 1 1 1
c c 1 1 1 1
d
d 1 1 1 1
R(k) R(k 1)
(k)
rij i th j th R(k)
(k)
vi vj rij
vi
vi vj
TM

k th vi
vj
(k 1)
rij 1
k th vk
vi vk
(k 1)
ri k 1
vk vj
(k 1)
rkj 1
k 1
R(k) R
(k) (k 1) (k 1) (k 1)
rij = rij or rik and rkj
(k)
R(k) rij
R(k)
1 2 3 4
1 2
1 0 1 1 0
(0)
R = 2 0 0 1 1
3 0 0 0 1
4 3
4 1 0 0 0
R(1)
1 (k 1) (k 1) (k 1)
r11 rij rik rkj
0 0 0
r11 r11 r11
1
r11
1 (k 1) (k 1) (k 1)
r12 rij rik rkj
0 0 0
r12 r11 r12
TM

1
r12
R(0) R(1)
1 k 1 k 1 k 1
r42 rij rik rkj
1 2 3 4
1 0 1 1 0
(0)
R = 2 0 0 1 1
3 0 0 0 1
4 1 0 0 0
0 0 0
r42 r41 r12
1
r42
R(1)
1 2 3 4
1 0 1 1 0
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 0 1
4 1 1 0 0
R(1) , R(2) , R(3) R(4)
TM

R(k 1)
(n 3 )
R(k)
(n 3 )
TM

TM

Input graph will be
a b
c d
TM

0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
rijk rij(k 1) (k
rik 1) (k
rkj 1)
1
r11 0
r11 0
r11 0
r11
TM

rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r12 0 or r 0 and r 0
r12 11 12
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r13 11 13
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r14 11 14
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r21 21 11
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r22 21 12
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r23 21 13
TM

rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r24 21 14
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r 31 0 or r 0 and r 0
r 31 31 11
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r 32 0 or r 0 and r 0
r 32 31 12
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r 33 0 or r 0 and r 0
r 33 31 13
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r 34 0 or r 0 and r 0
r 34 31 14
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r41 41 11
TM

rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r42 41 12
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r43 41 13
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
1
r44 41 14
rijk rij(k 1) (k
rik 1) (k
rkj 1)
2
r11 12 21
TM

rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r12 12 22
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r13 12 23
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r14 12 24
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r21 22 21
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r22 22 22
TM

rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r23 22 23
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r24 22 24
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r 31 1 or r 1 and r 1
r 31 32 21
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r 32 1 or r 1 and r 1
r 32 32 22
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r 33 1 or r 1 and r 1
r 33 32 23
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r 34 1 or r 1 and r 1
r 34 32 24
TM

rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r41 42 21
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r42 42 22
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r43 42 23
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r44 42 24
TM

rijk rij(k 1) (k
rik 1) (k
rkj 1)
3
r11 13 31
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r12 13 32
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r13 13 33
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r14 13 34
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r21 23 31
TM

rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r22 23 32
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r23 23 33
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r24 23 34
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
2
r 31 2 or r 2 and r 2
r 31 33 31
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r 32 2 or r 2 and r 2
r 32 33 32
TM

rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r 33 2 or r 2 and r 2
r 33 33 33
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r 34 2 or r 2 and r 2
r 34 33 34
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r41 43 31
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r42 43 32
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r43 43 33
TM

rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
3
r44 43 34
rijk rij(k 1) (k
rik 1) (k
rkj 1)
4
r11 14 41
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r12 14 42
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r13 14 43
TM

rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r14 14 44
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r21 24 41
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r22 24 42
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r23 24 43
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r24 24 44
TM

rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r 31 3 or r 3 and r 3
r 31 34 41
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r 32 3 or r 3 and r 3
r 32 34 42
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r 33 3 or r 3 and r 3
r 33 34 43
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r 34 3 or r 3 and r 3
r 34 34 44
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r41 44 41
TM

rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r42 44 42
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r43 44 43
rijk rij(k 1) (k
or rik 1) (k
and rkj 1)
4
r44 44 44
n2 n3
n3
TM

n2
n2 n2 n2
n3
a b c d e
a 0 10   
10
a b b  0 20 40 
70
40
e 50 20
c   0 30 
60 d c
30
d 50   0 60
e 70    0
TM

D (0) , D(1) , ... D(k 1) , ... D(n)
D (k) " d ij "

vi vj
D (0)
D (0) vi vj i th j th
D (1)
D (n)
D (n)
5
1 3
8 2
1
D (0)
5
1 3 1 2 3
1 0 8 5
8 2
1
(0) 2 2 0 
D =
3  1 0
2
D (0)
vi vj i th j th
vi vj
5
1 3 1 2 3
1 0 8 5
8 2 (1)
1 D = 2 2 0 7
3  1 0
2
TM

D (1)
2 nd 3 rd
5
1 3 1 2 3
1 0 8 5
8 2 (2)
1 D = 2 2 0 7
3 3 1 0
2
D (2)
D (1) 3 rd 1 st
3 rd 1 st
5
1 3 1 2 3
1 0 6 5
8 2 (3)
1 D = 2 2 0 7
3 3 1 0
2
D (2) D (3) D (3)
D (3)
D (k) D (3)
D k [i, j] vi vj
{ v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ... v k}
D (0)
TM

vi vj {v 1 , v 2 , ... v k}
vk
D k [i, j] D (k 1)
[i, j]
vi vj
{ v 1 , v 2 , ... v k} vk
D k [i, j] D (k 1) [i, k] + D (k 1) [k, j]
Shortest path using

intermediate vertices
{ v1,v 2, ... vk}
vk
(k –1)
dkj
(k – 1)
dik
vi vj
Shortest path using

vertices {v1, v2, ... vk–1}
D (k) [i, j] D (k 1) [i, j]
D (k) [i, j] D (k 1) [i, k] + D (k 1) [k, j]
D (k) [i, j] min D (k 1) [i, j] , D (k 1) [i, k] D (k 1) [k, j]
TM

(k)
Computing D
using two cases
1 with k 2 without k
Note that this as intermediate vertex
is the basic
operation in
this algorithm
n n n
1
k 1i 1 j 1
n n u
(n 1 1) 1 u l 1
k 1i 1 i l
n n
n
k 1 i 1
n
1 2
i n
2
i 1
n2
n
n2
k 1
n
1 3
n2 n
n3 3
i 1
(n 3 )
TM

D (0) , D(1) , .... D(n)
5
1 3 1 2 3
1 0 8 5
8 2 (0) 2 0 
1 W=D = 2
3  1 0
2
D (1)
D (1) D 1 [2, 3] min {D 0 [2, 3] , D 0 [2, 1] D 0 [1, 3]}
D 1 [2, 3]
D (2)
D (2)
D 2 [1, 3] min {D 1 [1, 3] , D 1 [1, 2]
D 1 [2, 3]}
D 2 [1, 3]
D 2 [3, 1]
D 2 [1, 3] D 2 [3, 1] min { D 1 [3, 1], D 1 [3, 2] D 1 [2, 1]
D 2 [3, 1]
D (3)
D (3) D 3 [1, 2] min {D 2 [1, 2] , D 2 [1, 3]
D 2 [3, 2]}
D 3 [1, 2]
TM

A B C D
A 0 3
B 2 0
C 7 0 1
D 6 0
k k– 1 k– 1
D min D (k– 1) i, j , D i, k D k, j
k– 1 k– 1 k– 1
D i, j , D i, k D k, j
D 0 1,1 , D 0 1,1 D 0 1,1
k– 1 k– 1 k– 1
0 0 0
D 1,2 , D 1,1 D 1,2
TM

min , 0
k– 1 k– 1 k– 1
D 0 1,3 , D 0 1,1 D 0 1,3
k– 1 k– 1 k– 1
D 0 1,4 , D 0 1,1 D 0 1,4
3, 0 3
TM

0 2 1 8
6 0 3 2
0 4
2 0 3
3 0
D (k) min D (k– 1) [i, j], D (k– 1) [i, k] D (k– 1) [k, j]
D (1) D (2) D (3) D (4) D (5)
D (0)
D (1)
min D (k– 1) [i, j], D (k– 1) [i, k] D (k– 1) [k, j]

min D 0 [1,1], D 0 [1,1] D 0 [1,1]
TM

D 1 [1, 1]
min D 0 [1,2], D 0 [1,1] D 0 [1,2]
D 1 [1, 2]

min D 0 [1,3], D 0 [1,1] D 0 [1,3]
min { , 0 }
D 1 [1, 3]

min D 0 [1,4], D 0 [1,1] D 0 [1,4]
D 1 [1, 4]

min D 0 [1,5], D 0 [1,1] D 0 [1,5]
D 1 [1, 5]
D1
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [2,1], D 0 [2,1] D 0 [1,1]
TM

D 1 [2, 1]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [2,2], D 0 [2,1] D 0 [1,2]
D 1 [2, 2]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [2,3], D 0 [2,1] D 0 [1,3]
D 1 [2, 3]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [2,4], D 0 [2,1] D 0 [1,4]
D 1 [2, 4]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [2,5], D 0 [2,1] D 0 [1,5]
D 1 [2, 5]
D (1)
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [3,1], D 0 [3,1] D 0 [1,1]
TM

D 1 [3, 1]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [3,2], D 0 [3,1] D 0 [1,2]
D 1 [3, 2]
min D 0 [i, j]+ D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [3,3], D 0 [3,1] D 0 [1,3]
D 1 [3, 3]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [3,4], D 0 [3,1] D 0 [1,4]
D 1 [3, 4]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [3,5], D 0 [3,1] D 0 [1,5]
D 1 [3, 5]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [4,1], D 0 [4,1] D 0 [1,1]
TM

D 1 [4, 1]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [4,2], D 0 [4,1] D 0 [1,2]
D 1 [4, 2]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [4,3], D 0 [4,1] D 0 [1,3]
D 1 [4, 3]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [4,4], D 0 [4,1] D 0 [1,4]
D 1 [4, 4]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [4,5], D 0 [4,1] D 0 [1,5]
D 1 [4, 5]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [5,1], D 0 [5,1] D 0 [1,1]
TM

D 1 [5, 1]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [5,2], D 0 [5,1] D 0 [1,2]
D 1 [5, 2]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [5,3], D 0 [5,1] D 0 [1,3]
D 1 [5, 3]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [5,4], D 0 [5,1] D 0 [1,4]
D 1 [5, 4]
min D 0 [i, j], D 0 [i, k] D 0 [k, j]

min D 0 [5,5], D 0 [5,1] D 0 [1,5]
D 1 [5, 5]
TM

D (1)
D (1)
D (2)
D (3)
D (4)
TM

D (5)
TM

TM

The input graph is
5
1 3
8 2
1
TM

Stage 2 Stage 3
3
A D
6 4
8
1
Stage 1 Stage 4
2 10 2
S B E T
3
7 10
TM

4
3 1
2 4 7
6
5 7
6
s 1 5 9 t
5
2 3
2
3 3 8
6
8 2
6
TM

s 1 5 9 t
5
2 2 3
3 8
Cost = 12
3
2 5
5
6 5
6
8
4 6
6
5 1
1 3 6 10
6
2 5
5 2 9
4
3
7
4 7
2
TM

d 1, 10
d 1, 10 min 6 d 2, 10 , 5 d 3, 10 , 4 d 4, 10
d 2, 10 min 3 d 5, 10 , 6 d 6, 10 , 5 d 7, 10
d 3, 10 min 5 d 5, 10 , 1 d 6, 10 , 2 d 7, 10
d 4 , 10 min 3 d 6, 10 , 2 d 7, 10
d 5, 10 min 5 d 8, 10 , 6 d 9, 10
d 6, 10 min 4 d 8, 10 , 6 d 9, 10
d 7 , 10 min 2 d 8, 10 , 7 d 9, 10
d 8 , 10
d 9, 10
d 7 , 10 min 2 d 8, 10 , 7 d 9, 10
min 2 6, 7 5
d 7 , 10
d 6, 10 min 4 d 8, 10 , 6 d 9, 10
min 4 6, 6 5
d 6 , 10
d 5, 10 min 5 d 8, 10 , 6 d 9, 10
min 5 6, 6 5
d 5, 10
d 4 , 10 min 3 d 6, 10 , 2 d 7, 10
min 3 10, 2 8
d 4, 10
TM

d 3, 10 min 5 d 5, 10 , 1 d 6, 10 , 2 d 7 , 10
min 5 11, 1 10, 2 8
d 3, 10
d 2, 10 min 3 d 5, 10 , 6 d 6, 10 , 5 d 7 , 10
min 3 11, 6 10, 5 8
d 2, 10
d 1, 10 min 6 d 2, 10 , 5 d 3, 10 , 4 d 4 , 10
min 6 13, 5 10, 4 10
d 1 , 10
1 8
2 6
4
4 7 10
2
Cost = 14
TM

TM

{a 1 , a 2 , ... a n } a1 a2 a 3 ...
ai
qi ai x ai 1
0 i n
n n
i 1 i 1
I II
A A
B C
C B
III V
IV C
C
B B
A
A B
A C
C ij
rij
TM

min { C [i, k 1] C [k 1, j]
i k j
j
Ps
s i
Pi
Table for Table for

cost i.e., root i.e.,
Cost table Root table
j is varying from 0 to n
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 0 P1
2 0 P2
3 0 P3 C [i, j]
i is
varying
4 0 P4
from
i =1 to n + 1
5 0 P5
6 0 P6
n+1 7 0
TM

j
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 i
i 2 i
3 i
4 i
5 i
6 i
TM

0 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 0 0.1 1 1
2 0 0.2 2 2
3 0 0.4 3 3
Fi
ll
up
Fi
di
ll
4 0.3 4 4
ag
0
up
on
di
al
ag
ly
on
5 0
al
ly
C [1, 0] 0
C [2, 1] 0 Using formulae
C [3, 2] 0 C[i, i - 1] = 0 and
C [4, 3] 0 C[n + 1, n] = 0
C [5, 4] 0
C [1, 1] 0.1
C [2, 2] 0.2 Using formula
C [3, 3] 0.4 C[i, i] = P[i]
C [4, 4] 0.3
R [1, 1] 1
R [2, 2] 2 Using formula
R [3, 3] 3 R[i, i] = i
R [4, 4] 4
j
min {C[i, k 1] C[k 1, j]} PS
i k j
S i
TM

When k = 1
When k = 2
When k = 2
When k = 3
When k = 3
When k = 4
TM

0 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 0 0.1 0.4 1 1 2
2 0 0.2 0.8 2 2 3
3 0 0.4 1.0 3 3 3
4 0 0.3 4 4
5 0
When k = 1
When k = 2
When k = 3
TM

When k = 2
When k = 3
When k = 4
0 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 0 0.1 0.4 1.1 1 1 2 3
2 0 0.2 0.8 1.4 2 2 3 3
3 0 0.4 1.0 3 3 3
4 0 0.3 4 4
5 0
TM

When k = 1
When k = 2
When k = 3
When k = 4
Root
0 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 0 0.1 0.4 1.1 1.7 1 1 2 3 3
2 0 0.2 0.8 1.4 2 2 3 3
3 0 0.4 1.0 3 3 3
4 0 0.3 4 4
5 0
1 2 3 4
a[i] do if int while
Key = 3 means int.
TM

Tk Value of key
T[i,k–1] T[k+1,j]
R[1,4] Key = 3 means "int"
Gives key = 2 means R[1,2] R[4,4] Gives key = 4 means "while"

" if "
R[1,4]
=3 Here k = 3
Here k = 2
R[1,2]
R[4,4] Here k = 4
=2
=4
R[i,k–1]
Here k =1 R[1,1]
means "do" =1
int
if
while
do
TM

0 P1
0 P2
0 P3
0 P4
0
Filling up the table diagonally

0 P1
0 P2
0 P3
0 P4
0
Printing the cost table
TM

Printing the root table
n 1 n m j
1
m 1 i 1 k i
n3
(n 3 )
(n 3 )
(n 2 )
TM

TM

min
i k j
q1, q2 , q 3 , q4
min
i k j {C(i, k 1) C k, j } W i, j
TM

TM

i
0 1 2 3 4
0 W00 = 2 W11 = 3 W22 = 1 W33 = 1 W44 = 1
1 W01 = 8 W12 = 7 W12 = 3 W34 = 3
j–i
2 W02 = 12 W13 = 9 W24 = 5
3 W03 = 14 W14 = 11
4 W04 = 16
TM

min
i k j {C(i, k 1) C k, j }
TM

min{C(i, k 1) C kj } W ij
i
0 1 2 3 4
C00 = 0 C11 = 0 C22 = 0 C33 = 0 C44 = 0
0
r00 = 0 r11 = 0 r22 = 0 r33 = 0 r44 = 0
C01 = 8 C12 = 7 C23 = 3 C34 = 3

1
r01 = 1 r12 = 2 r23 = 3 r34 = 4
j–i
C02 = 19 C13 = 12 C24 = 8
2
r02 = 1 r13 = 2 r24 = 3
C03 = 25 C14 = 19
3
r03 = 2 r14 = 2
C04 = 32
4
r04 = 2
if
do int
while
TM

TM

TM

i
0 1 2 3 4
0 W00 = 4 W11 = 3 W22 = 1 W33 = 1 W44 = 1
1 W01 = 11 W12 = 6 W23 = 3 W34 = 3
j–i 2 W02 = 14 W13 = 8 W24 = 5
3 W03 = 16 W14 = 10
4
W04 = 18
TM

{C i k 1 C kj }
TM

{C i , k 1 C kj }
TM

TM

0 1 2 3 4
C00 = 0 C11 = 0 C22 = 0 C33 = 0 C44 = 0

0
r00 = 0 r11 = 0 r22 = 0 r33 = 0 r44 = 0
C01 = 11 C12 = 6 C23 = 3 C34 = 3

1
r01 = 1 r12 = 2 r23 = 3 r34 = 4
C02 = 20 C13 = 11 C24 = 8

2
r02 = 1 r13 = 2 r24 = 3
C03 = 27 C14 = 18
3
r03 = 1 r14 = 2
C04 = 36
4
r04 = 1
TM

a1 [ r04 ]
a1 [ r04 ]
a2 [ r14 ]
a1 [ r04 ]
a2 [ r14 ]
a3 [ r24 ]
TM

a1
a2
a3
a4
0 i j 4
TM

TM

i
0 1 2 3 4
0 W00 = 4 W11 = 2 W22 = 4 W33 = 1 W44 = 1
1 W01 = 7 W12 = 10 W23 = 7 W34 = 3
j–i 2 W02 = 15 W13 = 13 W24 = 9
3 W03 = 18 W14 = 15
4
W04 = 20
TM

min
i k j {C(i, k 1) C kj }
R i, j 1
TM

TM

C 01 C 23
C 01 C 24
TM

0 1 2 3 4
C00 = 0 C11 = 0 C22 = 0 C33 = 0 C44 = 0

0
R00 = 0 R11 = 0 R22 = 0 R33 = 0 R44 = 0
C01 = 7 C12 = 10 C23 = 7 C34 = 3

1
R01 = 1 R12 = 2 R23 = 3 R34 = 4
C02 = 22 C13 = 20 C24 = 12

2
R02 = 2 R13 = 2 R24 = 3
C03 = 32 C14 = 27
3
R03 = 2 R14 = 2
C04 = 39
4
R04 = 2
goto [ R04 ]
goto
[ R01 ] end print [ R24 ]
goto
end print
stop
TM

0 i j n
w 1 , w 2 , ... w n
v 1 , v 2 , ... v n
table i 1, j , v i table i 1, j w i wi
wi
j wi
i 1. j wi
i 1, j
i, j
TM

maximum table i 1, j , v i table i 1, j w i when j w i
or
table i 1, j if j wi
wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
table i 1, j , v i table i 1, j w i
TM

table 0, 2 , 3 table 0, 0
wi vi
wi
table [0, 3], 3 table 0, 1
wi vi
wi
table 0, 4 , 3 table 0, 2
wi vi
wi
TM

wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
TM

wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
wi vi
j wi
TM

wi vi
j wi
wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
wi vi
TM

wi
wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
table [i 1, j], v i table i 1, j w i
TM

0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 3 3 3 3
2 0 0 3 4 4 7
3 0 0 3 4 5 7
4 0 0 3 4 5 7
i th 4 th
TM

Capacity
items 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 3 3 3 3
2 0 0 3 4 4 7
3 0 0 3 4 5 7
4 0 0 3 4 5 7
i th 3 rd
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 3 3 3 3
2 0 0 3 4 4 7
3 0 0 3 4 5 7
4 0 0 3 4 5 7
i th
2 nd
k wi
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 3 3 3 3
2 0 0 3 4 4 7
3 0 0 3 4 5 7
4 0 0 3 4 5 7
TM

i th
1 st
wi
TM

n W
1
i 0 j 0
n
W 0 1
i 0
n
W 1
i 0
n n
W 1
i 0 i 0
n n
W 1 1
i 0 i 0
W n 0 1 n 0 1
Wn W n 1
Wn
nW
TM

1, 2, 3 1, 2, 2 P1 , P2 , P 3 18,16, 6
TM

maximum table i 1, j , V i table i 1, j W i
or
table i 1, j if j Wi
Wi Vi
Wi
Wi Vi
Wi Vi
Wi Vi
TM

Wi Vi
Wi
Vi Wi
Wi Vi
Wi Vi
Wi Vi
Wi
TM

Wi Vi
Vi Wi
Wi Vi
Wi Vi
3 rd
Item Weight Value
1 2 $12
2 1 $10 Capacity W = 5
3 3 $20
4 2 $15
TM

0, j i, 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
maximum {table i 1, j , v i table i 1, j w i

i, j or when j wi
table i 1, j if j wi
1, 1
1, 1 i 1, j
0, 1
1, 1
1, 2
1, 2 max table i 1, j , v i table i 1, j w i

0, 12 0
1, 2
1, 3

0, 12 0
1, 3
1, 4

TM

0, 12 0
1, 5

0, 12 0
1, 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 12 12 12 12
2 0
3 0
4 0
2, 1

0, 10 0
2, 1
2, 2

table 1, 2 , 10 table 1, 1
12, 10 0
2, 2
2, 3

table 1, 3 , 10 table 1, 2
12, 10 12
TM

2, 3
2, 4

table 1, 4 , 10 table 1, 3
2, 4
2, 5

table 1, 5 , 10 table 1, 4
2, 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 12 12 12 12
2 0 10 12 22 22 22
3 0
4 0
3, 1
3, 1 i 1, j
2, 1
3, 1
3, 2
3, 2 i 1, j
2, 2
3, 2
3, 3

TM

table 2, 3 , 20 table 2, 0
22, 20 0
3, 3
3, 4

table 2, 4 , 20 table 2, 1
22, 20 10
3, 4
3, 5

table 2, 5 , 20 table 2, 2
22, 20 12
3, 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 12 12 12 12
2 0 10 12 22 22 22
3 0 10 12 22 30 32
4 0
4, 1
4, 1 i 1, j
3, 1
4, 1
4, 2

table 3, 2 , 15 table 3, 0
12, 15 0
TM

4, 2
4, 3

table 3, 3 , 15 table 3, 1
22, 15 10
4, 3
4, 4

table 3, 4 , 15 table 3, 2
30, 15 12
4, 4
4, 5

table 3, 5 , 15 table 3, 3
32, 15 22
4, 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 12 12 12 12
2 0 10 12 22 22 22
3 0 10 12 22 30 32
4 0 10 15 25 30 37
i, j i 1, k
4, 5 3, 5
TM

i, k i 1, k
3, 3 2, 3
2, 3 1, 3
1, 2 0, 2
TM

8 5 2
8 7 4
8 9 6
TM

TM

maximum{table[i – 1, j], v i table[i – 1, j – w i ]
when j wi
or
table [i – 1, j] if j wi
wi w1 vi v1
wi
wi vi v1
wi
wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
vi wi
wi vi
wi
vi wi
TM

wi w2 vi v2
wi
w2 v2
wi
w2 v2
wi
vi wi
TM

w2 v2
wi
vi wi
w2 v2
wi
wi w 3 v 3
wi
wi vi
wi
vi wi
TM

w 3 v 3
wi
vi wi
w 3 v 3
wi
vi wi
w 3 v 3
wi
vi wi
TM

wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
wi vi
wi
vi wi
TM

0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 10 10
2 0 0 0 20 20 20
3 0 0 15 20 20 35
4 0 0 15 20 20 35
i th 4 th
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 10 10
2 0 0 0 20 20 20
3 0 0 15 20 20 35
4 0 0 15 20 20 35
i th 3 rd
wi
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 10 10
2 0 0 0 20 20 20
3 0 0 15 20 20 35
4 0 0 15 20 20 35
TM

2 nd
wi
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 10 10
2 0 0 0 20 20 20
3 0 0 15 20 20 35
4 0 0 15 20 20 35
i th 1 st
2 nd 3 rd
Choice
of solution Feasible - It should satisfy the problem's constraints.
made
at each Locally optimal - Among all feasible solutions the best
step of choice is to be made.
problem solving
in Greedy Irrevocable - Once the particular choice is made then
approach it should not get changed on subsequent steps.
TM

s  select (D) // section of solution from D
Check if the if (Feasible (solution, s)) then
selected solution solution  Union (solution, s);
is feasible or
not.
Make a feasible
} choice and select
return solution optimum solution.
TM

TM

TM

wi
wi
xi
n
wi xi c
i 1
n
x xi
i 1 i
xi
TM

A A A
5 10 5 10
E B E B E B
7 6 7
3 1 3 1 3 1
D C D C D C
2 2
Graph G wt(T1) = 11 wt(T2) = 21

(a) (b) (c)
TM

25
1 2
10 14
12
6 7 3
22 17
23 11
5 4
20
1 2
6 7 3
5 4
Total weight = 0
TM

1 2
10
6 7 3
5 4
Total weight = 10
1 2
10
6 7 3
23
5 4
Total weight = 33
1 2
10
6 7 3
23
5 4
20
Total weight = 53
TM

1 2
10
6 7 3
23 11
5 4
20
Total weight = 64
1 2
10 14
6 7 3
23 11
5 4
20
Total weight = 78
1 2
10 12 14
6 7 3
23 11
5 4
20
Total weight = 90
TM

Select an edge such that one
vertex is selected and other is not
and the edge has the least weight.
Obtained edge with minimum wt.
Picking up those vertices yielding

minimum edge.
Mark the corresponding edge of

selected vertices as an edge in
spanning tree.
TM

TM

nodes 1 nodes 1 nodes 1
1 1
k 1 i 0 j 0
n 1 n 1 n 1
1 1
k 1 i 0 j 0
n 1
k 1
n 1
(2n)
k 1
n 1
2n 1
k 1
2n 2 2n
n2
(n 2 )
(|V 2|)
(E log 2 V)
TM

TM

Graph will be
10
0 1
5
6
4 1
3
3 2
2
TM

The MST will be
0 1
5
4 1
3
3 2
2
TM

36
B H
34 24
16
13 F
33
25
A C 18 37
19 65
23
E G
12 21
14
42 39
D I
30
B
A 13
A C
14 12 A C
14
D 12
D
14
D
13
A C
12
14
D I
30
13
33
A C F
12
14
D I
30
TM

B
13
33
A C F
18
12 E
14
D I
30
13
33
A C F
18
12 E G
14 23
D I
30
B H
13 24
33
A C F
18
12 E G
14 23
D I
30
The total length = 167
4 c
a
1
2 6
b d
3
TM

c
a a
a
2 1 Required
2 2 MST
b b d
3 b d
3
1
b c
3 4 4 6
5 5
a f d
6 2
8
1
b c
1
b c
3
1
1 b c
b c
3 4
3 4
a f
a f
2
TM

1
b c
3 4
a 5 d
f
This is minimum spanning tree
25
1 2
10 12 14
6 7 3
22 17
23 11
5 4
20
TM

1 2
6 7 3
5 4
1 2
10
6 7 3
5 4
1 2
10
6 7 3
11
5 4
Total weight = 21
TM

1 2
10
12
6 7 3
11
5 4
Total weight = 33
1 2
10 14
12
6 7 3
11
5 4
Total weight = 47
1 2
10 14
12
6 7 3
11
5 4
20
Total weight = 67
TM

1 2
10 14
12
6 7 3
23 11
5 4
20
Total weight = 90
1
b c
5 6
3 4
a d e
6 2
b c
a d e
1
b c
a d e
TM

1
b c
a d e
2
1
b c
a d e
2
1
b c
5
3
a d e
2
TM

Tree [ ] [ ] is an array in
which the spanning tree
edges are stored.
Computing total cost

of all the minimum
distances.
For each node of

i, the minimum distance
edges are collected in
array tree [ ] [ ] .
The spanning tree
is printed here.
TM

TM

TM

Graph to be taken as input
1
2 1
2 3 4
3 5
3
1
2 1
2 3 4
V2
TM

V0
V5
V4 V1
V7
V2
V0 V6
V0 V1
V1 V2 V2 V 3 V3
3
B D
4 8
1 7
A C E
8 3
TM

3
B D
4 8
1 7
A C E
8 3
3
B D
4 8
1 7
A C E
8 3
3
B D
4 8
1 7
A C E
8 3
Start from each source node
TM

Finding minimum
distance from
selected source
node.That is :
source-j represents
min. dist. edge
v1 is next selected destination

vertex with shortest distance.
All such vertices are
accumulated in array
path[ ]
TM

TM

TM

The input graph is
3
1 3
4 8
1 7
0 2 4
8 3
TM

TM

n2
1 1
pi xi w i xi W
n n
0 xi 1
1 i n.
TM

TM

( P1 , P2 , ... P7 ) ( w 1 , w 2 , w 3 , ... w 7 )
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7
1 1 1 1 3
w i xi 2 3 5 7 1 1 4 1
2 3 4 7 4
wixi
1 1 1 1 3
pi xi 10 5 15 7 6 1 18 3
2 3 4 7 4
pi x i
TM

1 1 1 1
w i xi 2 3 5 1 7 1 0 4 1 1
2 3 7 2
wixi
1 1 1 1
pi xi 10 5 15 1 7 6 0 18 1 3
2 3 7 2
pi x i
1 1
w i xi 2 1 3 5 1 7 1 1 4 1 1 1
3 7
wixi
1 1
pi xi 10 1 5 15 1 7 6 1 18 1 3 1
3 7
pi xi
1 1
w i xi 2 1 3 5 1 7 1 0 4 1 1 1
3 7
wixi
1 1
pi xi 10 1 5 15 1 7 6 0 18 1 3 1
3 7
pi x i
2
w i xi 2 1 3 5 1 7 0 1 1 4 1 1 1
3
wixi
TM

2
pi xi 10 1 5 15 1 7 0 6 1 18 1 3 1
3
pi x i
2
15
2
24
15
2
1, ,0
15
W i Xi Pi X i
10 2
15 3
2
24
3
TM

2
0, ,1
3
Wi X i Pi X i
2
1, ,0
15
2
0, ,1
3
1 1 1
, ,
2 3 4
1
0, 1,
2
This is the basic operation

of selecting x[i] lies
within for loop.
 Time complexity = (n).
( n)
TM

x1 x1
x2 x2 x3
x1 x2
x 1 and x 2 x3
32
17
10
15
5 7
5
2 3
TM

B E D C A
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.40
Combine these two

nodes and form a singal node.
0.25 Now we have got new

node with probability 0.25.
Then arrange it with
B E other probabilities by
maintaining ascending order.
0.1 0.15
TM

0.45 0.25
A
0.40
D C B E
0.2 0.25 0.1 0.15
These two are

combined to
get a new
probability
0.25 0.45
A
0.40
B E D C
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Combine these nodes
0.65
0.45
A
0.25
0.40
D C
0.2 0.25
B E
0.1 0.15
Combine two nodes of probabilities

0.65 and 0.45 to get a root node
TM

1.10
0.45 0.65
D C A
0.2 0.25 0.25
0.40
B E
0.1 0.15
1.1
0 1
0.45 0.65
0 1 0 1
D C A
0.2 0.25 0.25
0.40
0 1
B E
0.1 0.15
TM

Number of bits Length of Probability of
per character All the
codeword corresponding character
characters
TM

168
91
f
91
j h 77
19 72
j h
19 72
168 188
k m
f
91
92 96
77
j h
19 72
287
l 168 188
119
k m
f
91
92 96
77
j h
19 72
TM

287 435
l 188 c
168
119 247
k m
f
91
92 96
77
j h
19 72
570
g 287 435
283
l 188 c
168
119 247
k m
f
91
92 96
77
j h
19 72
TM

1005
0
570
0 1
g 287 435
283 0 1 0 1
l 188 c
168
119 0 1 247
0 1
k m
f
91
92 96
77 0 1
j h
19 72
TM

2
a:1 h:1
2 2
a:1 h:1 v w
TM

4
' ':2 e:2
t:2 2
a:1 h:1
2 l:3
v:1 w:1
TM

7
o:3 4
' ':2 e:2
4 5
t:2 2 2 l:3
a:1 h:1 v:1 w:1
16
0 1
7 9
0 1 0 1
o:3 4 4 5
0 1 0 1 0 1
' ':2 e:2 t:2 2 2 l:3

0 1 0 1
a:1 h:1 v:1 w:1
TM

00 1100 010 111 1101 100 111 011 1011 00 00 010 011 1010 010
o v ' ' l w t l e h o o ' ' e a ' '
0.3
0.1 0.2
TM

0.65
0.3 0.35
0.1 0.2
0.9
0.4 0.5
1.15
0.5 0.65
0.3 0.35
0.1 0.2
2.05
0.9 1.15
0.4 0.5 0.5 0.65
0.3 0.35
0.1 0.2
TM

2.05
1
0
0.9 1.15
0 1 0 1
0.4 0.5 0.5 0.65

0 1
0.3 0.35
0 1
0.1 0.2
c
c
TM

2
H:1 R:1
TM

3
X:1 A:2
I:2 L:2
M:2 P:2
S:2 2
H:1 R:1
TM

7
3 – (space):4
X:1 A:2
4 4
I:2 L:2 M:2 P:1
4 E:5
S:2 2
H:1 R:1
15
7 8
3 – (space):4 4 4
X:1 A:2 I:2 L:2 M:2 P:1
TM

24
15
9
4 E:5 7 8
S:2 2 3 – (space):4 4 4
H:1 R:1 X:1 A:2 I:2 L:2 M:2 P:1
24
0 1
15
9
0 1
0 1
4 E:5 7 8
0 1 0 1 0 1
S:2 2 3 – (space):4 4 4
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
H:1 R:1 X:1 A:2 I:2 L:2 M:2 P:1
TM

B
1 3 2
1 4
A C D
TM

1 1
n n
TM

p(i) q(i)
1 i n 1 i n
TM

(k) (k– 1) (k– 1) (k– 1)
rij rij rik rkj
(k)
rij i th j th R(K)
TM

(k) (k– 1) (k– 1) (k– 1)
rij rij rik rkj
table [i 1, j], Vi table [i 1, j Wi ]

max
if j Wi
Wi
TM

s  select (D) // section of solution from D
Check if the if (Feasible (solution, s)) then
selected solution solution  Union (solution, s);
is feasible or
not.
Make a feasible
} choice and select
return solution optimum solution.
TM

TM

V2
TM

Not a plannar graph Plannar graph
Yellow
Red
Green Blue
TM

TM

TM

TM

TM

TM

TM

ROW2
Test
x y z s1 t u p RHS Ratio
s 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 40 40/1 = 40
t 2 1 –1 0 –1 0 0 10 10/2 = 5
Pivot
u 0 –1 +1 0 0 –1 0 10 10/0 = 0
p –2 –3 –1 0 0 0 1 0
R1 2R1 R2
TM

R1 R3
R2 R3
R4 R3
R3 R3 R1 R4 R4 R1
TM

y
3x y
x y 1
2x y 4
x 0, y 0
x y 1
2x y 4
TM

x y
y
–x  y = 1
x
–1 (0,0)
TM

y
3 –x  y = 1
x
(0,0)
–2 –1 1 2 3
2x  y = 4
y-axis
2 (1,2)
(0,1) 1
(2,0)
(0,0) x-axis
1 2 3 4
TM

3
4
3
x y
4
x 0, y 0
1200 ( 200, 0)
( 0, 400)
3
x y
4
TM

3 (333, 0)
x y 250
4 (0, 250)
400
300
250
200
2x y 400
3 100
x y 250
4 Area of
– – – feasible
solution (0,0) x
1.25 x 150 333
100 200 300 400
TM

y
500
400 100 x + 40 y
300
200
130
100
Feasible 50 x +100 y
region
(0,0) x
140
100 200 300 400 500 600
TM

The original program maximize Dual linear program minimize
Maximize : 3a + 2b + c
3x + 4y + 6z
Subject to
2a + b + c < = 3
a + b + c < = 4
3a + 3b + 6c < = 6
2x + y + 3z > = 3
x + y + 3z > = 2
x + y + 6z > = 1
TM

TM

f(u, v)
v V
f f(s, v)
v V
5
7
8 3
s 2 t
4
2 6
1 3 4
F(u,v)
3 C(u,v)
5/5
5/7
s 7/8 2 3/3 t
4/4
5/6
2/3
2/3
1 4
TM

3
5/5
5/7
3/3 t
s 7/8 2
5/6
4/4
2/3
2/3
1 4
TM

cf(u,v) = c(u,v) – f(u,v)
= 7– 5
cf(u,v) = 2
3
5
5
3 t
1
s 2
7
5 1
4/4
1
2 1
1 4
3
5
5
3 t
1
s 2
7
5 1
4
1
2 1
1 4
TM

15/20
A D
7/8 17/19
s 12 7 t
4/8
5/7 3/3
B C
12/14
cut
7 5
8 3
s 2 t
4
2 6
2 3 t
TM

3 3
7 5 7 5
4/8 3 4 3
s 2 t s 2 t
4
4/4 4 2
4/6 4
2 2
1 3 4 1 3 4
Maximum flow = 4
3 3
5/5 5 5
5/7
2
4 3 4 3
s 2 t s 2 t
4 4
4
2 2
4 4
2 2
4
1 3 4 1 3 4
Residual graph
Graph with augmenting path Maximum flow = 4 + 5 = 9
3 3
5 5 5 5
2 2
4 3 1 0
s 2 t s 2 t
4 4+3=7 3
4 4
2 2
4 4
2 2
1 3 4 1 3 4
(By refering graph in step 1)

TM

3
5
2 5
7
3
s 2 t
1
4 2 4
2
3
1 4
3 3
5 5 5
5
2 2
7 7
3 3
s 2 t s 2 t
1 1
4 4
0 2
0
6
2
4+2=6 2
1
1 4 1 4
1
2
3
5 5
2
7
3
s 2 t
1
2 6
2
1 4
1
TM

3
5
7
8 3
s 2 t
4
2 6
3
1 4
3
5 5
2
7
3
s 2 t
1
2/2 6/6
2/3
1 3
1
u v
10
9
s 2 3 4 6
7
5
x y
2
1
u v
10 100
9
s 2 3 4 6 t
7
5 100
x y
2
TM

1
u v
10 100
9
s 2 3 4 6 t
7
5 100
x y
2
0
u v
9 99
1
s 1 2 3 9 4 6 1
t
5 7 100
x y
2
Maximum flow = 1
0
u v
9 99
1
s 1 2 3 4 6 1
t
9
7
5 100
x y
2
0
u v
2 =7 99
9– 1
2 =3 1
s 1+ t
2–2 3+2 9 4 6
=0 =5
98
=
2
7 – 2
5 0
10 2
=
0+2=2 +
0
x y
2–2=0 Maximum flow = 1 + 2 = 3
TM

0
u v 99
7
1
s 3 1 t
9
0 5 4 6
7 98
5
2
2
x y
0
0
u v 99
–5
7 =9
1 4
1+
s 3 0 5 5=
6 t
4 6
4
5=
9–
5
5
–
98
5
=
2
0
5
7
2
x y  Maximum flow = 3 + 5 = 8
0
0
u v
7 94
1
s 3 0 5 6 t
4 6
4
5
0 98
5 2
7
2
x y
TM

1
u v
7 94
s 3 6 t
4 6
5 4
5
5 98
2
7
2
x y
G V, E
1
A
2
B
3
C
4
D
E
X Y
TM

V
A B C D E Ma = {(D, 3), (E, 4)}
1 2 3 4 5
TM

Ma
A B C D E Mb = {(A,2), (D, 3), (E, 4)}
1 2 3 4 5
A B C D E
1 2 3 4 5
A B C D E
1 2 3 4 5
TM

A B C D E
1 2 3 4 5
Queue : A,B,C
A B C D E
1 2 3 4 5
Queue : A B C
Augment from 1
TM

A B C D E
1 2 3 4 5
Queue : B C
A B C D E
1 2 3 4 5
Queue : C 3 D
A B C D E
1 2 3 4 5
Queue : C 4 E
Augment from 5
A B C D E
1 2 3 4 5
Queue empty Maximum matching
TM

1 2 3
4 5 6
1 2 3
1 2 3
4 5 6
4 5 6
Queue 1 2 3
Queue = 1 2 3
Augment from 5
1 2 3
1 2 3
4 5 6
4 5 6
Queue 2 3 5
Queue = 2 3
Augment from 4
1 2 3
1 2 3
4 5 6
4 5 6
Queue : 2 5 1
Queue 2
Augment from 6
TM

1 2 3
4 5 6
Queue empty
Maximum matching
A
4 1
2
B C D
6 3
3 5
E F G H
Tp
Tp
Tp Tp
Tp
TM

p
Subtree Subtree Subtree

x1 x2 x3
Tp
Tp m(Tx )
child
nodes
x
mnr (Tp )
max w(p – x) + mnr (Tx )
Tp Max
child x + m – (Ty )
y x
A
4 1
2
B C D
6
3 5 3
Weight = 0 E F G Weight = 5 H Weight = 0
Weight = 0
5
I Weight = 0
TM

A
B C D
6
3
E G H
TM

5
3 4
2 5 2
1 2 3 6
3 1
4
3 4
2 5 2
1 2 3 6
3 1
4 Maxflow = 2
Path : 1 2 3 6
3 4
2/2 2/5 2/2

1 2 3 6
3 1
4
TM

5
3 4
2
2 2
1 2 3 6
3
3 1
4
3 4
2
2 2
1 2 3 6
3
3 1
4
Maxflow = 2 + 1 = 3
Path : 1 4 3 2 5 6
5
1/3 1/4
2 1/5 2
1 2 3 6
1/3 1/1
4
5
2 3
1 1
4
2 2
1 2 3 6
2
1
1 1
4
TM

A R
P B
S G
U Y
V W
A R
P B
S G
U Y
V W
TM

A R
P B
S G
U Y
V W
TM

Women
Men
TM

TM

(n 2 )
TM

TM

TM

f
a
b e
d
g
c
The cut points : d, e, f
TM

TM

TM

n2
n2
TM

O(n 2 ) n2 n2
n2
log 2 n
i) Is first bit zero ? No 1

ii) Is second bit zero ? Yes 0
The numbers is 8 (encoded in binary form)
iii) Is third bit zero ? Yes 0
iv) Is forth bit zero ? Yes 0
TM

log 2 n
log 2 n
TM

Condition
Transition
Outcome/ result
Yes No
x>y
Yes No Yes No
x>z y>z
x z y z
TM

log n
2h
Yes No
x<y
Yes No Yes No
x<z y<z
Yes No Yes No Yes No

y<z y<x x<z y<x
No Yes
x<y<z x<z<y z<x<y y<x<z y<z<x z<y<x
TM

log n!
log n!
log n! log 2 2 n (n e) n
log 2 n log2
n log 2 n n log 2 e
2 2
n log 2 n
n log 2 n
Yes No
x<y
Yes No Yes No
y<z x<z
x<y<z Yes No y<x<z Yes No

x<z y<z
x<z<y z<x<y y<z<x z<y<x
log 2 n!
log n 1
log (n 1)
TM

a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3]
left right
sublist sublist
Mid
log 3 n
log 3 (2n 1)
< a[1] >
a[1]
< a[0] > < a[2] >
Mid element
= =
<a[0] a[0] a[0],a[1] a[1],a[2] a[2]

< a[3] >
=
Search left sublist
a[2],a[3] a[3] >a[3]
Search right sublist
log (n 1)
TM

< a[1] >
< a[0] > < a[2] >
<a[0] a[0],a[1] a[1],a[2]

< a[3] >
a[2],a[3] >a[3]
a:b:c
The decision tree will be
a:b
a<=b a>b
a:c First
b:c
iteration
b<=c b>c a<=c a>c
a, b, c a:c b, a, c b:c
a<=c a>c b<=c b>c Second
iteration
a, c, b c, a, b b, c, a c, b, a
(n – 1) th (n – 1) th n th
TM

n (n – 1)
2
O(n 2 )
O(n 2 )
TM

Computational complexity problems
P - class NP - class
NP - complete NP - hard
TM

TM

TM

NP - problems
P problems
TM

NP complete
P class problems
problems
NP
NP hard
problems
NP
P NP - complete
TM

(Hi k Qq k Ti j k ) (H(i j)(k 1) Qq(K 1) Tij(K 1) )
TM

a g e b f h
TM

1 1 0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1 0 1
AND NOT OR
TM

a g e b f h
1 1 1
2 4 2 4 2 4
3 3
Graph G Clique size = 3 Clique size = 4
TM

C1 C2 ... C k
1 i n.
, i | is a literal in C i
,i , , j |i j and
(a 1 a2 a 3) (a 1 a2 a 3)
C1 C2
<a1, 1> <a1, 2>
<a2, 1> <a2, 2>
<a3, 1> <a3, 2>
<a1, 1> <a1, 2>
A clique
<a2, 1> <a2, 2> of size 2.
<a3, 1> <a3, 2>
TM

e
c d
a b g
c d W = {a,b}
a b g
c d W = {a,b,c,e}
a b g
TM

e
c d W = {a,b,c,e,d,g}
a b g
a a
b c
(a b c) (a b c) (a c d)
TM

a a b b c c
b c
(a b c) (a b c) (a c d)
c
a a b c d d
b
a a a
b c b c c d
10
a 6 8
1
a b c c d d
b
a a a
2 5 c d
c
b 3 c 4
b
7 9
TM

V' V
A B
A' A B
F
F
C D
C D
Graph G Graph G''
TM

When
T halts for t
M1
(t,dT) ACCEPT halt
input REJECT halt
When T does
not halt for t
TM

T halts for
M2 input t = dT
dT Loops
Copy T (dT, dT) Modified M1
(input) Halts
T does not
halt for t = dT
M2 halts for
M2 input dM2
dM2 Loop
(input) Halt
M2 dose not
halt for input dM2
TM

TM

TM

1
1 4
2 3
2 18 34 50
2 4 1 4 1 4
3 1 3
3 2 2
TM
3 8 13 19 24 29 35 40 45 51 56 61
3 4 2 4 2 3 3 4 1 4 1 3 2 4 1 4 1 2 2 3 1 3 1 2
4 6 9 11 14 16 20 22 25 27 30 32 36 38 41 43 46 48 52 54 57 59 62 64
4 3 4 2 3 2 4 3 4 1 3 1 4 2 4 1 2 1 3 2 3 1 2 1
5 7 10 12 15 17 21 23 26 28 31 33 37 39 42 44 47 49 53 55 58 60 63 65

TM

1
Problem
state
Answer
1
state
4
2
Solution
states
TM

TM

The next queen - if
is placed on the
paths marked by
dotted lines then they
can attack each other
1st 1st
TM

2 nd 3 rd
3 rd
2 nd
3 rd
(4 th
Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q
Q Q
Q
Thus solution
is obtained.
TM

1
1 4
2 3
2 18 34 50
2 4 1 4 1 4
3 1 3
3 2 2
TM
3 8 13 19 24 29 35 40 45 51 56 61
3 4 2 4 2 3 3 4 1 4 1 3 2 4 1 4 1 2 2 3 1 3 1 2
4 6 9 11 14 16 20 22 25 27 30 32 36 38 41 43 46 48 52 54 57 59 62 64
4 3 4 2 3 2 4 3 4 1 3 1 4 2 4 1 2 1 3 2 3 1 2 1
5 7 10 12 15 17 21 23 26 28 31 33 37 39 42 44 47 49 53 55 58 60 63 65

Solution
TM

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Q1
2 Q2
3 Q3
4 Q4
5 Q5
6 Q6
If we place Here Q1 Here Q2 Here Q4

Q7 here, Q4 can attack can attack can attack
can attack Q7 Q7 Q7
Here Q3 Here Q5
can attack Here Q4 can attack
Q7 can attack Q7
Q7
TM

This function checks if
two queens are on the
same diagonal or not.
Row by row each queen

is placed by satisfying
constraints.
Same column by 2 queen’s
TM

This formula gives that 2 queens
are on same diagonal
TM

We start from
st
1 row and
go row by row.
TM

TM

TM

P1 P2 P1 P2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Q
2 Q
3 Q
4 Q (4,1) = P1
5 (5,2) If we place
queen here
6 then P2 = (5,2)
4 – 1 = 5 –2
7  Diagonal
conflicts
8 occur. Hence
try another
position.
Queen Positions Action

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
6 4 7 1 Start
6 4 7 1 2 As 4 – 1 = 5 – 2
conflict occurs.
6 4 7 1 3 5 – 3 = 4 –1 or
5  3 = 4  1  Feasible
6 4 7 1 3 2 As 5  3 = 6  2. It
is not feasible.
6 4 7 1 3 5 Feasible
6 4 7 1 3 5 2 Feasible
List ends and we
6 4 7 1 3 5 2 8 have got feasible
sequence.
TM

TM

A B
C D
TM

A
B C F
D F B
D
F E D
E
C C E
C
E F C
Stuck ! Not a Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian cycle
Hamiltonian cycle
cycle
Hamiltonian
cycle
TM

A B
C F
D E
0
A
1
B
2 9
C F
3 6 10
D E E
4 7 8 11
E D F C
Dead end Dead end 12
5
F D
Dead end
A
Solution
TM

a
c d
f g
e h
i j
k m n
l o
p
q
r
s t
b e h
b e h
c d
TM

a
b e h
c d s f
f i t c k
e k h b l p
dead
s g i
p t d c
r h j b dead
g i
d n l
j o
i m m
l c dead n
Solution a
TM

a
c d
f g
e h
i j
k m n
l o
p q
r
s t
{S 1 , ..... S n }
S1 S2 ..... Sn
TM

TM

0
1
ith W/O
W 1
1
2 W 0
ith /O W
W 2 /O
2
2
ith
W
3 1
W
/O 2 2
W/O 5
5
With 5
W
th 5
/O
3
Wi
5
W 1
8 ith
6
ou 7 2
With
t6
W/O
3
6
9
With 8
W/O
1
8
With 8
Solution 11 3
9
Prune
Solution
0
with 3 w/o 3
3
with 5 0
with 5 w/o 5
Sum 8
with 6 w/o 6 5
0
Sum 14 w/o 6
8 with 6
with 7 w/o 7 with 7 w/o 7
6 0
15 8 with 7 w/o 7
21 14
with 2 Solution 13 6
w/o 2 with 2 w/o 2
Prune 16 14 Sum
it 15 13
Prune Solution
it
TM

TM

0
5 With
ith out
5
W
Sum
5 0 W
W ith
10 ith
ou 10 ou
ith t1 ith t1
W 0 W 0
Sum
15 5 10 0
W
Wi
With 12
With 12
ith
12
tho
12
ou
ith
ut
t1
ith
W
12
2
W
27 15 17 5 22 12
W/O 13
With 13
13
W/O 13
W/
Not a W/O
O1
With
Solution 13
3
28 15 30 5 22 12
Prune Not a
With 15
With 15
it Solution W/O
Solution This node 15
does not 12
30 20 give solution
Prune
With 18
it  prune it
Solution Prune
30
Solution
TM

0,1,55
W
Here initially ith7 /O
W 7
First element = 7
Index = 2 and 7,2,48 0,2,48
Remaining sum = 55 – 7 = 48 W
1 /O
h1
t 11
Wi
18,3,37 7,3,37
W
13 /O
th 13
Wi
31,4,24 7,4,24
With 24
Solution 31,5,0
Solution = {7,11,13}
Solution
Solution = {7,24}
w 5,7,10,12,15,18,20
TM

TM

0
With 5 W/O 5
5 0
With 7 W/O 7 W/O 7
0
W/O 10
12 W/O 10
With 10 5
0
W
W/O 12
/O
h1
10
22 0
Wit
With 12 W/O 12 12
5 With 15
15
W/O 20 15
34 20
22 ith With 18 W/O 18
With 15 W 15
W/O 15 35 15
33
With 20
49 34 Solution
35
Prune
it
Solution
index 1
j 1
j index
TM

n
i 1
Value of node's bound

is not better than best solution
Reasons for
terminating
search paths
in state space There is no feasible solution
tree of branch
and bound
A new better solution can be

obtained rather than
continueing further
TM

TM

Start
Lower = 2+3+1+4
bound (LB) = 10
a1 a2 a3 a4

LB = 10+3+1+4 =18 LB = 2+3+1+4 =10 LB = 7+4+5+4 =10 LB = 8+3+1+6 =18
Selects a = 3rd element

Select as a = 1st element 1
1
10 2 7 8 Person a 10 2 7 8
We can not
6 4 3 7 Select 6 4 3 7 choose
minimum 3 and 1

5 8 1 8 values 5 8 1 8 they are under
from same column.
remaining Hence next
7 6 10 4 rows 7 6 10 4 smaller value
is selected
3
Do not 3
Do not select
2 nd
select any Select a = 2 element from this
number from 1 column
this column
10 2 7 8 Person a
2
6 4 3 7
Select
a=4
minimum
5 8 1 8 values
from 10 2 7 8
remaining
7 6 10 4 rows 6 4 3 7
3
Do not 5 8 1 8
select any 2
number from
this column 7 6 10 4
TM

Start
LB = 10
a1 a2 a3 a4

LB = 18 LB = 10 LB = 20 LB = 18
This is a
promising
b1 b3 b4 node
and it is
LB = 2+6+1+4 =13 LB = 2+3+5+4 = 14 LB = 2+7+1+7 = 17
expanded
10 2 7 8 10 2 7 8
6 4 3 7 6 4 3 7
5 8 1 8 Minimum 5 8 1 8
selected
from
7 6 10 4 remaining 7 6 10 4
rows
Do not Do not
select 10 2 7 8
select from
remaining these
elements 6 4 3 7 columns
from these the values
columns of c and d
5 8 1 8
7 6 10 4
Do not
select
remaining
elements
from these
columns
TM

Start
LB = 10
a1 a2 a3 a4

LB = 17 LB = 10 LB = 20 LB = 18
Not feasible Not feasible
b1 b3 b4

LB = 13 LB = 14 LB = 17
Not feasible Not feasible
c  3 then c4
d4
LB = 2+6+1+4 =13 LB = 2+6+8+10
= 26
Inferior
solution
Job 1 Job 2 Job 3 Job 4
10 2 7 8 Person a
6 4 3 7 Person b
5 8 1 8 Person c
7 6 10 4 Person d
It is a solution
because
i) We have got
minimum values from
each column
ii) No value selected
is under same column
TM

Start
LB = 10
a1 a2 a3 a4

LB = 18 LB = 10 LB = 20 LB = 18
Live node
b1 b3 b4

LB = 13 LB = 14 LB = 17
Start
LB = 10
a1 a2 a3 a4

LB = 18 LB = 10 LB = 20 LB = 18
This node becomes Promising node is

b1 b3 b4 expanded to find
promising node
for optimal solution. LB = 13 LB = 14 LB = 17 optimal solution.
TM

9 2 7 8
6 4 3 7 2 + 3 + 1 + 4 = 10
Hence set Lower Bound (LB)
5 8 1 8 = 10 for root node
7 6 9 4
0
Start
Lower
Bound (LB) = 2 + 3 + 1 + 4 = 10
1 2 3 4
a1 a2 a3 a4
LB = 9 + 3 + 1 + 4 = 17 LB = 2 + 3 + 1 + 4 = 10 LB = 7 + 4 + 5 + 4 = 20 LB = 8 + 3 + 1 + 6 = 18
9 2 7 8 9 2 7 8 9 2 7 8 9 2 7 8
6 4 3 7 6 4 3 7 6 4 3 7 6 4 3 7
5 8 1 8 5 8 1 8 5 8 1 8 5 8 1 8
7 6 9 4 7 6 9 4 7 6 9 4 7 6 9 4
Exclude Exclude Exclude Exclude

this column this column this column this column
TM

0
Start
Lower
Bound (LB) = 2 + 3 + 1 + 4 = 10
1 2 3 4
a1 a2 a3 a4
LB = 9 + 3 + 1 + 4 = 17 LB = 2 + 3 + 1 + 4 = 10 LB = 7 + 4 + 5 + 4 = 20 LB = 8 + 3 + 1 + 6 = 18
5 6 7
b1 b3 b4
LB = 2 + 6 + 1 + 4 = 13 LB = 2 + 3 + 5 + 4 = 14 LB = 2 + 7 + 1 + 7 = 17
9 2 7 8 9 2 7 8 9 2 7 8
6 4 3 7 6 4 3 7 6 4 3 7
5 8 1 8 5 8 1 8 5 8 1 8
7 6 9 4 7 6 9 4 7 6 9 4
Exclude Exclude Exclude

these columns these columns these columns
0
start
Lower
Bound(LB) = 2  3  1  4 = 10
1 2 3 4
a1 a2 a3 a4
LB = 9  3  1  4 = 17 LB = 2  3  1  4 = 10 LB = 7  4  5  4 = 20 LB = 8  3  1  6 = 18
5 6 7
b1 b3 b4
LB = 2  6  1  4 = 13 LB = 2  3  5  4 = 14 LB = 2  7  1  7 = 17
8 9
c3 c4
d4 d3
LB = 2  6  1  4 = 13 LB = 2  6  8  9 = 25
9 2 7 8 9 2 7 8
6 4 3 7 6 4 3 7
5 8 1 8 5 8 1 8
7 6 9 4 7 6 9 4
Solution Inferior solution

TM

Job 1 Job 2 Job 3 Job 4
9 2 7 8 Person a The solution is
6 4 3 7 Person b Person a = Job 2

Person b = Job 1
5 8 1 8 Person c
Person c = Job 3
7 6 9 4 Person d Person d = Job 4
Wi
Vj
v1 w1 v2 w2 v 3 w 3 ..... v n w n
(v i 1 wi 1)
TM

( v (i 1) w (i 1) )
v (i 1) w (i 1) = v1 w1
TM

0
w=0,v=0
ub = 100
With 1 W/O 1
w = 4 , v = 40 w=0,v=0
I II
ub = 76 ub = 60
With 2 W/O 2
Inferior to node 8
w = 11 w = 4 , v = 40
III IV
ub = 70
With 3 W/O 3
w = 9 , v = 65 w = 4 , v = 40 VI
V
ub = 69 ub = 64
With 4 W/O 4
Inferior to node VIII
because profit is
w = 12 w = 9 , v = 65 less.
VII
VIII
ub = 65
Solution
vi 1 wi 1 v2 w2 42 7
v W–w v i 1 w i 1
40 10 – 4 6
TM

v2 w2 42 7
v W–w v i 1 w i 1
0 10 – 0 6
v 3 w 3
v W–w v 3 w 3
40 10 – 4 5
w1 w 3
v1 v 3
v4 w4 12 3
v W–w v4 w4
65 10 – 9 4
v i 1 w i 1 v4 w4
v (i 1) w (i 1)
TM

vi 1 wi 1 v5 w5
v (i 1) w (i 1)
v (W w) v i 1 wi 1
v1 w1 v 2 w 2 ... v i w i
vi w i
TM

vi 1 wi 1 vi 1 wi 1
v1 w1 v2 w2
vi 1 wi 1 vi 1 wi 1
vi 1 wi 1
v2 w2
vi 1 wi 1
vi 1 wi 1 vi 1 wi 1
v 3 w 3 v 3 /w 3
vi 1 wi 1
TM

vi 1 wi 1
v 3 w 3
vi 1 wi 1
vi 1 wi 1 vi wi
1 1
v4 w4 v4 w4
vi 1 wi 1 vi wi
1 1
vi 1 wi 1
v4 w4
vi 1 wi 1
TM

vi 1 wi 1
v5 w5
vi 1 wi 1
w=0 v=0
ub = 160
with 1 w/o 1
1 2
w = 10 v = 100 w=0 v=0

ub = 154 ub = 144
with 2 w/o 2
with 2 w/o 2
3 4 5 6
w = 17 w = 10 v = 100 w = 7 v = 63 w=0 v=0

ub = 142 ub = 126 ub = 112
with 3 w/o 3 Inferior to
node 12
7 8 9 10
w = 18 w = 10 v = 100 w = 15 v = 119 w = 7 v = 63
ub = 118 ub = 122 ub = 90
with 4 w/o 4 Inferior to

node 12
Can be 11 12
solution but
inferior to w = 19 w = 15 v = 119
node 12 ub = 119
Solution
{item 2, item 3}
TM

p1 w1 p2 w2 p3 w3
pi wi
ub p (n w) (p i 1 w i 1)
ub (45 3)
(p i 1 wi 1)
pi 1 w i 1
TM

p (m w) (p i 1 w i 1)
pi 1 w i 1 p3 w3 5
(p i 1 w i 1)
pi 1 w i 1 p 3 w3 5
p (m w) (p i 1 w i 1)
pi 1 w i+ 1 p4 w4 = 2
p (m w) (p i 1 w i 1)
TM

p=0 w=0
I
ub = 225
With Without item 1

item 1
p = 45 w=3 p=0 w=0

II III
ub = 117 ub = 90
With
item 2 Without item 2
p = 70 w=8 p = 45 w=3
IV V
ub = 105 ub = 57
With
Without item 3
item 3
p = 90 w = 12 p = 45 w=3
VI VII
ub = 96 ub = 69
Solution
p i 1 wi 1 p 4 w4 2
p (m w) (p i 1 w i 1)
TM

pi / wi p2 / w2 p3 / w3
(pi,) (wi,) pi / wi
p (W – w) (pi+ 1 / wi+ 1)
pi p1 wi w1
p1 w1
TM

p (W – w)(pi+ 1 / wi+ 1)
p (W – w)(pi+ 1 / wi+ 1)
0 (15 – 0)(p2 / w2)
p1 p2 w1 w2
p3 35
w3 7
p (W – w)(p i 1 /wi 1)
p3 35
w3 7
p (W – w)(pi 1 / wi 1)
TM

p=0 w=0
ub = 135
w/o item 1
item 1
p = 18 w=2 p=0 w=0
ub = 122 ub = 120
item 2 w/o item 2
p = 58 w=7 p = 18 w=2
ub = 98 ub = 83
p1 p2 p3 w1 w2 w3
p4 10
w4 5
p (W – w)(p i 1 /wi 1)
p1 p2 w1 w2
p4 10
w4 5
p (W – w)(pi 1 / wi 1)
TM

p1 p2 p3 p4 w1 w2 w 3 w4
p1 p2 p3 w1 w2 w 3
P5 2
W5 1
p (W – w)(pi 1 / wi 1)
p=0 w=0
ub = 135
w/o item 1
item 1
p = 18 w=2 p=0 w=0
ub = 122 ub = 120
item 2 w/o item 2
p = 58 w=7 p = 18 w=2
ub = 98 ub = 83
item 3 w/o item 3
p = 93 w = 14 p = 58 w=7
ub = 95 ub = 74
item 4 w/o item 4
p = 103 w = 19 p = 93 w = 14
ub = ub = 95
Not feasible
TM

p1 p2 p3 p5 w1 w2 w 3 w5
p6 4
w6 4
p (W – w)(pi 1 / wi 1)
p=0 w=0
ub = 135
w/o item 1
item 1
p = 18 w=2 p=0 w=0
ub = 122 ub = 120
item 2 w/o item 2
p = 58 w=7 p = 18 w=2
ub = 98 ub = 83
item 3 w/o item 3
p = 93 w = 14 p = 58 w=7
ub = 95 ub = 74
item 4 w/o item 4
p = 103 w = 19 p = 93 w = 14
ub = ub = 95
Not feasible With
item 5
p = 95 w = 15
ub = 95
Solution
TM

Sum of costs of the two least
2
v V
cost edges adjacent to v
3
a b
5 10
9 1 7
6
c 4
d
2 3
Sum of costs of the two least

2
cost edges adjacent to v
a b c d e
[(1 3) ( 3 6) (1 2) ( 3 4) ( 2 3)] 2
TM

1
2
v
a
LB = 14
1 2 3 4
a-b a-c a-d a-e
LB = 14 LB = 14 LB = 16 LB = 20
b can't be before c
5 6 7
a-b-c a-b-d a-b-e
LB = 16 LB = 16 LB = 19
8 9 10 11
a-b-c-d a-b-c-e a-b-d-c a-b-d-e
LB = 25 LB = 19 LB = 25 LB = 16
a-b-c- a-b-c- a-b-d- a-b-d-

d-e-a e-d-a c-e-a e-c-a Solution
TM

TM

TM

TM

a b c d e f
6 21 7 11 5 9 9 12 7 14 5 15 / 2
27 18 14 21 21 20 / 2
2
a b
5 3
8 7
1
c d
Sum of cost of two least cost edges adjacent to the vertex v / 2
TM

a
LB = 61
a-b a-c a-d a-e a-f
a-e-b
a-e-c
a-e-d a-e-f
a-e-b-c a-e-b-d a-e-b-f
The tour will

be
a-e-b-d-f-c-a
The cost of
a-e-b-d-c a-e-b-d-f
tour will be
73
a-e-b-d-f-c rounding a-e-b-d-f-a
to form
circuit
a b c d
(2 5) (2 3) (1 5) (1 3) / 2
can not consider a – b

TM

can not consider ( a - c)
because it is not adjacent to b
a
LB = 11
1 2 3
a-b a-c a-d
LB = 11 LB = 11 LB = 14
TM

a
LB = 11
1 2 3
a-b a-c a-d
LB = 11 LB = 11 LB = 14
4 5
a-b-c a-b-d
LB = 15 LB = 11
TM

a
LB = 11
a-b a-c a-d

LB = 11 LB = 11 LB = 14
a-b-c a-b-d
LB = 15 LB = 11
a - b - d -c
LB = 11
a-b-d-c-a
Solution
TM

TM

1
x1 = 1 4
2 3
2 18 34 50
2 4 1 4 1
= 4 1 3
x2 3 3 2 2
TM
3 8 13 19 24 29 35 40 45 51 56 61
=3
4 2 4 2 3 2 3 1 4 1 3 2 4 1 4 1 2 2 3 1 3
3
x
4 6 9 11 14 16 20 22 25 27 30 32 36 38 41 43 46 48 52 54 57 59 62 64
x4 = 4 3 4 2 3 2 3 2 4 1 3 1 2 4 4 1 2 1 3 2 3 1
5 7 10 12 15 17 21 23 26 28 31 33 37 39 42 44 47 49 53 55 58 60 63 65

1
1
x1 = 1 x1 = 4
x1 = 2 x1 = 3
2 2 3 18 4 34 50
5
x2 = 1 x2 = 4
x2 = 3
TM
11 12
3 6 8 7 13 8 9 19 10 24 29 35 13 40 14 45 15 51 16 56 17 61
   x3 = 1 x3 = 3   
18 20 21 28 29
19
9 11 14 16 22 30 23 32 24 36 25 38 26 52 27 54 57 59
   x4 = 3     
30
31

answer
node
TM

f sa
r sa
f s*
sa r sa f sa
f s*
r sa r sa
RA
RA
r sa c
f sa c f s*
Nearest Neighbor Algorithm

Approximation
Algorithms
for TSP
Twice - around- the tree algorithm
TM

2
A B
4
7 3
4
D C
2
f(S a )
sa
sa
TM

r sa
f sa
r sa
f s*
14
12
r sa
sa
r sa
f sa
r sa
f s*
7 w
r sa
12
r sa r sa
0 14 4 10
14 0 5 8 7
4 5 0 9 16
10 8 9 0 32
7 16 32 0
TM

f(S a ) 58
r(S a ) 1.29
f(S*) 45
f sa 1
r sa log 2 n 1
f s* 2
12
A E
9
3 7
9
9 12
B D
8
5 12
TM

A E
B D
A E
B D
w 1 , w 2 ... w n v 1 , v 2 , ... v n
Greedy Algorithm
Approximation
Algorithms for
Knapsack problem
Approximation schemes
TM

vi /wi
vi /wi
TM

This will produce the total
weight of 9 with profit of $72
vi /wi
vi /wi
TM

6
4 7
7
6
42 49
7
f s ka 1
1
f s* k
TM

TM

(x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ... x n )
(x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , ... x n )
TM

P1 P2 l
P1 P2
l
l
TM

{S 1 , ..... S n }
S1 S2 ..... Sn
TM

TM

TM

O(n k )
O(n k )
TM

TM

  Yes Yes
Poly. reduction Algorithm for B
No No
Decision algorithm for A
C worst (n) log 2 n 1

log 2 (n 1)
TM

TM

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CS8451 - Design and Analysis of Algorithms (Ripped From Amazon Kindle Ebooks by Sai Seena)

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Strictly as per Revised Syllabus of

Design and Analysis of Algorithms

First Edition : January 2019

ã Copyright with Author

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Algorithm created for

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Algorithm name (p1,p2,....................,pn)

This keyword should Here write Write

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Using Euclid algorithm Consecutive integer Finding the repetitive

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TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Analyze the algorihm

Code the algorithm

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TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Processing or assignment statements

STOP Stop state

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TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

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Running time of Time taken by the Number of times the

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f1 (n) g 1 (n) f2 (n) g 2 (n)

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35x 8 22x7 14x5 2x 4 4x 2 x 15

35(1) 8 22(1) 7 14(1) 5 2(1) 4 4(1) 2 1 15

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f1 (n) f2 (n) f1 (n) g 1 (n)

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TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

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TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

T(1) T(1) T(1) T(1)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge