Terra Mechanics

Terramechanics
• Origin and nature of lunar soil

• Soil mechanics
• Wheel-soil interactions
• Tandem wheel calculations
• Grousers
© 2016 David L. Akin - All rights reserved

http://spacecraft.ssl.umd.edu
UNIVERSITY OF Terramechanics 1
MARYLAND 1
ENAE 788X - Planetary Surface Robotics
Lunar Regolith
• Broken down from larger pieces over time
• Major constituents
– Rock fragments
– Mineral fragments
– Glassy particles
• Local environment
– 10-12 torr (= 1.22x10 -10 Pa = 1.93x10 -14 psi)
– Meteorites at velocities >105 m/sec
– Galactic cosmic rays, solar particles
– Temperature range +250°F – -250°F
MARYLAND 2
Regolith Creation Process
• Only “weathering” phenomenon on the moon is
meteoritic impact!
• Weathering processes
– Comminution: breaking rocks and minerals into smaller
particles
– Agglutination: welding fragments together with molten
glass formed by impact energy
– Solar wind spallation and implantation (miniscule)
– Fire fountaining (dormant)
MARYLAND 3
JSC-1 Simulant
• Ash vented from Merriam Crater in San Francisco
volcano field near Flagstaff, AZ
• K-Ar dated at 150,000 years old ± 30,000
• Major constituents SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, FeO,
MgO, CaO, Na2O, other <1%
• Represents low-Ti regolith from lunar mare
• MLS-1 simulant (U.Minn.) preferred for simulation
of highland material
• BP-1 (Flagstaff, AZ) is ground basaltic lava -
higher fidelity because of angular grain shapes
MARYLAND 4
Particle Size Distribution in Regolith
Rahmatian and Metzger, “Soil Test Apparatus for Lunar Surfaces” Earth and Space 2010, ASCE
MARYLAND 5
Soil Testing Apparatus
Internal friction angle ϕ
Bevameter (force vs. displacement)
Shear deformation modulus K
MARYLAND 6
Soil Characterization – Direct Shear
W T
Shear Stress ⌧ =
A
W
Soil Normal Stress =
T A
cross-section A
Shear Stress ⌧
= angle of internal friction
c = Cohesion
Normal Stress
MARYLAND 7
Modeling Soil Reaction to a Wheel
Assume soil reaction is like a (nonlinear) spring
P = kz n
P = applied pressure
z = compression depth
k, n = heuristic parameters
P
z
MARYLAND 8
Effects of Soil Mechanics
P
Scaled Pressure
Soil Penetration Depth z 0 k
0 2 4 6 8 10
-2
-4
n=0
n=0.5
-6
n=1.0
n=1.5
-8
-10
-12
MARYLAND 9
Lunokhod 1 Penetrometer Data
Mitchell et.al., Mechanical Properties of Lunar Soil: Density, Porosity, Cohesion, and Angle of Internal Friction”
Proceedings of the Third Lunar Science Conference, Vol. 3, MIT Press, 1972
MARYLAND 10
Wheel-Soil Interaction
Wheel rolling over soil does work
– Compression
– “Bulldozing”
from Gibbesch and Schafer, “Advanced and Simulation Methods of Planetary Rover Mobility on Soft Terrain” 8th ESA Workshop
on Advanced Space Technologies for Robotics and Automation, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, November, 2004
MARYLAND 11
Wheel-Soil Interactions
wheel width b
distance rolled d
R
zo
W
area of compressed soil A = bd
E F
Displacement Energy = dz = P dz
A A
zo zo n+1
E z
= P dz = kz dz = k
n o
A 0 0 n+1
MARYLAND 12
Rolling Resistance
E E zon+1
Total Energy A = bd = k bd
A A n+1
Given a force resisting rolling ⌘ R,

the energy required to roll a distance d is
Eroll = Rd
E
Eroll = Edisplacement ) Rd = bd
A
MARYLAND 13
Rolling Resistance
E zo2 1
For n = 1 : P = kz; = k ; R = kbzo2
A 2 2
1 2 2 E 2 32 2 3
For n = : P = k z; = kzo ; R = kbzo2
2 A 3 3
E
For n = 0 : P = k; = kzo ; R = kbzo
A
n+1 n+1
E z z
Generic case: P = kz n ; = k o ; R = kb o
A n+1 n+1
MARYLAND 14
Soil Displacement Calculations
W Z ✓o
wheel width b
R dF sin ✓ = 0
0Z ✓o
R ✓o
✓
W+ dF cos ✓ = 0
zo 0
Fz dF
Fx dF cos ✓ = P b dx
dF = P br d✓
dF sin ✓ = P b dz
Z ✓o Z ✓o
R= P b dz W = P b dx
0 0
In general, P = kxn Z zo
W = bkz n dx
0
MARYLAND 15
wheel width b ¯ D
AB = (zo z)
2
A
D
z ✓ 2
zo B
x
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2  2
2 D ¯ = 2 D D
x = AB (zo z)
2 2 2
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
D D D
= + 2 (zo z) (zo z)2
2 2 2
x2 = [D (zo z)](zo z)
MARYLAND 16
Soil Compression Calculations
But D zo z
x2 ⇡ D(zo z) ) 2x dx = D dz
Z zo Z zo
n n D
so from W = bkz dx we get W = bkz dz
0 0 2x
Z zo ✓ ◆
n D
W = bk z p p dz
0 2 D zo z
Z p !
zo
Ddz
W = bk zn p dz
0 2 zo z
MARYLAND 17
Define zoz ⌘ t2 ) dz = 2tdt
p Z p
zo
W = bk D (zo t2 )n dt
0
Taylor Series expansion (zo t2 )n ⇠
= zon nzon 1 2
t + ···
p
bk Dzo n
W ⇡ zo (3 n)
3
2 p
for n = 1 ) W = bkzo Dzo
3
1 5 p
for n = ) W = bkzo D
2 6
p
for n = 0 ) W = bk Dzo
MARYLAND 18
Rolling Resistance as f(W)
p ✓ ◆2
W 1
for n = 0 ) W = bk Dzo ) zo =
bk D
kb W 2 W2
R = kbzo ) R = 2
)R=
(kb) D kbD
1 5 p 6 W
for n = ) W = bkzo D ) zo = p
2 6 5 bk D
✓ ◆ 32 ✓ ◆ 32 3
2 3 2 6 W 2 6 W2
R = kbzo ) R = kb
2
p = p 3
3 3 5 kb D 3 5 kbD 4
3
W 2
R = 0.876 p 3
kbD 4
MARYLAND 19
Rolling Resistance as f(W)
✓ ◆ 43
2 3 p 3W
for n = 1 ) W = bkzo D)
2
= zo2 p
3 2kb D
✓ ◆ 43 ✓ ◆ 43 ✓ 4
◆ 13
1 2 1 3W 1 3 W
R = kbzo ) R = kb p =
2 2 2kb D 2 2 kbD2
✓ 4
◆ 13
W
R = 0.859
kbD2
MARYLAND 20
Rolling Resistance as f(W) (Generic)
p p
bk Dzo n bk D n+ 12
W = zo (3 n) = zo (3 n)
3 3
n+ 12 3 W
zo = p
(3 n) bk D
✓ ◆ n+11 ✓ ◆ 2(n+1)
3 W n+ W 3 2n+1
zon+1
2
= p
= p
3 n bk D 3 n bk D
✓ ◆ 2(n+1)
bk n+1 bk 3 W 2n+1
R= zo = p
n+1 n + 1 3 n bk D
✓ ◆ 2(n+1) ✓ ◆ 2n+1
1
1 3 W 2n+1
1
R= p
n+1 3 n D bk
MARYLAND 21
More Detailed Soil Compression Equation
kc
k= +k
b
kc = modulus of cohesion of soil deformation
kc units < N/m(n+1) >
k = modulus of friction of soil deformation
k units < N/m(n+2) >
b = wheel width
⇥
kc
P = + k zn
b
MARYLAND 22
Soil Characteristics
N N
soil type n kc n+1
⇥ k n+2
⇥
m m
Dry Sand 1.1 990 1,528,000
Lunar Regolith 1 1400 820,000
Sandy Loam 0.7 5270 1,515,000

Sandy Loam
1 28,000 7,600,000
(MER-B)
Slope Soil 
(MER-B)
0.8 6800 210,000
Clay (Earth) 0.5 13,190 692,200

MARYLAND 23
Terzaghi Analysis of Soil Deformation
MARYLAND 24
Terzaghi Soil Bearing Capacity Factors
⇥ 3⇡
⇤
exp 2 ⇣ tan
Nq = ⌘
⇡
2 cos2 4 + 2
8 9
< exp ⇥ 3⇡
tan
⇤ =
2 ⇣ ⌘
Nc = cot 1 = cot (Nq 1)
: 2 cos2 ⇡
+ ;
4 2
✓ ◆
2 2 ⇡
Kp = 8 4 + 3.8 tan +
3 2
✓ ◆
1 Kp
N = 1 tan
2 cos2
= Angle of internal resistance of soil

MARYLAND 25
Parameter Definition
Kc ⌘ Modulus of density of soil deformation
Kc = (Nc tan ) cos2
K ⌘ Modulus of cohesion of soil deformation

2N
K = + 1 cos2
tan
↵ ⌘ Angle of approach of wheel to soil
✓ ◆
1 2z
↵ = cos 1
D
✓ ◆
N
⌘ Weight density of soil
m3
MARYLAND 26
Soil Bearing Limit
Safe weight on the soil
✓ ◆
1
Ws = A cNc + zNq + bN
2
c ⌘ Soil cohesion (P a)
b ⌘ Wheel width (m)
MARYLAND 27
Equations for Compression Resistance
 2
3Ww 2n+1
z= p
(3 n)bk d
Ww = weight on wheel
d = wheel diameter
⇥
bk
Rc = z n+1
n+1
Rc = compression resistance (per wheel)
MARYLAND 28
Soil Compression – Reece Formulation
Shear Stress ⌧
= angle of internal friction
c = Cohesion ✓ ◆
kc
Normal Stress P = +k zn
b
Problem is that kc and k have variable dimensions,

based on n
kc units < N/m(n+1) >
k units < N/m(n+2) >
MARYLAND 29
Compression Resistance (Lunar Soil)
⇥ 2(n+1)
1 1 3Ww 2n+1
Rc = (kc + bk ) 2n+1 ⇥
n+1 (3 n) d
n=1
kc = 0.14 N/cm2
k = 0.827 N/cm3
⇥ 43
1 1 3Ww
Rc = (kc + bk ) 3
2 2 d
MARYLAND 30
Compression Resistance (Lunar Soil)
⇥ 2(n+1)
1 1 3Ww 2n+1
Rc = (kc + bk ) 2n+1 ⇥
n+1 (3 n) d
n=1
kc = 0.14 N/cm2
k = 0.827 N/cm3
⇥ 43
1 1 3Ww
Rc = (kc + bk ) 3
2 2 d
Rc = 20.89 N/wheel = 83.57 N (total)
MARYLAND 31
Lunar Regolith Soil Properties
Symbol Description Value Used in
n Exponent of sinkage 1.0 EVERYTHING
kc Cohesive modulus of soil deformation 1400 N/m2 Rc, Rb, H
kф Frictional modulus of soil deformation 820,000 N/m3 Rc, Rb, H
θ Slope angle Rg
Cf Coefficient of friction 0.05 Rr
γ Soil density 1.6 g/cm3 Rb
Co Cohesive strength of soil 0.017 N/cm2 H

ф Angle of internal friction 30-40 degrees Rb
K Coefficient of soil Slip 1.8 cm H
s slip 0.02 – 0.05 H
MARYLAND 32
Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle Example
⇥ 23
3 253
z= ⇥ = 2.03 cm
2(0.14 + 17.4 0.827) 82
⇥ 43
1 1 3 253
Rc = (0.14 + 17.4 0.827) 3 ⇥ = 29.8 N
2 2 82
check units -
1/3
⇥ 4/3
⇥
N N
2/3
=N
cm cm2/3
MARYLAND 33
Rolling and Gravitation Resistance
• Rolling resistance (tires, bearings, etc.)
Rr = Wv cf
Wv = weight of vehicle
cf = coefficient of friction (typ. 0.05)
• Gravitational resistance
Rg = Wv sin slope
• LRV examples (15° slope)

Rr = 51 N Rg = 262 N
MARYLAND 34
Bulldozing Resistance
General case:
b sin (↵ + ) All angles in radians!
Rb = 2zcKc + z 2 K
2 sin ↵ cos  ✓ ◆
`3o ⇣ ⇡ ⌘ ⇡
+ + c`2o
1 + tan +
3 2 4 2
⇥
2z
= angle of attack of wheel in soil ⇥ cos 1
1
D
⇥ ✓ ◆
kg 2 ⇡
= density of soil `o = z tan
m3 4 2
For tracked vehicles, only the first term applies:
b sin (↵ + )
Rb = 2zcKc + z 2 K
2 sin ↵ cos
MARYLAND 35
Tandem Wheels
W1
W2
D1
D2 ✓0
✓1 ✓02
z1
z0 z2
z0 = z1 + z2
1 p
Assume n = =) P = k z
2
p p
P1 = k z 1 P2 = k z 1 + z 2
MARYLAND 36
Soil Weight Bearing Analysis
In general,
Z ✓0 Z ✓0
W = dF cos ✓ = P b ds cos ✓
0 0
Z ✓0 p
W = bk z cos ✓ ds
0
ds = r d✓ z = r(cos ✓ cos ✓0 )
Z ✓0 p
W = bkr r(cos ✓ cos ✓0 ) cos ✓ d✓
0
MARYLAND 37
Generic Wheel Soil Suspension
Assuming small sinkage,
z ! small, ✓ ! small,
cos ✓ ⇡ 1 cos ✓ d✓ ⇡ d✓
✓2
cos ✓ ⇡ 1 + (higher order terms)
2
3/2 Z ✓0 q
bkr
W = p ✓02 ✓2 d✓
2 0
3/2
 ✓ ◆ q ✓0
bkr 1 2 1 ✓
W = p ✓0 sin + ✓ ✓02 ✓2
2 2 ✓0 0
MARYLAND 38
Weight on the Front Wheel
⇡bkr3/2 2
W = p ✓0
4 2
Front wheel: z1 = r1 r1 cos ✓0
✓ ◆
✓02 ⇠ z1
z1 = r 1 r1 1 + ··· =) ✓02 =2
2 r1
p
⇠ ⇡bkz1 r1
W1 = p
2 2
MARYLAND 39
Weight on Back Wheel
Change to limits of integration:
0 ! ✓ 0 , r ! r2
3/2 Z ✓0 q
bkr2 2
W2 = p ✓02 ✓2 d✓
2 0
q ✓ 2
◆
2 ⇠ 1 ✓
✓02 ✓2 = ✓02 1 2 + ···
2 ✓02
Z ✓0 q ✓ ◆
1 ✓13 1 ✓12
2
✓02 ✓2 d✓ ⇠
= ✓02 ✓1 = ✓02 ✓1 1 2
⇠
= ✓02 ✓1
0 6 ✓02 6 ✓02
MARYLAND 40
Weight on Back Wheel
bkr3/2
W2 = p ✓02 ✓1
2
2 2
✓ ✓
z0 ⇠
= r2 02 z2 ⇠
= r2 1
2 2
r r
⇠ z0 ⇠ z2
✓02 = 2 ✓1 = 2
r2 r2
p p
W2 = bk 2r2 z0 z2
MARYLAND 41
Track Depth of Tandem Wheels
p
2 2W1
Front: z1 = p
⇡bk r1
 2
W2 1
Back: z2 = p p
bk 2r2 z0
p
2 2W1 W22 1
z0 = z1 + z2 = p +
⇡bk r1 (bk)2 2r2 z0
Much algebra then ensues...

p 2
2 2W 1 W 2
z02 p z0 + 2
=0
⇡bk r1 (bk) 2r2
MARYLAND 42
Rolling Resistance of Tandem Wheels
Solve the quadratic equation to get
0 s 1
p
1 @ 2W1 2W12 W22 A
z0 = p + 2
+
bk ⇡ r1 ⇡ r1 2r2
1 2 3/2
This was all done for n = =) R = bkz0
2 3
0 s 13/2
p
2 1 @ 2W1 2W12 W22 A
R= p p + 2
+
3 bk ⇡ r1 ⇡ r1 2r2
0 s 13/2
2 1 @ 2W1 4W12 W22 A
R= p p + 2
+
3 bk ⇡ D1 ⇡ D1 D2
MARYLAND 43
Nondimensional Forms
W1
Total wheel load W = W1 + W2 Wheel weight ratio a ⌘
W2
W
For W1 = W2 = =) a = 1
2
a 1
W1 = W W2 = W
1+a 1+a
0 s 13/2
2 1 W 3/2 @ 2a 4a2 1 A
R= 3/2
p p + 2
+
3 (a + 1) bk ⇡ D1 ⇡ D1 D2
D1
Define wheel diameter ratio ⇢ ⌘
D2
MARYLAND 44
Nondimensional Forms
s !3/2
2 1 W 3/2 2a 4a2
R= 3/2 3/4 p p + 1+ 2
3 (a + 1) D bk ⇡ ⇢ ⇡ ⇢
2
s !3/2
2 1 2a 4a2
Let ⇠ ⌘ p + 1+ 2
3 (a + 1)3/2 ⇡ ⇢ ⇡ ⇢
⇠ W 3/2
R= p
bk D23/4
MARYLAND 45
Simple Example Case
Consider ⇢ = 1 (D1 = D2 = D)
✓ ◆
W
a=1 W1 = W2 =
2
0.580 W 3/2
For tandem wheels, R = p
bk D23/4
0.876 W 3/2
For single wheel (n=1/2), R = p
bk D23/4
Tandem wheels reduce rolling resistance by 34%
MARYLAND 46
Dual Wheels
Equivalent to single wheel case twice as wide b =) 2b
0.876 1 W 3/2
R= p p
2 bk D23/4
0.619 W 3/2
Rdual = p
bk D23/4
Dual wheel rolling resistance 29% less than single,

7% higher than tandem
MARYLAND 47

Terra Mechanics

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Terra Mechanics

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Terramechanics

• Origin and nature of lunar soil

© 2016 David L. Akin - All rights reserved

Internal friction angle ϕ

Bevameter (force vs. displacement)

Shear deformation modulus K

Given a force resisting rolling ⌘ R,

Lunar Regolith 1 1400 820,000

Sandy Loam 0.7 5270 1,515,000

Clay (Earth) 0.5 13,190 692,200

= Angle of internal resistance of soil

Rc = compression resistance (per wheel)

Problem is that kc and k have variable dimensions,

Symbol Description Value Used in

n Exponent of sinkage 1.0 EVERYTHING

kc Cohesive modulus of soil deformation 1400 N/m2 Rc, Rb, H

kф Frictional modulus of soil deformation 820,000 N/m3 Rc, Rb, H

Cf Coefficient of friction 0.05 Rr

γ Soil density 1.6 g/cm3 Rb

Co Cohesive strength of soil 0.017 N/cm2 H

• LRV examples (15° slope)

Much algebra then ensues...

Tandem wheels reduce rolling resistance by 34%

Dual wheel rolling resistance 29% less than single,

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