This article is about the divine abode in various religious traditions.

For other
uses, see Heaven (disambiguation).

Dante and Beatrice gaze upon the highest heavens; from Gustave Doré's illustrations
to the Divine Comedy.
Heaven or the heavens, is a common religious cosmological or transcendent
supernatural place where beings such as deities, angels, souls, saints, or
venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or reside. According to
the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to Earth or incarnate
and earthly beings can ascend to Heaven in the afterlife or, in exceptional cases,
enter Heaven alive.

Heaven is often described as a "highest place", the holiest place, a Paradise, in

contrast to hell or the Underworld or the "low places" and universally or
conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of
divinity, goodness, piety, faith, or other virtues or right beliefs or simply
divine will. Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a world to
come.

Another belief is in an axis mundi or world tree which connects the heavens, the
terrestrial world, and the underworld. In Indian religions, heaven is considered as
Svarga loka,[1] and the soul is again subjected to rebirth in different living
forms according to its karma. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves Moksha
or Nirvana. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the
tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as the otherworld.

At least in the Abrahamic faiths of Christianity, Islam, and some schools of

Judaism, as well as Zoroastrianism, heaven is the realm of Afterlife where good
actions in the previous life are rewarded for eternity (hell being the place where
bad behavior is punished).

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Ancient Near East
2.1 Mesopotamia
2.2 Canaanites and Phoenicians
2.3 Hurrians and Hittites
3 Abrahamic and Abrahamic-inspired religions
3.1 Hebrew Bible
3.2 Second Temple Judaism
3.3 Christianity
3.4 Rabbinical Judaism
3.5 Islam
3.5.1 Ahmadiyya
3.6 Baháʼí Faith
3.7 Mandaeism
3.8 Gnosticism
4 Chinese religions
5 Indian religions
5.1 Buddhism
5.1.1 Theravada
5.1.1.1 According to the Aṅguttara Nikāya
5.1.2 Mahayana
5.1.2.1 According to the Śūraṅgama Sūtra
5.1.3 Tibetan Buddhism
5.2 Hinduism
5.3 Jainism
5.4 Sikh religion
6 Mesoamerican religions
7 Polynesia
7.1 Māori
7.2 Paumotu, Tuamotus
8 Theosophy
9 Criticism of the belief in heaven
10 Neuroscience
11 Postmodern views
12 Representations in arts
13 See also
14 References
14.1 Bibliography
15 External links
Etymology

"heofones", an ancient Anglo-Saxon word for heavens in Beowulf

The modern English word heaven is derived from the earlier (Middle English) heven
(attested 1159); this in turn was developed from the previous Old English form
heofon. By about 1000, heofon was being used in reference to the Christianized
"place where God dwells", but originally, it had signified "sky, firmament"[2]
(e.g. in Beowulf, c. 725). The English term has cognates in the other Germanic
languages: Old Saxon heƀan "sky, heaven" (hence also Middle Low German heven
"sky"), Old Icelandic himinn, Gothic himins; and those with a variant final -l: Old
Frisian himel, himul "sky, heaven", Old Saxon and Old High German himil, Old Saxon
and Middle Low German hemmel, Old Dutch and Dutch hemel, and modern German Himmel.
All of these have been derived from a reconstructed Proto-Germanic form *hemina-.
[3] or *hemō.[4]

The further derivation of this form is uncertain. A connection to Proto-Indo-

European *ḱem- "cover, shroud", via a reconstructed *k̑emen- or *k̑ōmen- "stone,
heaven", has been proposed.[5] Others endorse the derivation from a Proto-Indo-
European root *h₂éḱmō "stone" and, possibly, "heavenly vault" at the origin of this
word, which then would have as cognates ancient Greek ἄκμων (ákmōn "anvil, pestle;
meteorite"), Persian ‫( آسمان‬âsemân, âsmân "stone, sling-stone; sky, heaven") and
Sanskrit अश्मन् (aśman "stone, rock, sling-stone; thunderbolt; the firmament").[4] In
the latter case English hammer would be another cognate to the word.

Ancient Near East

See also: Category:Conceptions of heaven and Religions of the ancient Near East
Mesopotamia

Ruins of the Ekur temple in Nippur, believed by the ancient Mesopotamians to be the
"Dur-an-ki", the "mooring-rope" of heaven and earth.[6][7]
Main article: Ancient Mesopotamian religion
The ancient Mesopotamians regarded the sky as a series of domes (usually three, but
sometimes seven) covering the flat Earth.[8] Each dome was made of a different kind
of precious stone.[9] The lowest dome of heaven was made of jasper and was the home
of the stars.[10][11] The middle dome of heaven was made of saggilmut stone and was
the abode of the Igigi.[10][11] The highest and outermost dome of heaven was made
of luludānītu stone and was personified as An, the god of the sky.[12][10][11] The
celestial bodies were equated with specific deities as well.[9] The planet Venus
was believed to be Inanna, the goddess of love, sex, and war.[13][9] The Sun was
her brother Utu, the god of justice, and the Moon was their father Nanna.[9]

In ancient Near Eastern cultures in general and in Mesopotamia in particular,

humans had little to no access to the divine realm.[14][15] Heaven and Earth were
separated by their very nature;[11] humans could see and be affected by elements of
the lower heaven, such as stars and storms,[11] but ordinary mortals could not go
to Heaven because it was the abode of the gods alone.[15][16][11] In the Epic of
Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh says to Enkidu, "Who can go up to heaven, my friend? Only the
gods dwell with Shamash forever."[16] Instead, after a person died, his or her soul
went to Kur (later known as Irkalla), a dark shadowy underworld, located deep below
the surface of the earth.[15][17]

All souls went to the same afterlife,[15][17] and a person's actions during life
had no impact on how he would be treated in the world to come.[15][17] Nonetheless,
funerary evidence indicates that some people believed that Inanna had the power to
bestow special favors upon her devotees in the afterlife.[17][18] Despite the
separation between heaven and earth, humans sought access to the gods through
oracles and omens.[6] The gods were believed to live in Heaven,[6][19] but also in
their temples, which were seen as the channels of communication between Earth and
Heaven, which allowed mortal access to the gods.[6][20] The Ekur temple in Nippur
was known as the "Dur-an-ki", the "mooring-rope" of heaven and earth.[21] It was
widely thought to have been built and established by Enlil himself.[7]

Canaanites and Phoenicians

Main article: Canaanite religion
Almost nothing is known of Bronze Age (pre-1200 BC) Canaanite views of heaven, and
the archaeological findings at Ugarit (destroyed c. 1200 BC) have not provided
information. The first century Greek author Philo of Byblos may preserve elements
of Iron Age Phoenician religion in his Sanchuniathon.[22]

Hurrians and Hittites

Further information: Hittite mythology
The ancient Hittites believed that some deities lived in Heaven, while others lived
in remote places on Earth, such as mountains, where humans had little access.[14]
In the Middle Hittite myths, Heaven is the abode of the gods. In the Song of
Kumarbi, Alalu was king in Heaven for nine years before giving birth to his son,
Anu. Anu was himself overthrown by his son, Kumarbi.[23] [24][25][26]

Abrahamic and Abrahamic-inspired religions

Hebrew Bible
As in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, in the Hebrew Bible, the universe is
commonly divided into two realms: heaven (šāmayim) and earth (’ereṣ).[6] Sometimes
a third realm is added: either "sea",[27] "water under the earth",[28] or sometimes
a vague "land of the dead" that is never described in depth.[29][6] The structure
of heaven itself is never fully described in the Hebrew Bible,[30] but the fact
that the Hebrew word šāmayim is plural has been interpreted by scholars as an
indication that the ancient Israelites envisioned the heavens as having multiple
layers, much like the ancient Mesopotamians.[30] This reading is also supported by
the use of the phrase "heaven of heavens" in verses such as Deuteronomy 10:14,[31]
King 8:27,[32] and 2 Chronicles 2:6.[33][30]

In line with the typical view of most Near Eastern cultures, the Hebrew Bible
depicts Heaven as a place that is inaccessible to humans.[34] Although some
prophets are occasionally granted temporary visionary access to heaven, such as in
1 Kings 22:19-23,[35] Job 1:6-12[36] and 2:1-6,[37] and Isaiah,[38] they hear only
God's deliberations concerning the Earth and learn nothing of what Heaven is like.
[30] There is almost no mention in the Hebrew Bible of Heaven as a possible
afterlife destination for human beings, who are instead described as "resting" in
Sheol.[39][40] The only two possible exceptions to this are Enoch, who is described
in Genesis 5:24[41] as having been "taken" by God, and the prophet Elijah, who is
described in 2 Kings 2:11[42] as having ascended to Heaven in a chariot of fire.
[30] According to Michael B. Hundley, the text in both of these instances is
ambiguous regarding the significance of the actions being described[30] and in
neither of these cases does the text explain what happened to the subject
afterwards.[30]
The God of the Israelites is described as ruling both Heaven and Earth.[43][30]
Other passages, such as 1 Kings 8:27[32] state that even the vastness of Heaven
cannot contain God's majesty.[30] A number of passages throughout the Hebrew Bible
indicate that Heaven and Earth will one day come to an end.[44][30] This view is
paralleled in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, which also regarded Heaven and
Earth as vulnerable and subject to dissolution.[30] However, the Hebrew Bible
differs from other ancient Near Eastern cultures in that it portrays the God of
Israel as independent of creation and unthreatened by its potential destruction.
[30] Because most of the Hebrew Bible concerns the God of Israel's relationship
with his people, most of the events described in it take place on Earth, not in
Heaven.[45] The Deuteronomistic source, Deuteronomistic History, and Priestly
source all portray the Temple in Jerusalem as the sole channel of communication
between Earth and Heaven.[46]

Second Temple Judaism

During the period of the Second Temple (c. 515 BC – 70 AD), the Hebrew people lived
under the rule of first the Persian Achaemenid Empire, then the Greek kingdoms of
the Diadochi, and finally the Roman Empire.[47] Their culture was profoundly
influenced by those of the peoples who ruled them.[47] Consequently, their views on
existence after death were profoundly shaped by the ideas of the Persians, Greeks,
and Romans.[48][49] The idea of the immortality of the soul is derived from Greek
philosophy[49] and the idea of the resurrection of the dead is derived from Persian
cosmology.[49] By the early first century AD, these two seemingly incompatible
ideas were often conflated by Hebrew thinkers.[49] The Hebrews also inherited from
the Persians, Greeks, and Romans the idea that the human soul originates in the
divine realm and seeks to return there.[47] The idea that a human soul belongs in
Heaven and that Earth is merely a temporary abode in which the soul is tested to
prove its worthiness became increasingly popular during the Hellenistic period (323
– 31 BC).[40] Gradually, some Hebrews began to adopt the idea of Heaven as the
eternal home of the righteous dead.[40]

Christianity
Main article: Heaven in Christianity

The Assumption of the Virgin, 1475–76, by Francesco Botticini (National Gallery

London), shows three hierarchies and nine orders of angels, each with different
characteristics.
Descriptions of Heaven in the New Testament are more fully developed than those in
the Old Testament, but are still generally vague.[50] As in the Old Testament, in
the New Testament God is described as the ruler of Heaven and Earth, but his power
over the Earth is challenged by Satan.[40] The Gospels of Mark and Luke speak of
the "Kingdom of God" (Greek: βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ; basileía tou theou), while the
Gospel of Matthew more commonly uses the term "Kingdom of heaven" (Greek: βασιλεία
τῶν οὐρανῶν; basileía tōn ouranōn).[51][52][53][40] Both phrases are thought to
have the same meaning,[54] but the author of the Gospel of Matthew changed the name
"Kingdom of God" to "Kingdom of Heaven" in most instances because it was the more
acceptable phrase in his own cultural and religious context in the late first
century.[55]

Modern scholars agree that the Kingdom of God was an essential part of the
teachings of the historical Jesus.[56][57] In spite of this, none of the gospels
ever record Jesus as having explained exactly what the phrase "Kingdom of God"
means.[57] The most likely explanation for this apparent omission is that the
Kingdom of God was a commonly understood concept that required no explanation.[57]
Jews in Judea during the early first century believed that God reigns eternally in
Heaven,[56][58] but many also believed that God would eventually establish his
kingdom on earth as well.[56][59] This belief is referenced in the first petition
of the Lord's Prayer, taught by Jesus to his disciples and recorded in both
Matthew[60] and Luke 11:2:[61] "Your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as
it is in heaven."[62][63]

Because God's Kingdom was believed to be superior to any human kingdom, this meant
that God would necessarily drive out the Romans, who ruled Judea, and establish his
own direct rule over the Jewish people.[51][59] In the teachings of the historical
Jesus, people are expected to prepare for the coming of the Kingdom of God by
living moral lives.[64] Jesus's commands for his followers to adopt lifestyles of
moral perfectionism are found in many passages throughout the Synoptic Gospels,
particularly in the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7.[65][66] Jesus also taught
that, in the Kingdom of Heaven, there would be a reversal of roles in which "the
last will be first and the first will be last."[67][68] This teaching recurs
throughout the recorded teachings of Jesus, including in the admonition to be like
a child,[69] the Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus in Luke 16,[70] the Parable of
the Workers in the Vineyard in Matthew 20,[71] the Parable of the Great Banquet in
Matthew 22,[72] and the Parable of the Prodigal Son in Luke 15.[73][74]

Traditionally, Christianity has taught that Heaven is the location of the throne of
God as well as the holy angels,[75][76] although this is in varying degrees
considered metaphorical. In traditional Christianity, it is considered a state or
condition of existence (rather than a particular place somewhere in the cosmos) of
the supreme fulfillment of theosis in the beatific vision of the Godhead. In most
forms of Christianity, Heaven is also understood as the abode for the redeemed dead
in the afterlife, usually a temporary stage before the resurrection of the dead and
the saints' return to the New Earth.

The resurrected Jesus is said to have ascended to Heaven where he now sits at the
Right Hand of God and will return to Earth in the Second Coming. Various people
have been said to have entered Heaven while still alive, including Enoch, Elijah
and Jesus himself, after his resurrection. According to Roman Catholic teaching,
Mary, mother of Jesus, is also said to have been assumed into Heaven and is titled
the Queen of Heaven.

In the second century AD, Irenaeus of Lyons recorded a belief that, in accordance
with John 14,[77] those who in the afterlife see the Saviour are in different
mansions, some dwelling in the heavens, others in paradise and others in "the
city".[78]

While the word used in all these writings, in particular the New Testament Greek
word οὐρανός (ouranos), applies primarily to the sky, it is also used
metaphorically of the dwelling place of God and the blessed.[79][80] Similarly,
though the English word "heaven" still keeps its original physical meaning when
used, for instance, in allusions to the stars as "lights shining through from
heaven", and in phrases such as heavenly body to mean an astronomical object, the
heaven or happiness that Christianity looks forward to is, according to Pope John
Paul II, "neither an abstraction nor a physical place in the clouds, but a living,
personal relationship with the Holy Trinity. It is our meeting with the Father
which takes place in the risen Christ through the communion of the Holy
Spirit."[75]

Rabbinical Judaism
Main articles: Heaven in Judaism and Olam Haba
While the concept of Heaven (malkuth hashamaim ‫מלכות השמים‬, the Kingdom of Heaven)
is much discussed in Christian thought, the Jewish concept of the afterlife,
sometimes known as olam haba, the World-to-come, is not discussed so often. The
Torah has little to say on the subject of survival after death, but by the time of
the rabbis two ideas had made inroads among the Jews: one, which is probably
derived from Greek thought,[81] is that of the immortal soul which returns to its
creator after death; the other, which is thought to be of Persian origin,[81] is
that of resurrection of the dead.
Jewish writings[which?] refer to a "new earth" as the abode of mankind following
the resurrection of the dead. Originally, the two ideas of immortality and
resurrection were different but in rabbinic thought they are combined: the soul
departs from the body at death but is returned to it at the resurrection. This idea
is linked to another rabbinic teaching, that men's good and bad actions are
rewarded and punished not in this life but after death, whether immediately or at
the subsequent resurrection.[81] Around 1 CE, the Pharisees are said to have
maintained belief in resurrection but the Sadducees are said to have denied it
(Matt. 22:23).

The Mishnah has many sayings about the World to Come, for example, "Rabbi Yaakov
said: This world is like a lobby before the World to Come; prepare yourself in the
lobby so that you may enter the banquet hall."[82]

Judaism holds that the righteous of all nations have a share in the World-to-come.
[83]

According to Nicholas de Lange, Judaism offers no clear teaching about the destiny
which lies in wait for the individual after death and its attitude to life after
death has been expressed as follows: "For the future is inscrutable, and the
accepted sources of knowledge, whether experience, or reason, or revelation, offer
no clear guidance about what is to come. The only certainty is that each man must
die – beyond that we can only guess."[81]

According to Tracey R. Rich of the website "Judaism 101", Judaism, unlike other
world-religions, is not focused on the quest of getting into heaven but on life and
how to live it.[84]

Islam
Main articles: Heaven in Islam and Paradise in Islam

19th century Persian miniature depicting the artist's impression of heaven

Similar to Jewish traditions such as the Talmud, the Qur'an and Hadith frequently
mention the existence of seven samāwāt (‫)سماوات‬, the plural of samāʾ (‫)سماء‬, meaning
'heaven, sky, celestial sphere', and cognate with Hebrew shamāyim (‫)שמים‬. Some of
the verses in the Qur'an mentioning the samaawat [85] are 41:12, 65:12 and 71:15.
[86] Sidrat al-Muntaha, a large enigmatic Lote tree, marks the end of the seventh
heaven and the utmost extremity for all of God's creatures and heavenly knowledge.
[87]

One interpretation of "heavens" is that all the stars and galaxies (including the
Milky Way) are all part of the "first heaven", and "beyond that six still bigger
worlds are there," which have yet to be discovered by scientists.[88]

According to Shi'ite sources, Ali mentioned the names of the seven heavens as
below:[89]

Rafi' (‫ )رفیع‬the least heaven (‫)سماء الدنیا‬

Qaydum (‫)قیدوم‬
Marum (‫)ماروم‬
Arfalun (‫)أرفلون‬
Hay'oun (‫)هيعون‬
Arous (‫)عروس‬
Ajma' (‫)عجماء‬
Still an afterlife destination of the righteous is conceived in Islam as Jannah
(Arabic: ‫" جنة‬Garden [of Eden]" translated as "paradise"). Regarding Eden or
paradise the Quran says, "The parable of the Garden which the righteous are
promised: Beneath it flow rivers; perpetual is the fruits thereof and the shade
therein. Such is the end of the righteous; and the end of the unbelievers is the
Hellfire."[90] Islam rejects the concept of original sin, and Muslims believe that
all human beings are born pure. Children automatically go to paradise when they
die, regardless of the religion of their parents.

Paradise is described primarily in physical terms as a place where every wish is

immediately fulfilled when asked. Islamic texts describe immortal life in Jannah as
happy, without negative emotions. Those who dwell in Jannah are said to wear costly
apparel, partake in exquisite banquets, and recline on couches inlaid with gold or
precious stones. Inhabitants will rejoice in the company of their parents, spouses,
and children. In Islam if one's good deeds outweigh one's sins then one may gain
entrance to paradise. Conversely, if one's sins outweigh their good deeds they are
sent to hell. The more good deeds one has performed the higher the level of Jannah
one is directed to.

Mystic Ibn Arabi's (13th century) depiction of Seven Paradises (Different from
seven heavens) Diagram of Jannat Futuhat al-Makkiyya, ca. 1238 (photo: after
Futuhat al-Makkiyya, Cairo edition, 1911).
Quran verses which describe paradise include: 13:13, 18:31, 38:49-54, 35:33-35 and
52:17.[91]

The Quran refer to Jannah with different names: Al-Firdaws, Jannātu-′Adn ("Garden
of Eden" or "Everlasting Gardens"), Jannatu-n-Na'īm ("Garden of Delight"), Jannatu-
l-Ma'wa ("Garden of Refuge"), Dāru-s-Salām ("Abode of Peace"), Dāru-l-Muqāma
("Abode of Permanent Stay"), al-Muqāmu-l-Amin ("The Secure Station") and Jannātu-l-
Khuld ("Garden of Immortality"). In the Hadiths, these are the different regions in
paradise.[92]

Ahmadiyya
According to the Ahmadiyya view, much of the imagery presented in the Quran
regarding Heaven, but also Hell, is in fact metaphorical. They propound the verse
which describes, according to them, how the life to come after death is very
different from the life here on Earth. The Quran says: "From bringing in your place
others like you, and from developing you into a form which at present you know
not."[93] According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of Ahmadiyya sect in Islam,
the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on this
earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul,
as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth. On earth, if a
person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes
become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With
this, an "embryonic soul" begins to take shape. Different tastes are said to be
born in which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment. For example,
sacrifice of one's own's rights over that of other's becomes enjoyable, or that
forgiveness becomes second nature. In such a state a person finds contentment and
Peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said
that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape.[94]

Baháʼí Faith
Main article: Baháʼí Faith
The Baháʼí Faith regards the conventional description of heaven (and hell) as a
specific place as symbolic. The Baháʼí writings describe heaven as a "spiritual
condition" where closeness to God is defined as heaven; conversely hell is seen as
a state of remoteness from God. Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, has
stated that the nature of the life of the soul in the afterlife is beyond
comprehension in the physical plane, but has stated that the soul will retain its
consciousness and individuality and remember its physical life; the soul will be
able to recognize other souls and communicate with them.[95]
For Baháʼís, entry into the next life has the potential to bring great joy.[95]
Bahá'u'lláh likened death to the process of birth. He explains: "The world beyond
is as different from this world as this world is different from that of the child
while still in the womb of its mother."[96] The analogy to the womb in many ways
summarizes the Baháʼí view of earthly existence: just as the womb constitutes an
important place for a person's initial physical development, the physical world
provides for the development of the individual soul. Accordingly, Baháʼís view life
as a preparatory stage, where one can develop and perfect those qualities which
will be needed in the next life.[95] The key to spiritual progress is to follow the
path outlined by the current Manifestation of God, which Baháʼís believe is
currently Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'u'lláh wrote, "Know thou, of a truth, that if the soul
of man hath walked in the ways of God, it will, assuredly return and be gathered to
the glory of the Beloved."[97]

The Baháʼí teachings state that there exists a hierarchy of souls in the afterlife,
where the merits of each soul determines their place in the hierarchy, and that
souls lower in the hierarchy cannot completely understand the station of those
above. Each soul can continue to progress in the afterlife, but the soul's
development is not entirely dependent on its own conscious efforts, the nature of
which we are not aware, but also augmented by the grace of God, the prayers of
others, and good deeds performed by others on Earth in the name of that person.[95]

Mandaeism
Main article: World of Light
Mandaeans believe in an afterlife or heaven called Alma d-Nhura (World of Light).
[98] The World of Light is the primeval, transcendent world from which Tibil and
the World of Darkness emerged. The Great Living God (Hayyi Rabbi) and his uthras
(angels or guardians) dwell in the World of Light. The World of Light is also the
source of Piriawis, the Great Yardena (or Jordan River) of Life.[99]

Gnosticism
See also: Pleroma § Gnosticism
The cosmological description of the universe in the Gnostic codex On the Origin of
the World presents seven heavens created by the lesser god or Demiurge called
Yaldabaoth, which are individually ruled over by one of his Archons. Above these
realms is the eighth heaven, where the benevolent, higher divinities dwell. During
the end of days, the seven heavens of the Archons will collapse on each other. The
heaven of Yaldabaoth will split in two and cause the stars in his celestial sphere
to fall.[100]

Chinese religions
Main article: Tian

Chinese Zhou Dynasty Oracle script for tian, the character for "heaven" or "sky".
In the native Chinese Confucian traditions, heaven (Tian) is an important concept,
where the ancestors reside and from which emperors drew their mandate to rule in
their dynastic propaganda, for example.

Heaven is a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophies, and religions, and is

on one end of the spectrum a synonym of Shangdi ("Supreme Deity") and on the other
naturalistic end, a synonym for nature and the sky. The Chinese term for "heaven",
Tian (天), derives from the name of the supreme deity of the Zhou dynasty. After
their conquest of the Shang dynasty in 1122 BC, the Zhou people considered their
supreme deity Tian to be identical with the Shang supreme deity Shangdi.[101] The
Zhou people attributed Heaven with anthropomorphic attributes, evidenced in the
etymology of the Chinese character for heaven or sky, which originally depicted a
person with a large cranium. Heaven is said to see, hear and watch over all men.
Heaven is affected by man's doings, and having personality, is happy and angry with
them. Heaven blesses those who please it and sends calamities upon those who offend
it.[102] Heaven was also believed to transcend all other spirits and gods, with
Confucius asserting, "He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can
pray."[102]

Other philosophers born around the time of Confucius such as Mozi took an even more
theistic view of heaven, believing that heaven is the divine ruler, just as the Son
of Heaven (the King of Zhou) is the earthly ruler. Mozi believed that spirits and
minor gods exist, but their function is merely to carry out the will of heaven,
watching for evil-doers and punishing them. Thus they function as angels of heaven
and do not detract from its monotheistic government of the world. With such a high
monotheism, it is not surprising that Mohism championed a concept called "universal
love" (jian'ai, 兼愛), which taught that heaven loves all people equally and that
each person should similarly love all human beings without distinguishing between
his own relatives and those of others.[103] In Mozi's Will of Heaven (天志), he
writes:

"I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the
moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons,
Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost,
rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk that so the people could
use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys,
and arranged many things to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed
the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather
metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and
flax and silk to provide for the people's food and clothing. This has been so from
antiquity to the present."

Original Chinese: 「且吾所以知天之愛民之厚者有矣，曰以磨為日月星辰，以昭道之；制為四時春秋冬夏，

以紀綱之；雷降雪霜雨露，以長遂五穀麻絲，使民得而財利之；列為山川谿谷，播賦百事，以臨司民之善否；為
王公侯伯，使之賞賢而罰暴；賊金木鳥獸，從事乎五穀麻絲，以為民衣食之財。自古及今，未嘗不有此也。」

Mozi, Will of Heaven, Chapter 27, Paragraph 6, ca. 5th Century BC

Mozi criticized the Confucians of his own time for not following the teachings of
Confucius. By the time of the later Han dynasty, however, under the influence of
Xunzi, the Chinese concept of heaven and Confucianism itself had become mostly
naturalistic, though some Confucians argued that Heaven was where ancestors reside.
Worship of heaven in China continued with the erection of shrines, the last and
greatest being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. The
ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to
heaven, usually by slaughtering two healthy bulls as a sacrifice.

Indian religions
Main article: Devaloka
Buddhism
Main article: Buddhist cosmology

Devas sporting in Heaven. Mural in Wat Bowonniwet

In Buddhism there are several heavens, all of which are still part of samsara
(illusionary reality). Those who accumulate good karma may be reborn[104] in one of
them. However, their stay in heaven is not eternal—eventually they will use up
their good karma and will undergo rebirth into another realm, as a human, animal or
other beings. Because heaven is temporary and part of samsara, Buddhists focus more
on escaping the cycle of rebirth and reaching enlightenment (nirvana). Nirvana is
not a heaven but a mental state.

According to Buddhist cosmology the universe is impermanent and beings transmigrate

through several existential "planes" in which this human world is only one "realm"
or "path".[105] These are traditionally envisioned as a vertical continuum with the
heavens existing above the human realm, and the realms of the animals, hungry
ghosts and hell beings existing beneath it. According to Jan Chozen Bays in her
book, Jizo: Guardian of Children, Travelers, and Other Voyagers, the realm of the
asura is a later refinement of the heavenly realm and was inserted between the
human realm and the heavens. One important Buddhist heaven is the Trāyastriṃśa,
which resembles Olympus of Greek mythology.

In the Mahayana world view, there are also pure lands which lie outside this
continuum and are created by the Buddhas upon attaining enlightenment. Rebirth in
the pure land of Amitabha is seen as an assurance of Buddhahood, for once reborn
there, beings do not fall back into cyclical existence unless they choose to do so
to save other beings, the goal of Buddhism being the obtainment of enlightenment
and freeing oneself and others from the birth-death cycle.

The Tibetan word Bardo means literally "intermediate state". In Sanskrit the
concept has the name antarabhāva.

The lists below are classified from highest to lowest of the heavenly worlds.

Theravada
According to the Aṅguttara Nikāya
Brahmāloka

Here the denizens are Brahmās, and the ruler is Mahābrahmā

After developing the four Brahmavihāras, King Makhādeva rebirths here after death.
The monk Tissa and Brāhmana Jānussoni were also reborn here.

The lifespan of a Brahmās is not stated but is not eternal.

Parinirmita-vaśavartin (Pali: Paranimmita-vasavatti)

The heaven of devas "with power over (others') creations". These devas do not
create pleasing forms that they desire for themselves, but their desires are
fulfilled by the acts of other devas who wish for their favor. The ruler of this
world is called Vaśavartin (Pāli: Vasavatti), who has longer life, greater beauty,
more power and happiness and more delightful sense-objects than the other devas of
his world. This world is also the home of the devaputra (being of a divine race)
called Māra, who endeavors to keep all beings of the Kāmadhātu in the grip of
sensual pleasures. Māra is also sometimes called Vaśavartin, but in general these
two dwellers in this world are kept distinct. The beings of this world are 4,500
feet (1,400 m) tall and live for 9,216,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition).

Nirmāṇarati (Pali: Nimmānaratī)

The world of devas "delighting in their creations". The devas of this world are
capable of making any appearance to please themselves. The lord of this world is
called Sunirmita (Pāli Sunimmita); his wife is the rebirth of Visākhā, formerly the
chief upāsikā (female lay devotee) of the Buddha. The beings of this world are
3,750 feet (1,140 m) tall and live for 2,304,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda
tradition).

Tuṣita (Pali: Tusita)

The world of the "joyful" devas. This world is best known for being the world in
which a Bodhisattva lives before being reborn in the world of humans. Until a few
thousand years ago, the Bodhisattva of this world was Śvetaketu (Pāli: Setaketu),
who was reborn as Siddhārtha, who would become the Buddha Śākyamuni; since then the
Bodhisattva has been Nātha (or Nāthadeva) who will be reborn as Ajita and will
become the Buddha Maitreya (Pāli Metteyya). While this Bodhisattva is the foremost
of the dwellers in Tuṣita, the ruler of this world is another deva called Santuṣita
(Pāli: Santusita). The beings of this world are 3,000 feet (910 m) tall and live
for 576,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition). Anāthapindika, a Kosālan
householder and benefactor to the Buddha's order was reborn here.

Yāma

The denizens here have a lifespan of 144,000,000 years.

Trāyastriṃśa (Pali: Tāvatimsa)

The ruler of this heaven is Indra or Shakra, and the realm is also called
Trayatrimia.

Each denizen addresses other denizens as the title "mārisa".

The governing hall of this heaven is called Sudhamma Hall.

This heaven has a garden Nandanavana with damsels, as its most magnificent sight.

Ajita the Licchavi army general was reborn here. Gopika the Sākyan girl was reborn
as a male god in this realm.

Any Buddhist reborn in this realm can outshine any of the previously dwelling
denizens because of the extra merit acquired for following the Buddha's teachings.

The denizens here have a lifespan of 36,000,000 years.

Cātummahārājika

The heaven "of the Four Great Kings". Its rulers are the four Great Kings of the
name, Virūḍhaka विरुद्धक, Dhṛtarāṣṭra धृतराष्ट्र, Virūpākṣa विरुपाक्ष, and their leader Vaiśravaṇa
वैश्यवर्ण. The devas who guide the Sun and Moon are also considered part of this world,
as are the retinues of the four kings, composed of Kumbhāṇḍas कु म्भाण्ड (dwarfs),
Gandharva गन्धर्व s (fairies), Nāgas (snakes) and Yakṣas यक्ष (goblins). The beings of
this world are 750 feet (230 m) tall and live for 9,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda
tradition) or 90,000 years (Vibhajyavāda tradition).

Mahayana
According to the Śūraṅgama Sūtra
The Form Realm
The First Dhyana, the Second Dhyana, the Third Dhyana and the Fourth Dhyana.
The Third Dhyana
The Heaven of Pervasive Purity
Those for whom the world, the body, and the mind are all perfectly pure have
accomplished the virtue of purity, and a superior level emerges. They return to the
bliss of still extinction, and they are among those in the Heaven of Pervasive
Purity.
The Heaven of Limitless Purity
Those in whom the emptiness of purity manifests are led to discover its
boundlessness. Their bodies and minds experience light ease, and they accomplish
the bliss of still extinction. They are among those in the Heaven of Limitless
Purity.
The Heaven of Lesser Purity
The heavenly beings for whom the perfection of light has become sound and who
further open out the sound to disclose its wonder discover a subtler level of
practice. They penetrate to the bliss of still extinction and are among those in
the Heaven of Lesser Purity.
The Second Dhyana
Those who flow to these levels will not be oppressed by worries or vexations.
Although they have not developed proper samadhi, their minds are pure to the point
that they have subdued their coarser outflows
The Light-Sound Heaven
Those who take in and hold the light to perfection accomplish the substance of the
teaching. Creating and transforming the purity into endless responses and
functions, they are among those in the Light-Sound Heaven.
The Heaven of Limitless Light
Those whose lights illumine each other in an endless dazzling blaze shine
throughout the realms of the ten directions so that everything becomes like
crystal. They are among those in the Heaven of Limitless Light.
The Heaven of Lesser Light
Those beyond the Brahma heavens gather in and govern the Brahma beings, for their
Brahma conduct is perfect and fulfilled. Unmoving and with settled minds, they
produce light in profound stillness, and they are among those in the Heaven of
Lesser Light.
The First Dhyana
Those who flow to these levels will not be oppressed by any suffering or
affliction. Although they have not developed proper samadhi, their minds are pure
to the point that they are not moved by outflows.
The Great Brahma Heaven
Those whose bodies and minds are wonderfully perfect, and whose awesome deportment
is not in the least deficient, are pure in the prohibitive precepts and have a
thorough understanding of them as well. At all times these people can govern the
Brahma multitudes as great Brahma lords, and they are among those in the Great
Brahma Heaven.
The Heaven of the Ministers of Brahma
Those whose hearts of desire have already been cast aside, the mind apart from
desire manifests. They have a fond regard for the rules of discipline and delight
in being in accord with them. These people can practice the Brahma virtue at all
times, and they are among those in the Heaven of the Ministers of Brahma.
The Heaven of the Multitudes of Brahma
Those in the world who cultivate their minds but do not avail themselves of dhyana
and so have no wisdom, can only control their bodies so as to not engage in sexual
desire. Whether walking or sitting, or in their thoughts, they are totally devoid
of it. Since they do not give rise to defiling love, they do not remain in the
realm of desire. These people can, in response to their thoughts, assume the bodies
of Brahma beings. They are among those in the Heaven of the Multitudes of Brahma.
The Six Desire Heavens
The cause for birth in the Six Desire Heavens are the ten virtuous actions.
The Heaven of the Comfort from Others’ Transformations

Those who have no kind of worldly thoughts while doing what worldly people do, who
are lucid and beyond such activity while involved in it, are capable at the end of
their lives of entirely transcending states where transformations may be present
and may be lacking. They are among those born in the Heaven of the Comfort from
Others’ Transformations.
The Heaven of Bliss by Transformation

Those who are devoid of desire, but who will engage in it for the sake of their
partner, even though the flavor of doing so is like the flavor of chewing wax, are
born at the end of their lives in a place of transcending transformations. They are
among those born in the Heaven of Bliss by Transformation.
The Tushita Heaven

Those who practice constant silence, but who are not yet able to control their
impulses when stimulated by contact, ascend at the end of their lives to a subtle
and ethereal place; they will not be drawn into the lower realms. The destruction
of the realms of humans and gods and the obliteration of the kalpas by the three
disasters will not reach them. They are among those born in the Tushita Heaven.
The Suyama Heaven

Those who become temporarily involved when they meet with desire but who forget
about it when it is finished. While in the human realm, one is less active and more
quiet, abiding in light and emptiness where the illumination of sun and moon does
not reach. By the end of their lives, these beings have their own light. They are
among those born in the Suyama Heaven.
The Trayastrimsha Heaven

Those whose sexual love for their wives is slight, but who have not yet obtained
the entire flavor of dwelling in purity, transcend the light of the sun and moon at
the end of their lives, and reside at the summit of the human realm. They are among
those born in the Trayastrimsha Heaven.
The Heaven of the Four Kings

Those with no interest in deviant sexual activity and develop a purity such that
one produces light. When their life ends, they draw near to the sun and moon and
are among those born in the Heaven of the Four Kings.
Ou Yi Zhixu[106] explains that the Shurangama sutra only emphasizes avoidance of
deviant sexual desire, but one would naturally need to abide by the 10 good
conducts to be born in these heavens.

Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan literature classifies the heavenly worlds into 5 major types:

Akanishtha or Ghanavyiiha
This is the most supreme heaven wherein beings that have achieved Nirvana live for
eternity.
Heaven of the Jinas
Heavens of Formless Spirits
These are 4 in number.
Brahmaloka
These are 16 in number, and are free from sensuality.
Devaloka
These are 6 in number, and contain sensuality.
Hinduism
Main article: Hindu cosmology
Attaining heaven is not the final pursuit in Hinduism as heaven itself is ephemeral
and related to physical body. Only being tied by the bhoot-tatvas, heaven cannot be
perfect either and is just another name for pleasurable and mundane material life.
According to Hindu cosmology, above the earthly plane, are other planes: (1) Bhuva
Loka, (2) Swarga Loka, meaning Good Kingdom, is the general name for heaven in
Hinduism, a heavenly paradise of pleasure, where most of the Hindu Devatas (Deva)
reside along with the king of Devas, Indra, and beatified mortals. Some other
planes are Mahar Loka, Jana Loka, Tapa Loka and Satya Loka. Since heavenly abodes
are also tied to the cycle of birth and death, any dweller of heaven or hell will
again be recycled to a different plane and in a different form per the karma and
"maya" i.e. the illusion of Samsara. This cycle is broken only by self-realization
by the Jivatma. This self-realization is Moksha (Turiya, Kaivalya).

The concept of moksha is unique to Hinduism. Moksha stands for liberation from the
cycle of birth and death and final communion with Brahman. With moksha, a liberated
soul attains the stature and oneness with Brahman or Paramatma. Different schools
such as Vedanta, Mimansa, Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Yoga offer subtle
differences in the concept of Brahman, obvious Universe, its genesis and regular
destruction, Jivatma, Nature (Prakriti) and also the right way in attaining perfect
bliss or moksha.
In the Vaishnava traditions the highest heaven is Vaikuntha, which exists above the
six heavenly lokas and outside of the mahat-tattva or mundane world. It's where
eternally liberated souls who have attained moksha reside in eternal sublime beauty
with Lakshmi and Narayana (a manifestation of Vishnu).

In the Nasadiya Sukta, the heavens/sky Vyoman is mentioned as a place from which an
overseeing entity surveys what has been created. However, the Nasadiya Sukta
questions the omniscience of this overseer.

Jainism
Main article: Jain cosmology

Structure of Universe per the Jain Scriptures.

The shape of the Universe as described in Jainism is shown alongside. Unlike the
current convention of using North direction as the top of map, this uses South as
the top. The shape is similar to a part of human form standing upright.

The Deva Loka (heavens) are at the symbolic "chest", where all souls enjoying the
positive karmic effects reside. The heavenly beings are referred to as devas
(masculine form) and devis (feminine form). According to Jainism, there is not one
heavenly abode, but several layers to reward appropriately the souls of varying
degree of karmic merits. Similarly, beneath the "waist" are the Narka Loka (hell).
Human, animal, insect, plant and microscopic life forms reside on the middle.

The pure souls (who reached Siddha status) reside at the very south end (top) of
the Universe. They are referred to in Tamil literature as தென்புலத்தார் (Kural 43).

Sikh religion
Sikhs believe that heaven and hell are also both in this world where everyone reaps
the fruit of karma.[107] They refer to good and evil stages of life respectively
and can be lived now and here during our life on Earth.[108] Bhagat Kabir in the
Guru Granth Sahib rejects the otherworldly heaven and says that one can experience
heaven on this Earth through the company of holy people.

He claims to know the Lord, who is beyond measure and beyond thought; By mere
words, he plans to enter heaven. I do not know where heaven is. Everyone claims
that he plans to go there. By mere talk, the mind is not appeased. The mind is only
appeased, when egotism is conquered. As long as the mind is filled with the desire
for heaven, He does not dwell at the Lord's Feet. Says Kabeer, unto whom should I
tell this? The Company of the Holy is heaven.

— Bhagat Kabir, Guru Granth Sahib 325 [109]

Mesoamerican religions

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Main article: Aztec mythology
The Nahua people such as the Aztecs, Chichimecs and the Toltecs believed that the
heavens were constructed and separated into 13 levels. Each level had from one to
many Lords living in and ruling these heavens. Most important of these heavens was
Omeyocan (Place of Two). The Thirteen Heavens were ruled by Ometeotl, the dual
Lord, creator of the Dual-Genesis who, as male, takes the name Ometecuhtli (Two
Lord), and as female is named Omecihuatl (Two Lady).

Polynesia
Main article: Polynesian mythology
In the creation myths of Polynesian mythology are found various concepts of the
heavens and the underworld. These differ from one island to another. What they
share is the view of the universe as an egg or coconut that is divided between the
world of humans (earth), the upper world of heavenly gods, and the underworld. Each
of these is subdivided in a manner reminiscent of Dante's Divine Comedy, but the
number of divisions and their names differs from one Polynesian culture to another.
[110]

Māori
In Māori mythology, the heavens are divided into a number of realms. Different
tribes number the heaven differently, with as few as two and as many as fourteen
levels. One of the more common versions divides heaven thus:

Kiko-rangi, presided over by the gods Toumau

Waka-maru, the heaven of sunshine and rain
Nga-roto, the heaven of lakes where the god Maru rules
Hauora, where the spirits of newborn children originate
Nga-Tauira, home of the servant gods
Nga-atua, which is ruled over by the hero Tawhaki
Autoia, where human souls are created
Aukumea, where spirits live
Wairua, where spirit gods live while waiting on those in
Naherangi or Tuwarea, where the great gods live presided over by Rehua
The Māori believe these heavens are supported by pillars. Other Polynesian peoples
see them being supported by gods (as in Hawaii). In one Tahitian legend, heaven is
supported by an octopus.

Paumotu, Tuamotus

An 1869 illustration by a Tuomatuan chief portraying nine heavens.

The Polynesian conception of the universe and its division is nicely illustrated by
a famous drawing made by a Tuomotuan chief in 1869. Here, the nine heavens are
further divided into left and right, and each stage is associated with a stage in
the evolution of the earth that is portrayed below. The lowest division represents
a period when the heavens hung low over the earth, which was inhabited by animals
that were not known to the islanders. In the third division is shown the first
murder, the first burials, and the first canoes, built by Rata. In the fourth
division, the first coconut tree and other significant plants are born.[111]

Theosophy
Main article: Theosophy (Blavatskian)
It is believed in Theosophy, founded mainly by Helena Blavatsky, that each religion
(including Theosophy) has its own individual heaven in various regions of the upper
astral plane that fits the description of that heaven that is given in each
religion, which a soul that has been good in their previous life on Earth will go
to. The area of the upper astral plane of Earth in the upper atmosphere where the
various heavens are located is called Summerland (Theosophists believe hell is
located in the lower astral plane of Earth which extends downward from the surface
of the earth down to its center). However, Theosophists believe that the soul is
recalled back to Earth after an average of about 1400 years by the Lords of Karma
to incarnate again. The final heaven that souls go to billions of years in the
future after they finish their cycle of incarnations is called Devachan.[112]

Criticism of the belief in heaven

Anarchist Emma Goldman expressed this view when she wrote, "Consciously or
unconsciously, most theists see in gods and devils, heaven and hell, reward and
punishment, a whip to lash the people into obedience, meekness and
contentment."[113]

Some have argued that a belief in a reward after death is poor motivation for moral
behavior while alive.[114][115] Sam Harris wrote, "It is rather more noble to help
people purely out of concern for their suffering than it is to help them because
you think the Creator of the Universe wants you to do it, or will reward you for
doing it, or will punish you for not doing it. The problem with this linkage
between religion and morality is that it gives people bad reasons to help other
human beings when good reasons are available."[116]

Neuroscience
Many neuroscientists and neurophilosophers, such as Daniel Dennett, believe that
consciousness is dependent upon the functioning of the brain and death is a
cessation of consciousness, which would rule out heaven. Scientific research has
discovered that some areas of the brain, like the reticular activating system or
the thalamus, appear to be necessary for consciousness, because dysfunction of or
damage to these structures causes a loss of consciousness.[117]

In Inside the Neolithic Mind (2005), Lewis-Williams and Pearce argue that many
cultures around the world and through history neurally perceive a tiered structure
of heaven, along with similarly structured circles of hell. The reports match so
similarly across time and space that Lewis-Williams and Pearce argue for a
neuroscientific explanation, accepting the percepts as real neural activations and
subjective percepts during particular altered states of consciousness.

Many people who come close to death and have near-death experiences report meeting
relatives or entering "the Light" in an otherworldly dimension, which shares
similarities with the religious concept of heaven. Even though there are also
reports of distressing experiences and negative life-reviews, which share some
similarities with the concept of hell, the positive experience of meeting or
entering "the Light" is reported as an immensely intense feeling of a state of
love, peace and joy beyond human comprehension. Together with this intensely
positive-feeling state, people who have near-death experiences also report that
consciousness or a heightened state of awareness seems as if it is at the heart of
experiencing a taste of "heaven".[118]

Postmodern views
See also: Mind uploading and Omega Point
[icon]
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Representations in arts
Works of fiction have included numerous different conceptions of Heaven and Hell.
The two most famous descriptions of Heaven are given in Dante Alighieri's Paradiso
(of the Divine Comedy) and John Milton's Paradise Lost.

See also
Baptism
Beatification
Death
God
Hell
Indulgence
Paradise
Penance
Purgatory
Redemption
Saint
Salvation
Servant of God
Venerable
World of Light
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External links

Look up heaven in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Heaven.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Heaven.

Heaven on In Our Time at the BBC
Catechism of the Catholic Church I believe in Life Everlasting Explanation of
Catholic teaching about Heaven, Hell, and Purgatory
Catholic Encyclopedia: Heaven
Jewish Encyclopedia: Heaven
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on heaven and hell
In Films, Heaven’s No Paradise New York Times, Wed. July 22, 2009
Heaven: A fool's paradise, The Independent, April 21, 2010
Swedenborg, E. Heaven and its Wonders and Hell. From Things Heard and Seen
(Swedenborg Foundation, 1946)
Maps of heaven at the "Hell and heaven" subject, the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ
Mode Collection, Cornell University Library
Collection: Heaven, Hell, and Afterlives from the University of Michigan Museum of
Art
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