SQL LAB COMMANDS

CREATING A TABLE

Syntax

CREATE TABLE tablename

(column1 name DATATYPE(SIZE), column2 name DATATYPE(SIZE), column3 name DATATYPE(SIZE),

column4 name DATATYPE(SIZE));

Example 1

CREATE TABLE student (Sno VARCHAR2(8) , Sname VARCHAR2(20), Tmarks NUMBER(3));

Example 2

CREATE TABLE employee (empno VARCHAR2(5) , ename VARCHAR2(35), dob DATE, salary NUMBER(8,2));

VIEWING TABLE COLUMNS:

DESCRIBE tablename;

Example:

DESCRIBE student;

INSERTING VALUES INTO A TABLE

Syntax 1

INSERT INTO table name VALUES (‘COLUMN1VALUE’ , ‘COLUMN2VALUE’ , ‘COLUMN3VALUE’ , ‘COLUMN4VALUE’ );

Example 1

INSERT INTO student VALUES (‘SSBN0001’, ‘Dinakar’, 400);

Example 2

INSERT INTO employee VALUES (‘e001 , ‘Sairam’ , ’12-Dec-1876’ , 5000.00 );

Syntax 2 (Insertion by Substitution

INSERT INTO employee VALUES (‘&COLUMN1NAME’ , ‘&COLUMN2NAME’, ‘&COLUMN3NAME’, ‘&COLUMN4NAME’ );

Example 1

INSERT INTO student VALUES (‘&Sno’, ‘&Sname’, &Tmarks);

Example 2

INSERT INTO employee VALUES (‘&empno’ , ‘&ename, ‘&dob’, &salary );

LISTING THE DATA FROM TABLES:

Syntax

SELECT * FROM tablename;

Example 1

SELECT * FROM student;

Example 2

SELECT * FROM employee;

Total records (rows) from the table will be selected.

LISTING SELECTED COLUMNS & ALL ROWS ONLY

Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, column4 FROM tablename;

Examples

SELECT sno,sname,tmarks FROM student;

SELECT empno,ename,salary FROM employee;

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LISTING SELECTED ROWS ONLY

Syntax

SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE condition ;

Example

SELECT * FROM student WHERE tmarks > 400;

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE salary >5000;

LISTING SELECTED COLUMNS & SELECTED ROWS

Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, column4 FROM tablename WHERE condition ;

Example

SELECT sno,tmarks FROM student WHERE tmarks > 400;

SELECT empno,ename,salary FROM employee WHERE salary >5000 ;

ELIMINATING THE DUPLICATES FROM THE SELECT STATEMENT

Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2,column3 FROM tablename ;

Example

SELECT DISTINCT sname,tmarks FROM student;

SELECT DISTINCT ename, salary FROM employee;

SORTING THE DATA IN A TABLE (OR) ORDER BY CLAUSE

Syntax

SELECT * FROM tablename ORDER BY (col 1, col 2[sort order]);

Example

SELECT * FROM student ORDER BY tmarks;

SELECT * FROM employee ORDER BY ename descending;

CHANGING TABLE DEFINITIONS

Syntax 1 ( Adding new columns )

ALTER TABLE tablename ADD (new_column1 datatype(size), new_column2 datatype(size)…);

Example

ALTER TABLE student ADD (doa date);

ALTER TABLE student ADD (avg number(5,2));

ALTER TABLE employee ADD (job varchar2(20), dept varchar2(20));

ALTER TABLE employee ADD (Bonus number(8,2));

Syntax 2 (Modifying existing columns )

ALTER TABLE tablename MODIFY (column1 new datatype (new size),..);

Example

ALTER TABLE student MODIFY (sname varchar2(25));

ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY (salary number(10,2));

Syntax 3 (Dropping existing columns )

ALTER TABLE tablename DROP COLUMN column_name;

Example

ALTER TABLE student DROP COLUMN doa;

ALTER TABLE employee DROP COLUMN job;

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CHANGING DATABASE CONTENT :: UPDATING ALL ROWS

Syntax

UPDATE tablename SET (col1 = exp1, col2 = exp2);

Example
UPDATE student SET (Avg = Tmarks / 5);
UPDATE employee SET (Bonus = salary * 0.5);

UPDATING RECORDS CONDITIONALLY

Syntax

UPDATE tablename SET (col1 = exp1, col2 = exp2) WHERE condition;

Example

UPDATE tablename SET (Tmarks = Tmarks + 5) WHERE tmarks>190 AND tmarks<200);

DELETING DATABASE CONTENTS :: REMOVAL OF ALL ROWS

Syntax

DELETE FROM tablename;

Example

DELETE FROM student;

REMOVAL OF SPECIFIED ROWS

Syntax

DELETE FROM tablename WHERE condition;

Example

DELETE FROM student WHERE tmarks<300;

INCLUDING ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS IN THE SELECT STATEMENT

Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, exp1, exp2 FROM tablename;

Example

SELECT eno, ename, salary, salary*0.1 FROM employee;

RENAMING COLUMNS USED WITH EXPRESSION LISTS

Syntax

SELECT column1 result_column1, column2 result_column2, exp1 result_column3, exp2 result_column4 FROM tablename;

Example

SELECT eno Employ Name, ename, salary, salary*0.1 Bonus FROM employee;

LOGICAL OPERATORS: The logical operators AND, OR, NOT can be used in the select condition while filtering the data.

RANGE SEARCH

Syntax

SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE column BETWEEN lower_limit AND upper_limit;

Example

SELECT * FROM student WHERE tmarks BETWEEN 300 AND 400;

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE salary BETWEEN 10000 AND 15000;

PATTERN MATCHING (USING WILD CARD % &)

The percent sign (%): Matches any string

The underscore(-): Matches any single character
Example

SELECT * FROM student WHERE sname LIKE ‘S%’;

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE ename LIKE ‘_a%’;

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IN and NOT IN predicates

The relational operator = compass a single value to another single value. In case a value need to be compared to a list
of values then the IN predicate is used. This is used to check a single value against multiple values.

Example

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE department IN (‘Accounts’, ‘IT’, ’Personal’);

CONSTRAINTS

“Rules, which are enforced on data being entered and prevent the user from entering invalid data into tables, are called
Constraints”.

Types of Integrity Constraints:

Domain integrity constraint:

Not Null constraint Check constraint

Entity integrity constraints

Unique constraint Primary Key constrain

Referential integrity constraints

Foreign Key constraint

Defining Constraints:

Constraints can be defined in two ways. i.e., Column level Table level

NOT NULL Constraint:

Syntax

Column_name datatype(size) NOT NULL

Example

Create table client_master (client_no varchar2(6) NOT NULL, name varchar2(10) NOT NULL,….);

The CHECK Constraint:

Syntax (Column level)

Columnname datatype(size) CHECK (logical expression)

Syntax (Table level)

CHECK(logical expression)

Example

CREATE TABLE client_master (client_no varchar2(6) check(client_no like ‘%C’), Name varchar2(20) check
(name=upper(name)), add1 vargar2(30), Add2 varchar2(30), city varchar2(15) check (city IN
(‘Delhi’,’Bombay’,’Calcutta’,’Madras’)),State varchar2(15),pincode number(6),remarks varchar2(20), bal_due number(10,2));

UNIQUE Constraint:

Syntax (Column level)

Column_name datatype(size) UNIQUE

Syntax (Table level)

UNIQUE(column_name1,column_name2,…);

Example

CREATE TABLE student (Sno VARCHAR2(8) UNIQUE, Sname VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL,

Tmarks NUMBER(3) CHECK (Tmarks BETWEEN 0 AND 500));

The PRIMARY KEY Constraint:

A primary key is a one or more column in a table used to uniquely identify each row in the table. This has special attributes.
They are (i) NOT NULL (ii) UNIQUE

A single column primary key is called a Simple key.

A multicolumn primary key is called a Composite primary key.

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Syntax (Column level)

Column_name datatype(size) Primary Key

CREATE TABLE student

(Sno VARCHAR2(8) PRIMARY KEY,

Sname VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL,

Tmarks NUMBER(3) CHECK (Tmarks BETWEEN 0 AND 500));

Example

Create table dprod_master(Pno varchar2(5) constraint pk1 primary key, Pname varchar2(11) constraint un1 unique, Pcategory
varchar2(10) constraint no1 not null, Qty_on_hand number(5) default(0), reorder_level number(5) default(0), max_level
number(5) check (max_level<500));

Syntax (Table level)

PRIMARY KEY (column1,column2,…)

Foreign key constraint:

Syntax (Column level)

Column_name datatype(size) REFERENCES tablename[(columnname)] [ON DELETE CASCADE]

Syntax (Table level)

FOREIGN KEY(column1,column2,..)REFERENCES tablename [(column_name1,column_name2)]

ASSIGNING USER DEFINED NAMES TO CONSTRAINTS

A constraint can be given a user-defined name by preceding the constraint definition with the reserve word CONSTRAINT and a
user-defined name.

Syntax

CONSTRAINT <constraint_name><constraint definition>

Example

CREATE TABLE order_master(orderno VARCHAR2(5) constraint ore_prim PRIMARY KEY, odate DATE, vencode VARCHAR2(5),
o_status CHAR(1)NOT NULL, del_date date);

DEFINING INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS IN THE ALTER TABLE COMMAND

Syntax

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD CONSTRAINT_NAME (columnname)

Example

ALTER TABLE student ADD PRIMARY KEY (sno);

WHEN USER_DEFINED NAMES ARE USED

Adding Constraint:

Syntax

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD CONSTRAINT user_defined_name CONSTRAINT_NAME (column_name);

Example

ALTER TABLE student ADD CONSTRAINT p1 PRIMARY KEY (sno);

Dropping Constraint:

Syntax

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP CONSTRAINT user_defined_name

ALTER TABLE student DROP CONSTRAINT p1;

DEFAULT VALUE CONCEPT:

Syntax

Column_name data type (size) DEFAULT (value);

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