Section 1.2. Principal Landfill Requirements 5 Gas collection and control system Ce a eee ee ‘To gos lare station ‘oF powerplant Solid waste Leachate collection system, Primary geomembrane Primary sol barrier Leak detection system Secondary goomembrane Secondary soil bacier FIGURE 1.3. Schematic Diagram of a Municipal Solid Waste Landfill Containment SystemSection 1.4 Landfill Envelope 7 Leachate collection system Leachate detection system Secondary line system (9) Cell subgrade and feachate collection system Final cover Double composite Tine sytem (b) Placement of sli waste in lanai Double composite liner system (©) Closed land wth final cover FIGURE 1.4 Development and Completion ofa Solid Waste Landfill8 Chapter 1 Introduction Final cover Existing ground (@) Area fil Final over Existing round (b) Trench sit Final cover Existing ground (©) Above and below grou il Final cover Existing ground (@) Vaney si FIGURE 1.5. Four Types of Solid Waste Landfill Geometry clay layer, and/or a combination of these. The liner system is the single most important element of a landfill.Ses Ee WS MASE Sand drainage and protective tayer Compacted clay ines st STLLEIES Solid waste Sand drinage and protective layer Geomembrane "5 Subsoil FIGURE 1.7. Single Geomembrane Liner Solid waste Sand drainage and protective layer Primary geomembrane Sand drainage layer SIP STE Secondary geomembrane PPS EE ESE 8ST guaen FIGURE 1.8 Double Geomembrane Liner System Soiltiner Composite liner =z se : = — Detect Rapid seepage Seepage throush Seepage south through defect tie liner ne, Soil, and Composite Liners FIGURE 1.11 Seepage Patton through Geomembrane, Sil and Comp2.1 SITING CONSIDERATIONS Landfill siting is one of the most difficult and often controversial tasks faced by mat communities when implementing an integrated solid waste disposal program. Factors that must be considered in evaluating potential sites for the long-term disposal of solid waste include haul distance, location restrictions, available land area, site access, soil conditions, topography, climatological conditions, surface water hydrology, geologic ‘and bydrogeologic conditions, local environmental conditions, and potential end uses for the completed site, which are discussed as follows (Tchobanoglous etal, 1993): 1. Haul Distaiice, Haul distance is an important variable in the selection of a dis posal site because it can significantly affect the overall design and operation of a waste management system. A minimum haul distance is desirable but other factors must be ‘considered as well. Landfill siting is governed increasingly by environmental and polit- jeal concerns, which of themselves may necessitate long-distance hauling. The devel- ‘opment of intermediate transfer stations is a method whereby haul distance is made somewhat more economical by using very large trucks for the final transfer of waste. 2. Location Restrictions, Location restrictions may constrain landfill placement. "These restrictions apply to siting landiills near airports, in floodplains, in wetlands, in areas with known faults, in seismic impact zones, and in unstable areas. Applicable federal requirements are contained in Subpart B—Location Restrictions of Patt 258 of Subtitle D of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) (USEPA. 1995). Many states have also adopted additional location restrictions. All current restrictions must be reviewed carefully during the preliminary siting process to avoid wasted time and expense evaluating a site that will not conform with regulatory requirements. Specific requirements that apply to landfill location restrictions will be discussed in the next section 3, Available Land Area, There are no fixed rules with regard to required area, for disposal; however, itis advisable to have enough area, including an adequate buffer zone, to operate a site for at least five years. Unit disposal costs become considerably ‘more expensive for shorter periods, especially with respect to site preparation, provi- sion of auxiliary facilities, such as platform scales, and completion of final cover, The extent of any waste diversion that is likely to occur in the future should be projected ‘during initial assessment of a potential site. Furthermore, itis important to determine the impact of that diversion on the quantity and condition of the residual disposal 4. Site Access. There has been a tendency for new landfill sites to increase in size (o-called “megafills”) as the number of operational landfills continues to decrease. Unfortunately, it is often difficult to find large enough land areas near existing devel- oped roadways and cities. As a result, the construction of access roadways and the use of long-haul equipment has become an important aspect of landfill siting. Rail lines often pass near remote sites that are suitable for use as landfills, and thus the use of ral haul for transporting wastes to these remote sites has attracted increased interest.Chapter 2. Landfill Siting and Site Investigation 5, Soil Conditions and Topography. Solid wastes placed in a landfill must be cov- ered each day, and a final soil cover layer or cap must be placed after the landfilling operation is terminated, If soil under the proposed landfill area itself is to be used for cover material, its geologic and hydrogeologic characteristics must be ascertained. On the other hand, if the cover material is to be obtained from a borrow pit, test borings will be needed to characterize this off-site material. The local topography must be considered as well, because it will affect the type of landfill operation that is adopted, the equipment requirements, and the extent of work necessary to make the site usable, 6, Climatologic Conditions. Local weather conditions can greatly affect the operation and management of a disposal site. In many locations, winter conditions will, affect access to the site, Wet weather may necessitate the use of separate landiill areas. ‘Where freezing is severe and excavation is impractical, landfill cover material must be stock-piled in advance, Wind strength and wind patterns also play critical roles; to avoid blowing or flying debris, adequate windbreaks must be established 7. Surface Water Hydrology. Surface water hydrology refers to the pattern of natural drainage and runoff characteristics of a site. Potential flooding problems and the limits of the 100-year flood must be identified carefully. Mitigation measures may be required to divert surface runoff exiting the landfill away from lakes and streams. Conversely, measures may be required to limit storm water runoff flow into the land- fill, Accordingly, planners must take great care in defining existing and intermittent flow channels in the area and the characteristics of the contributing watershed, 8. Geologie and Hydrogeologic Conditions. Geologic and hydrogeologic condi- tions are extremely important in establishing the environmental suitability of an area for a landfill site. The principal hydrogeologic siting requirements for a landfill are noted in Table 2.1. Hydrogeologic data are required to assess the pollution potential of ‘TABLE 2.1. Principal Hydrogeologie Landi Siting Requirements Considerations Site Requirement Deseriptions and Rationale 1 Significant Thickness of Vadose (Unsaturated) Zone beneath Landi + Permits adsorption/atenuation of heavy metals and complex organic pollutants ‘on elay solide an soil organic matter, «Allows biodegradation of organic substances by oxidation and bacteria in vadose + Minimizes danger of hydraulic uplift and rupture during excavation, ‘Unerlsn hy Strata with Low Hiydraulie Conductivity + Strata with low hydraulic conductivity limit ret of downward and lateral move- ‘ment of escaped leachate and possible contamination of underlying aquifer if present). Does Not Overie Sole Source or Usble Aquifer + Even f landfills separated from aquifer by ight eap layer with ow hydraulic conductivity its prudent to avoid the site if it overlies a sole source or important fresh water aquifer. 4 Located outside Floodplain Areas + Limits storm water runoff (SWRO) tothe land sit. s Has Adequate Set Back from Populations, Lakes, Streams, and Wetlands Limits impact ofboth SWRO and leakage from the landfillSection 2.2. Location Restrictions 31 ‘a proposed site and to establish what must be done to the site to ensure that the move ment of leachate or gases from the landfill will not impair the quality of local ground- water or contaminate underlying bedrock aquifers. U.S. Geological Survey maps and state or local geologic information is useful for the preliminary assessment of alterna tive sites. Geologic drilling logs of nearby wells can also be used for this purpose. 9, Local Environmental Conditions. Landfill sites have and can be built in close proximity to both residential and industrial developments. To do so, they must be planned and operated very carefully to be environmentally acceptable with respect to traffic, noise, odor, dust, airborne debris, visual impact, vector control, and surround- ing property values. To minimize the impact of filling operations, landfills now tend to be sited in more remote locations where adequate buffer zones can be maintained. 10. Ultimate Use for Completed Landfills. A capped and decommissioned land- fill represents a sizeable area of land that could be used for other purposes. More and more communities are now examining the use of old landfills for such things as, reere~ ation sites, sport fields, and parking areas. Ideally, these potential end uses should be taken into account during the design, layout, and operation of a landfill. Choices for the ultimate use of completed landfills are becoming less limited by state and Federal regulations, providing that appropriate measures are taken dealing with landfill clo- sure and postclosure maintenance. If a completed landfill is to be used for some municipal function (e.g., a toboggan hill), a staged landscaping and planting program should be initiated and continued as portions of the landfill are completed. (Chapter 18, the concluding chapter, describes this topic.)2.3 SITING PROCESS "Three major issues tend to influence and affect landfill siting: environmental impact, economic consequences, and political considerations. Geotechnical and hydrogeologi- cal considerations can be subsumed within the environmental category. Public opinion ‘and attitude strongly influence political considerations. To achieve public acceptance, citizen groups should participate in the identification and evaluation of prospective sites, Citizens’ concerns about a particular site should not be dismissed out of hand. ‘The ultimate goal is to select a secure site that will provide the greatest public health and environmental protection in the event of a landfill containment failure. ‘Oweis and Khera (1998) have identified the following elements and stages of a landfill siting process: ( Detine project and its needs: (ii) Identify major environmental factors; i) Identify candidate sites: (iv) Collect and analyze environmental, economi (¥)_ Evaluate and compare candidate sites: (vi) Screen candidate sites to a small number: (vii) Collect and assess site-specific engineering and environmental data; (viii) Recommend one or more sites for final selection; and (x) Determine final location, ind socioeconomic data; Oweis and Khera note that public participation is usually needed for some stages, especially (6), (8), and (9). The purpose of this staged inquiry is to narrow the scope of the study from a wide geographic area to one or more sites for detailed investigation and analysis. According to Oweis and Khera (1998) the main factors to consider in assessing the suitability of a site are as follows: Economic Factors: (© Access to highways and available highway capacity, Compatibility with existing solid waste management systems, Gi) Cost of police, fire, and road maintenance (Gv) Development, operation, and maintenance cost, (©) Distance to waste generation locations, (vi) Economic effects on community, (oii) Effect on property value, (iil) Land development, (jx) Highly productive agricultural areas, (x) Flexibility.Socioeconomic Factors: (@ A rehacological and historical sites, ii) Cultural patterns, (ii) Dedicated land, (iv) Economic and community resources, (v) Emergency response, Chapter 2 Landfill Siting and Site Investigation (vi) Land use and zoning (ii) Noise impact (viii) Proximity.to school and residents, (ix) Public safety and health, (x) Sensitive receptors Environmental/Geotechnical Factors: ( Aesthetic impact, ii) Agriculture preservation areas, Air quality, gs compositions, and particulate matter, Gv) Areas with high groundwater level, (¥) Climate and atmospheric conditions, (vi) Distance from water supply wells, (vii) Fault area, (viii) Flood plains and wetlands, (éx) Forest, wilderness, and scenic areas, (x) Geology,TING, AND CONFIGURATIONS 1644 Map Overlay Procedure to Identify Potential Sites ‘To assess possible site locations, it is advisable to gen- erate a number of maps that are to the same scale and overlay them on top of one another to observe open Spaces Where a landfill may be sited. Figure 16.6 de- picts this overlay procedure and shows two potential sites, site A and site B, for landfilling, These maps should include: + Map for airports and runways + Map for occupied dwellings, schools, and hospi tals + Map for nature/forest preserves + Map for waterwells + Map for floodplains + Map for wetlands + Other applicable maps site B siteA SA Topography : Figure 16.6 Map overlay procedure to identify porential )225 Seismic impact Zones New MSW landfill units must not be located in a seismic impact zone, unless the owner or operator demonstrates to the director of an approved state/tribe that all con- tainment structures—including liner systems, leachate collection and removal sys- tems, gas collection and control systems, final cover systems, and surface water control systems—are designed to resist the maximum horizontal acceleration in lithi- fied earth material for the site. The owner or operator must place the demonstration in the operating record and notify the state director that it has been placed in the operating record. Seismic impact zone means an area with 10 percent or greater probability that the maximum horizontal acceleration in lithified earth material, expressed as a per- centage of the earth's gravitational pull, will exceed 0.10g in 250 years. Figure 2.1 shows the seismic impact zones of the United States. Maximum horizontal accelera- tion in lithified earth material is the maximum expected horizontal acceleration depicted on a seismic hazard map, with a 90 percent or greater probability that the acceleration will not be exceeded in 250 years, or the maximum expected horizontal acceleration based on a site-specific seismic risk assessment. Lithified earth material means all rock, including all naturally occurring and naturally formed ageregates or ‘masses of minerals or small particles of older rock that formed by crystallization of164.1 Calculating Landfill Acreage Based on the service area of a landill, quantities of wastes generated are estimated. All feasible recycling options must be taken into account in calculating the ‘wastes that require disposal in landfill. The design lie of a landfill must be decided, Based on the quantities of waste and the design life of the landfill, an estimate Of the required volume, or air space, can be calculated After the required air space is estimated, an approxi- ‘mation of the necessary waste depth will lead to a pro- Jection of the site acreage or size of the landfill foot Print. The other landfill requirements, such as buffer zones, buildings, access roads, and entrance facilities, should be included to obtain the approximate size or ‘minimum limits for the general area ‘An estimate of the volume of waste in a landfill may be made using R D{L — P/100) oy where V isthe volume of compacted solid waste plus cover sol (cubie yrds per person per yea), the solid vaste generated per person on an annua! basis [ie Weight/year (consider recycling options), D the un. compacted density of solid waste P the perent vol ame reduction per uni volume (i... AV/¥) achieved from solid waste compaction, and CV the sil cover factor, which is equal to [1+ (oll cover thckness/ height of landfill. The required area of the landfill say he calculated using 2 (43,560) where A isthe land area needed (acres/yea), N the Population, the lanl height in fect, and 43,60 the unit conversion factor from square feet to aeres. An additional area used to buffer the waste limits should be added,