The Philosophy of Research

Prof. Dr. Mohd Dahlan A. Malek

Faculty of Psychology & Education
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH
Mohd Dahlan A. Malek
u PhD in (Science) Psychology, University Of Aberdeen,
United Kingdom
u Post Graduate Diploma, Research Method (Psychology),
University Of Aberdeen, United Kingdom
u Professional Certification, Psychological Assessment,
California State College-Dominguez Hill, USA
u Master (Industrial and Organizational Psychology) Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)
u Bachelor's Degree (Hons.), Psychology, International Islamic
University (UIA)
u Bachelor's Degree (Hons.), Islamic Revealed Knowledge
and Heritage, International Islamic University (UIA)
 PROFESSIONAL AFFILIATIONS

u American Psychological Association, Division

38, Health Psychology, Member 2010-Present
u American Psychological Association, Division
36, Psychology of Religion, Member, 2010-
Present
u International Association of Applied
Psychology, Member, 2010-Present
u Malaysian Psychological Association
(PERSIMA), Member, 1997-Present.

Prof Dr Mohd Dahlan

A Malek
u Editorial Board for Journal Kinabalu
u Editor Board Jurnal Mitra Indonesia
u Editorial Board Malaysia Journal of Social Science and
Humanities
u Editorial Board International Journal Social and Economic
research
u Editorial of Asian People Journal
Reviewer for Journal of Traumatic Stress, John Wiley & Sons Inc
Reviewer for the International Journal of Cross Cultural
Management: Thousand Oaks, Ca 91320: Sage Publications.
Reviewer for the International Journal of Wildland Fire (IJWF), the
journal of the International Association of Wildland Fire.
Reviewer for The International Perspectives in Psychology:
Research, Practice, & Consultation. International Perspectives
in Psychology: Research, Practice, & Consultation.
External examiner PhD Thesis-University of Victoria, Melbourne,
Australia, UTM, UKM, UniMap, USM etc.
Asean Leadership Award
2018
Philosophy of Research
u Philosophy is the study of general and
fundamental problems concerning
matters such as existence, knowledge,
values, reason, mind, and language
u Research can be defined as the search
for knowledge or any systematic
investigation to establish facts.
Philosophy of Research
u Why
u How
u When
u What
u Research Problem
u Objectives
u Hypothesis
u analyses
u results
u Discussion
u Contribution to knowledge
PHILOSOPHY OF
RESEARCH

When you start doing academic

research you need to grip with
some basic concepts of research
philosophy.
Understanding the Philosophy of
the research
u The preparation of mental and physical
u Time Management
u Family
u Financial
u Materials and the references
u Procedure of the university/postgraduate
procedure/scholarship/UMS Great etc
u PhD (Permanent Head Damage?)
 Understanding research philosophies and
approaches

u By end of this session you should be able to:

u Define the key terms ontology, epistemology and explain their
relevance to your research;
u Explain the relevance for your research of philosophical
perspectives such as positivism, realism, pragmatism, and
interpretivism;
u Understand the main research paradigms which are
significant for your research;
u Distinguish between main research approaches; deductive
and inductive;
u State your own epistemological and axiological positions.
Research

u Research can be defined as the

search for knowledge or any
systematic investigation to establish
facts.
u PhD
u Master
What is Research?
u The Longman dictionary (1995) defines research as “the
studious (spending a lot of time studying or reading) study
of a subject, that is intended to discover new facts or test
new ideas; the activity of finding information about
something that one is interested in or needs to know about”
u The process of finding solutions to a problem after a
thorough ( completely) study and analysis (Sekaran,2006)
u Systematic inquiry that provides information to guide
decision (Cooper & Schindler, 2001)
u Is research always problem-solving based? Yes.
uResearch Methods and
Statistics are tools.

uConcern is:
• How to use them?
• When to use them?
What is Scientific Research

u Application of scientific method to the

investigation of relationships among natural
phenomenon, or to solve a medical or
technical problem.
u The scientific method is the means by which
researchers are able to make conclusive
statements about their studies with a
minimum of bias.
What is Science?
uScience is not a state;
uBut a process by which
one establishes
knowledge or obtains
information.
 Ways of Knowing (Kerlinger,
1986)

1. Method of Tenacity/drive (Always Believed)

2. Method of Intuition/feeling (Feels Good)
3. Method of Authority (Respected Source)

4. Method of Science )
(Empirical/Objective
What are the Goals
of Science?
Goals of Science:

1. Description
2. Explanation
3. Prediction
4. Control
Description
uTryto characterize how
people and other living
beings think, feel, or act in
various kinds of situations.

uWhat happens? When and

where does it happen? How
does it happen?
Explanation
uTryto understand why living
beings think, feel, or act as
they do.

uWhy does it happen?

Prediction

uAttempt to predict behavior,

based on available
information about past
performance.

uWhat will happen next?

Control
uSeek to influence behavior.

uHow can we influence this

behavior or intervene in this
situation?
 Philosophy of Research

u You probably think of research as

something very abstract and
complicated.
u PhD
u MA
u BA
u Process
Structure of Research

u Most research projects share the same

general structure
u The research process usually starts with a
broad area of interest, the initial problem
that the researcher wishes to study
Structure of Research
 Understand the Problem
STAGE 1:
RESEARCH
DEFINITION Identify Questions

Refine/Revise Questions

STAGE 2:
RESEARCH
PLAN/DESIGN Choose Design

Determine Trade-offs Inventory Resources

Assess Feasibility
Ethical Issues

uPhd/MA is a process
uEthic form
uResearch-
FRGS/SDK/SBK
Ethical Standards
u APA Ethics Code
u applies to all psychologists
(including students)
u ethical standards for
uresearch
utherapy
uteaching

uadministration
u solve ethical dilemmas
steps
1. Identified research problem
2. Develop hypothesis
3. Definition –concept & operation
(variables)
4. Observation- data collection-
survey/experiment/case study etc
5. Analysis data
6. Discussion-interpretation
Underlying issues of data collection and
analysis
The research ‘onion’

Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2006

Research philosophy

‘Research philosophy’ is an over-arching term relating to

the development of knowledge and the nature of that
knowledge’ Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)

Refers to the progress of scientific practice based on

people’s philosophies and assumptions about the world
and the nature of knowledge

A paradigm is ‘a basic set of beliefs’ that guide action.

Paradigms offer a framework comprising an accepted set
of theories, methods, and ways of defining data
u Research philosophy relates to the
development of knowledge and the
nature of that knowledge
u It
contains important assumptions
about the way in which you view the
world
Why does the approach matter?

Whether you take a scientific (positivistic) or

Constructivist approach will influence:

u What research questions you ask

u What methods you use to collect your data
u What type of data you collect
u What techniques you use to analyse your data

Maylor and Blackmon (2005)

Epistemology, Ontology
and Methodology
• Epistemology: To do with our beliefs about how one
might discover knowledge about the world

• Ontology: To do with our assumptions about how

the world is made up and the nature of things

• Methodology: To do with the tools and techniques

of research

• Relationship of the three: Epistemological and

ontological positions should have some bearing on
the methods that you select for your research
What is Epistemology

u The study of our method of acquiring knowledge.

u The explanation of how we think.
u It answers the question, "How do we know?" I
u It encompasses the nature of concepts, the
constructing of concepts, the validity of the
senses, logical reasoning, as well as thoughts, ideas,
memories, emotions, and all thingsmental.
u It is concerned with how our minds are related to
reality, and whether these relationships are valid or
invalid.
Epistemology

u Epistemology comes from the Greek words

episteme (knowledge) and it is a branch of
philosophy that deals with the ratio, origin and
scope of knowledge
u It attempts to answer the basic question of what
distinguishes true (adequate) knowledge from
false (inadequate) knowledge.
u It relates to truth and belief.
Importance of Epistemology

To determine the true from the false by determining a proper

method of evaluation.
Key Elements of a Proper Epistemology

What are the key elements of a proper Epistemology?

u Senses are used to gain information about the world.
u Reason is the method of gaining knowledge, and
acquiring understanding.
u Logic is the method of maintaining consistency within
the set of knowledge.
u Objectivity is the means of associating knowledge with
reality to determine its validity.
u Concepts are abstracts of specific details of reality, or of
other abstractions. A proper epistemology is a rational
epistemology.
Knowledge Acquisition

It involves complex cognitive processes:

Perception
Communication
Association
Reasoning
What is knowledge
u Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something, which can
include information, facts, descriptions, or skills acquired through
experience or education.

u Plato defined knowledge as "justified true belief."

u Theoretical or practical understanding of a subject.

u Implicit knowledge (as with practical skill or expertise)

u Explicit knowledge (as with the theoretical understanding of a

subject)
Defining Knowledge

u Knowledge is sometimes considered as justified

true belief.
u However this is insufficient because one must
have a reason or justification for that belief.
u There are situations in which a belief may be
justified and true and yet not as knowledge
u Knowledge is distinct from belief and opinion.
u In philosophy, the study of knowledge is called
epistemology
What is an Ontology
• Ontology is the study or concern about what kinds
of things exist.
• Ontology comes from the Greek words onto
which means something that exists, and logos
which means logical knowledge.
• Definition: An ontology may take a variety of
forms, but necessarily it will include a vocabulary
of terms, and some specification of their meaning.
This includes definitions and an indication of how
concepts are inter-related which collectively
impose a structure on the domain and constrain
the possible interpretations of terms
What is an Ontology -
Cont
• Gruber defines an ontology as “the
specification of conceptualisations,
used to help programmes and humans
share knowledge
• The conceptualiztion is the couching of
knowledge about the world in terms of
entitities (things, the relationships they
hold and the constraints between
them)
• Explaining / describing in terms of
etimology, terminology, philosophy of
the research variables, research title,
 Ontology: ways of
constructing reality, “how
things really are” and “how
things really work”.. Denzin
and Lincoln, (1998; 201)
Ontology

Methodology: What
tools do we use to know
that reality?
Research Paradigm Epistemology:
different forms of
knowledge of that
reality, what nature
Methodology Epistemology of relationship exists
between the inquirer
and the inquired?
How do we know?
Research Paradigms

Positivism - Quantitative discovery of the laws that govern

behavior

Constructivist - Qualitative understandings from an insider

perspective
Definition research paradigms

‘A way of examining social phenomenon from which particular

understandings of these phenomena can be gained and
explanations attempted’ Saunders et al. (2009)

Positivism - the discovery of laws or antecedents or factors

affecting behaviour or phenomenon
Constructivist- researchers acts as ‘social actors’ ; attempt to
understand
Selection of Research
Paradigm and research
Research paradigm: Positivism
Research Approach: Quantitative
Research Methods: Survey, longitudinal, cross-
sectional, correlation, experiments
Examples: Attitude of foreign students towards UTM
registration system, Relationship between
studentʼs financial position and their academic
performance, Effect of emotional intelligence on
learning effectiveness.
Selection of Research Paradigm and research
methods (2)

Research paradigm: Anti positivism

Research Approach: Qualitative
Research methods: Biographical,
phenomenological, ethnological, case-study
Examples: A study of autobiography of Ibn Khaldun
or Ahmad Nejad or Zia ul-Haq, A study of
effective management among female
managers, A case-study of UTM distance learning
programme.
Selection of Research Paradigm and
research methods (3)

Research paradigm: Critical Theory

Research Approach: Critical and Action-oriented
Research methods: ideology critique and action
research
Examples: A study of industrial development in
Malaysia during the Mahathirʼs time; A study class
absenteeism among Muslim students during the
month of Ramadan.
Types of Research

Applied Research

Applying the result of research finding to solve specific

problem happening in an organization. The aim is to solve
current problem

Basic Research
Enhancing the understanding of certain problem that
commonly occur in organization setting and seek method of
solving them. The aim is to generate knowledge, understand
phenomena/problem that occur in various organization
setting
Scientific Research
} Provides scientific information and theories
} Follows a certain structural process though the step order may
vary depending on the subject matter and researcher
} The following steps are usually part of the most formal
research both basic and applied
} Observations and Formation of the topic
} Hypothesis
} Conceptual definitions
} Operational definition
} Gathering of data
} Analysis of data
} Test, reviving of hypothesis
} Conclusion
Research Mehtods

u The goal of the research process is to produce

new knowledge.
u This process takes three main forms
1.Exploratory research which structures and identifies
new problems
2.Constructive research which develops solutions to
a problem
3.Empirical research which tests the feasibility of a
solution using empirical evidence.
Level of Research

u PhD : Theoretical Gap: Improving the latest

theory on research focus; There is contribution of
new knowledge.

u Master: Empirical gap: Application of tested

theoretical framework to solve current problems.
Research Process

Step 1 - Choose your topic.

Step 2 - Find basic information.
Step 3 - Refine your topic.
Step 4 - Locate and retrieve materials.
Step 5 - Evaluate relevancies of materials.
Step 6 - Take notes.
Step 7 - Construct your project. Writing
Research paradigms The Positivistic Approach

Define your research topic

Literature review
Define your research question(s)
i.e. hypothesis

Deduction Design data collection

Pilot study
Design data analysis

Collect data

Analyse data

Interpret results

Report your findings

Adapted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005)

Deduction
Research paradigms The Induction Approach

Define your research topic

Literature review
Define your research question(s)

Design data collection

Inductive

Collect data

Analyse data Literature review

Interpret data

Research question answered?

Report your findings

Adapted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005)

Induction
 Choosing your research approach

The right choice of approach helps Things worth considering

you to:
• The nature of the research
topic
u Make a more informed decision about
the research design • The time available

• The extent of risk

u Think about which strategies will work
for your research topic
• The research audience –
managers and markers
u Adapt your design to cater for any
constraints

Adapted from Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)

Comparing research approaches
Comparing Approaches

Characteristic Positivism Constructivism

What? Why?
Questions that can be answered How much? How?

Direct observation,
Survey, Interviews,
Associated methods Experiment Participant observation

Data type Predominantly numbers Predominantly words

Finding Measure Meaning

Adapted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005)

Combining research approaches
MULTIPLE-METHODS
APPROACH
Triangulation:
Applying 2 or more dissimilar
measures and/or methods
(research strategies) to
investigating a certain problem.
Why do it:
increased confidence in
findings
Multiple methods can also be used
within a single approach:
- allows exploiting the strengths &
weaknesses of complementary
methods.
Example:
• One approach (survey method), but
mail questionnaire to probability
sample, & face-to-face interviews on
smaller sample of non-respondents,
to estimate non-response bias.
• experimental designs in survey
research;
• Use of archival records to identify
groups for field research …
Multi-method approaches

Advantages:
u To use different methods for different purposes in a
study
u To enable triangulation

How do I know which method to use?

Research strategies

u Experiment
u Survey
u Case study
u Grounded theory
u Ethnography
u Action research
u Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
u Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studies
Questionnaires

Group Administration
Self Administration

Mail Administration
Email Administration

Household Drop-Off
Delivery and collection
Interviews
u Structured interviews
u Semi-structured interviews
u Unstructured interviews (in-depth)

u Standardized interviews
u Non-standardized interviews

u Respondent interviews
u Informant interviews
Credibility of research findings

1. Reliability
u Will the results be the same in other occasions
u Similar observations reached by other observers
u Transparency of the raw data

2.Validity
u If findings are really about what they appear to be about

3. Generalizability (external validity) – findings equally applicable to

other research settings
Data Analysis Process
Analyzing Quantitative - Survey Data

Descriptive
Do you want to report… Statistics
u how many people answered
a, b, c, d? • Normality
u the average number or score? • Reliability
u a change in score between
two points in time?
• Validity
u how people compared?
u how many people reached a
certain level?
Common descriptive statistics

Basic Demographic Analysis

u Count (frequencies) For Hypothesis Testings require
u Percentage • Statistical Tools
Mean
u
ü SPSS, AMOS Structural
u Mode
u Median
Equation Modeling (SEM)
u Range § Statistical Significance
u Standard deviation § Factor Analysis
u Variance § Regression and Correlation
u Ranking
Analyses

• Require randomization, large

samples, and/or control
groups
Getting your data ready

u Assign a unique identifier

Data Entry By Computer
u Organize and keep all forms
(questionnaires, interviews,
• Excel (spreadsheet)
testimonials) • Microsoft Access
u Check for completeness and (database
accuracy management)
u Remove those that are • Quantitative analysis:
incomplete or do not make SPSS (statistical
sense
software)
u You can enter your data
• Qualitative analysis:
u By hand NViVo, etc.
u By computer
u Google Doc
u Survey monkey
DATA ANALYSIS:NORMALITY

§ Normality test examine data from normal distribution -

examine the central tendency and dispersion

§ Tests for Mean, Standard Deviation, Skewness and

Kurtosis.

§ Data must be multivariate normality to avoid biased result

(Sekaran, 2003)

§ Data Normality if value of skewness and kurtosis = +-1

(Hisham, 2008)
DATA ANALYSIS: RELIABILITY

§ To examine the consistency of respondents in answering

the questionnaire items.

§ Construct reliability measure the degree to which the

items were free from random error to produce consistent
results (Sekaran, 2003).

§ Cronbach’s alpha - used in testing consistency reliability

between items that is used for multipoint-scaled items
Likert scale. .

§ Cronbach alpha value of 0.5 and higher is considered

sufficient in determining reliability of the item (Sekaran,
2003).
DATA ANALYSIS: VALIDITY

§ Each constructs tested for discriminant validity

§ Discriminant validity measures whether one variable is

internally correlated, unique and distinct from other
variables (Tong, 2007).

§ A correlation value of 0.5 shows distinct, whereas a

correlation value of 0.8 and higher shows a lower
distinct.
Structural Equation Model (SEM)
AMOS IBM
• Structural equation • Introduction
modeling (SEM), as a
concept, is a • Path Analysis
combination of • Basic Concepts of
statistical techniques Factor Analysis
such as exploratory • Model Constructing
factor analysis and ▫ Model hypotheses
multiple regression. ▫ Model specification
• The purpose of SEM is ▫ Model identification
to examine a set of ▫ Model estimation
relationships between
one or more
Independent Variables
(IV) and one or more
Dependent Variables
(DV).
Structural Equation Model (SEM)
AMOS IBM

• Structural equation modeling (SEM), as a • Path Analysis

concept, is a combination of statistical
techniques such as exploratory factor • Basic Concepts of Factor Analysis
analysis and multiple regression. • Model Constructing
• The purpose of SEM is to examine a set of
relationships between one or more ▫ Model hypotheses
Independent Variables (IV) and one or ▫ Model specification
more Dependent Variables (DV).
▫ Model identification
▫ Model estimation

AGE
r
EDUCATION TASK

WILL

Exxample : Path Analysis

Shows Direct and indirect effect
Basic Concepts of Factor Analysis

Figure 2.
Example
Exploratory Factor
Model
(Nokelainen, 1999.)
Ensuring Validity in Qualitative Analysis

u Be systematic
u Use multiple raters
u Attend to context (e.g. keep track of who said what)
u Account for outlying and surprising statements
u Triangulate
Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data

u Qualitative data is thick in detail and description.

u Data often in a narrative format
u Data often collected by observation, open-ended
interviewing, document review
u Analysis often emphasizes understanding phenomena
as they exist, not following pre-determined hypotheses
Analyzing Qualitative data

“Content analysis” steps:

1. Transcribe data (if audio taped)
2. Read transcripts
3. Highlight quotes and note why important
4. Code quotes according to margin notes
5. Sort quotes into coded groups (themes)
6. Interpret patterns in quotes
7. Describe these patterns - themes
Hand coding
qualitative data
PhD
…Revisions and revisions
Conclusion

u Understanding the philosophy of the research

u The Research of PhD/Master is the PROCESS
Literature Review
Philosophy of Research

u Philosophy is the study of general and

fundamental problems concerning matters such
as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind,
and language
Research

u Research can be defined as the search for

knowledge or any systematic investigation to
establish facts.
u The originality of work
u Normally the examiners will ask what is your
research GAP
u A research gap is defined as a topic or area for
which missing or insufficient information limits the
ability to reach a conclusion for a question.
A research need is defined as a gap that limits the
ability of decision-makers (policy-makers, patients,
practitioners) from making decisions.
What is
literature???
 Malek
Dahlan A
Mohd
Prof Dr
uFRGS
uMA
uPhD
uProcess
uSample
 Malek
Dahlan A
Mohd
Prof Dr
Working with
Literature
WHAT SHOULD I BE READING AND WHAT DO I DO
WITH IT ALL?
 Issues

u Writing literary is not easy.

u This is because writing study highlights requires
you to discuss independent studies in order to
explain the position of your study in its
contemporary context.
u You need to criticize freelance studies in order
to give your study a pathway to fill in gaps that
have not been fully answered by these studies.
The Questions are…!!!!!

u Who am I to criticized the experts/previous studies

u Are we have the ability to comments the previous
studies?
u What we have to write for the literature?
u How many articles we have to read?
u How to start to write the literature?
 questions
u How much literature do I need to look at?
u How far back do I need to go in reviewing the literature?
u What related ideas do I need to explore (subtopics or overarching
ideas)
u What literature provides a framework for my research?
u Why use a particular instrumens for my study
u A literature review is a body of text that aims to
review the critical points of current knowledge
including substantive findings as well as
theoretical and methodological contributions to a
particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary
sources, and as such, do not report any new or
original experimental work.
u A literature review is an account of what has
been published on a topic by accredited
scholars and researchers.

Malek
Dahlan A
Mohd
Prof Dr
u We will be required to write a chapter on
literature review.
u In writing the literature review, our purpose is to
convey to our reader what knowledge and
ideas have been established on the topic you
have chosen, and what their strengths and
weaknesses are.
u As a piece of writing, the literature review must
be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your
research objective, the problem or issue you are
discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not
a descriptive list of the material available, or a
set of summaries.
Purpose

v to discover what is known about a certain topic

We should look for 4 things about the topic:
u Theory
u Facts
u Opinions
u Method
purpose

u Established what is already known about a

particular topic and what methods have been
used in researching the topic
u Prevents you from reprodusing what is already
known
u Exposes gaps in leterature and help you in
position your research
example
u A physiotherapist wanting to treat patients with continuous
passive motion (CPM) needs to know:
u Theories about how CPM works
u Facts about protocols and results
u Opinions of therapists on the future of clinical use of CPM
u Methods that others used to assess effects of CPM
Types of literature
u Primary sources: original reports of
research (journal articles, theses
and dissertations, conference
abstracts and proceedings)
u Secondary sources: in which
authors summarize their own work
and the work of others (book
chapters, review articles)
Evaluating the literature

u 1.Classify the variables

u 2.Compare purposes and conclusions
u 3.Describe design and control elements
u 4.Identify threats to validity
u 5.Compare the study with other research (does it add new
information?)
u 6.Evaluate the utility of the study
 Conducting a Literature Review
u Obtain a “relatively”complete set of articles on the topic
u Decide which articles are relevant to your research question
u Identify the designs and variables used previously to address the
question
u Determine the validity of the studies
u Make comparisons across studies
u Specify problems that need further study
Finding the literature

u Consult your subject specialist reference librarian

u Check cited by list in Google Scholor
u Previous thesis (pro Quest )
u HI Index
u Scorpus
u ERA
uResearch Methods and
Statistics are tools.

uConcern is:
• How to use them?
• When to use them?
What is Science?
The Importance of Working
with Literature

Prof Dr Mohd Dahlan A Malek

Working with literature is an essential part of the research
process that:

u generates ideas
u helps form significant questions
u is instrumental in the process of research design
Working with literature

Working with
Literature

Find it! Manage it! Use it! Review it!

Knowing the Reading Choosing your research Understanding the

literature types efficiently topic lit review’s purpose

Keeping track Ensuring adequate

Using available resources Developing your question
of references coverage

Honing your Writing relevant Arguing your Writing

search skills annotations rationale purposefully

Informing your work with Working on

theory style and tone

Designing
method
Finding literature

Finding relevant literature can be made

easier if you are able to readily access and
draw on a wide variety of resources such as:
u reference materials
u books
u journals
u grey literature
u official publications
u archives
 Grey literature

u Grey literature is informally published written

material (such as reports) that may be difficult
to trace via conventional channels such as
published journals and monographs because it
is not published commercially or is not widely
accessible.
Finding literature

Prof Dr Mohd Dahlan A Malek

Don’t go it alone!!
When looking for literature be sure to call on the
experts such as:
u librarians
u supervisors
u other researchers
u practitioners
Intersecting Areas of
Literature
BODY PIERCING
▪
¯ ¯
²
FOUCAULT ² µ ² TEENAGERS
▪
² ▪
¯ ¯

RITES OF PASSAGE
▪

▪ background literature
¯ moderate relevance
² high relevance
µ highest relevance
Literature Review
A Process
The literature review: A synthesis of studies on any given
topic.

Usually precedes a full-length original study as a way of

introducing the general topic.

Its purpose: To help the reader understand the

background to your study and see how it’s the next
logical study to be conducted in this domain.

Necessarily, a good literature review requires a

thoroughly researched topic.

Be prepared for a writing process. Do not attempt to

write a literature review over night. This process takes
weeks and months. Yes, months.
Literature Review:
Preparations
There are a number of preliminary steps to
consider:
Determine whether the literature review will be
quantitative (must be theory-driven) or qualitative.
Either choice will determine your emphasis on
statistics.
Topic selection and narrowing.
Research, research, research . . .
Topic Selection

Work with your professor and/or supervisor/s to select

your topic.
Examine a wide array of resources for ideas on topic
selection:

Textbooks

Titles and abstracts of other articles

Broad theories (as areas for exploration)

Delimitations (to find a niche)

Remember to brainstorm with other individuals. The

Writing Center is awesome for this. J
Research Strategies
Do not develop an outline at this stage. Research first. Outline later.
Use RefWorks to help you keep your research organized.
Be professional in your selection of sources.

Peer-reviewed articles are a BIG deal.

Databases are an enormous resource for a literature review assignment.

PsychARTICLES, PsychINFO, ERIC, etc.

Abstract databases are helpful; if used, be sure to order articles. You can’t
cite from mere abstracts in your paper. You must read and cite the entire
article.

Cast your net wide.

Remember to use your database’s thesaurus to explore more options for

research.

Use every search tool available to you.

Evaluating & Interpreting
Research
Ensure your information is both accurate and unbiased.

Stick to peer reviewed sources only. (It’s worth repeating. J)

Some Internet sources can be very up-to-date and therefore

can be especially useful if statistics are required. (FedStats.gov,
state government Web sites, etc.)

Be guarded against any research that claims to “prove” an idea.

Unequivocal results are rare.

Consider each study’s methods, measurements, and significance to

evaluate whether you should use it.

Finally, take caution when you encounter research studies--

especially qualitative research studies--that attempt to show
causality.
Organizing & Outlining

Organization is key to the construction of an effective

literature review.
Let your outline flow from your research.

Good organization begins with conscientious research.

Take thorough research notes. Begin grouping your sources

by topic, delimitation, and chronology. Make piles on a
large table. Literally. J

Pay extremely good attention to key definitions as you do

your research.

Establish which studies are going to be most important for

your review; take more thorough notes on these studies.
Organizing & Outlining

Create a topic outline before you begin drafting

In your literature review’s Introduction:
Identify the topic

Establish the topic’s importance

Define any crucial terms

Engage in any theoretical discussions that are necessary for the

logic of your literature review

Arrange the raw research. This part of outlining will be considerably

easier if you’ve done a good job organizing the data ahead of time
(i.e., worked from piles!).

Remember as you outline: Logical cohesion and flow are vital!

Managing the literature
It also pays to be organized when it comes
to keeping references.
u Keep and file copies of relevant books, articles,
etc.

u Avoid lending out your ‘only copies’

u Find out about the recommended referencing

style and use it from the start

u Consider using bibliographic file management

software such as Procite, Endnote, or Reference
Manager
Annotating Sources
Annotating your sources provides you with a
record of relevant literature. It should
include:

u the citation
u articulation of the author and audience
u a short summary
u critical commentary
u notes on relevance that remind you of the
significance, accuracy, and quality of the sources
cited
Using the Literature
Literature is used for disparate purposes
throughout the research process. Whether it
be:
u focusing interests
u defining questions
u arguing a rationale
u theoretically informing your study
u developing appropriate design, or writing a formal
literature review
every stage of the research process demands
literary engagement
The Formal Literature
Review

Most find the writing of a

literature review a difficult task
that takes patience, practice,
drafts, and redrafts
The Formal Literature
Review
The formal literature review is a very specific piece of writing
designed to:

u inform your readers of your topic

u establish your credibility as a researcher

u argue the need for, and relevance of, your work

Reviewing the Literature vs.
‘The Literature Review’
Writing your Literature
Review

Malek
Dahlan A
Mohd
Prof Dr
A good literature review is an
argument that is more purposeful
than a simple review of relevant
literature
Writing your Literature
Review
Writing a good review requires you to:
u read a few good reviews
u write critical annotations
u develop a structure
u write purposefully
u use the literature to back up your arguments
u review and write throughout the research
process
u get feedback
u and be prepared to redraft
Writing your Literature
Review

Malek
Dahlan A
Mohd
Prof Dr
Style and Tone…

u Writing a good literature review

can be likened to holding a good
dinner party conversation

u They both require individuals who

can engage, learn, debate, argue,
contribute, and evolve their own
ideas, without being hypercritical or
sycophantic
 A Good Literature Review is:
u Focused - The topic should be narrow. You should only present
ideas and only report on studies that are closely related to topic.
u Concise - Ideas should be presented economically. Don’t take
any more space than you need to present your ideas.
u Logical - The flow within and among paragraphs should be a
smooth, logical progression from one idea to the next
u Developed - Don’t leave the story half told.
u Integrative - Your paper should stress how the ideas in the studies
are related. Focus on the big picture. What commonality do all
the studies share? How are some studies different than others?
Your paper should stress how all the studies reviewed contribute to
your topic.
u Current - Your review should focus on work being done on the
cutting edge of your topic.
u Research Problem
u Research question
u Definition –concept and operation
u Hypothesis
 Now you can start writing
u DECIDE ON A TOPIC
u NARROW YOUR TOPIC
u CREATE AN INTRODUCTION FOR YOUR LITERATURE REVIEW
u ORGANIZE THE BODY OF YOUR PAPER
u Scan each article to get an overview of each one.
u Group the articles by categories.
u Read each article carefully, taking notes on each one.
u WRITE THE BODY OF YOUR PAPER
u Make the structure and organization of your write-up explicit.
u Integrate the studies you summarize in your paper.
u At the end of each section wrap up studies in a paragraph that tells the
reader how the studies relate and address your topic.
u Make sure you take note of key terms and definitions.
u Identify landmark studies in your write-up
u Identify major trends across the studies you are reading.
u WRAP THE PAPER UP
u Present your conclusions.
u Present implications.
u Present suggestions for future research.
tools

u Atlas.ti.
u http://www.atlasti.com/demo.html

u Mendeley
u http://www.mendeley.com/features/
Drafting Strategies

Follow your topic outline as you write.

Develop and maintain a logical progression (think: giant

funnel). This paper is not a (glorified) list.

Demonstrate consistencies in and relationships between

the literature you’ve studied.

Likewise, emphasize the stronger studies (e.g., have

better measurements or more consistent methods)
over ones that are weaker.

Make the implications of your information and any

suggestions for further research as specific as possible.
A sample paragraph with
transitions
Researchers have conducted studies about siblings of special needs and
autistic children because this group is vulnerable to adjustment difficulties
(Cuskelly, 1999). In fact, specialists have compared the sibling-autism
relationship to the MR relationship. They have also studied the importance of
the family, and particularly the mother, in this relationship. In addition,
Kaminsky and Dewey (2001) found that the autism-sibling relationship is
characterized by less intimacy and pro-social behavior. This study likewise
reports that these relationships were marked by fewer instances of
quarreling. While this phenomenon may occur because of the unique
situation of the autism-sibling relationship, less fighting is also a positive
illustration of a relationship marked by more admiration. Furthermore, Rivers
and Stoneman (2003) define this relationship as asymmetrical. These results
are also similar to the MR-sibling relationship, as reported by Knott, et al.
(1995). Rivers and Stoneman (2003) reveal, too, that parents worry about
the autism-sibling relationship in their families. The importance of the family’s
influence on the autism-sibling relationship is very useful for this research
study and thus, will be discussed in the conclusion of the literature review.
~Ellen Geib, CU Writing Center Tutor
Introduction
& Conclusion
Introduction: Explain literature review structure.
Thesis: Establish the logical progression.
Conclusion: Specifically identify the study that will
follow (i.e., your original study!) as a result of this
literature review.