Department of Education

Ocaña National High School

Ocaña, Carcar City, Cebu

SY 2021 – 2022

__________________________________________________________

Epiphytic Lichen Diversity: A Bioindicator for Assessing Air Quality

and its Implications at Ocana National Highschool ( ONHS )

Researcher:

Research Advisor:
 Contents
Title Page …………………………………………………………….........................................i

Table of Contents…………………………………………………………..……….…………... ii

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………….iii

Chapter I. Introduction

                Background of the Study…………………………………………………….….1-5

                Statement of the Problem…………………………………………...……….…….6

Statement of Hypothesis………………………………………………………...6-7

                Significance of the Study ……………………………….............…….…………..7

                Scopes and Limitations…………………………………………………...……….7

Statement of Terminology…………………………………………………...….8-9

Conceptual Framework…………………………………………..………………..9

Chapter II. Literature Review

                Review of Related Studies………………………………………….………10-19

Chapter III. Methodology

Research Approach ………………………………………………………….....20

Research Design …………………………………………………….…………20.

Study Area and Target Population ……………………...………………..…….20

 Sampling Techniques……………………………………………………… 21-22

Statistical Treatment ………………………………………………………….21

Chapter IV. Presentation of Data, Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Analysis and Interpretation of Data……………………………………………

Results………………………………………………………………………….

Chapter V. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation

Summary………………………………………………………………………….

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………

References…………………………………………………………………………

Recommendation…………………………………………………………………..
 Abstract

Ambient air pollution is an important environmental exposure and has been linked with

impaired health effects and low performance among students and school facilities around

schools. This study examined the contemporaneous causal relationship between outdoor air

pollution levels and student overall health quality in Carcar’s Ocana National Highschool. Using

the famous method of bioindication of lichens on air quality, this study aims to assess the air

quality in Ocana National Highschool without the use of highly costly chemical analysis. In the

present study, 4 bioindicator communities of lichen have been used to assess the environmental

status of the study area. Three sites have been comparatively assessed. The results of the study

reveal that the third site with more surrounding trees is less polluted and experiences low degree

of anthropogenic disturbances compared to Mana, and pilgrimage route (Bhimpul to Vasudhara).

Human settlements, construction of civil works, vehicular emission, and trampling and trekking

by students and school facilities are the major threats on these habitats, which ultimately

decrease the quality of adjacent environment.

Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

The rapid change in the environment has led us to the declination of thousands of species

over the course of years (Gerardo et.al, 2020 ). Plants and animals that live within very specific

natural conditions will have to adapt to new climate patterns and deal with irreversible losses

along the way. IPCC reports that a threat of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels will likely happen

in the early 2030s ( IPCC, 2022 ). Making it the fastest warming of our planet at any point in

recorded history. This will affect every type of natural resource out there, including water supply,

land supply, food supply, and air supply that we all need to survive. The loss of species will

speed up from 5% this year alone if things continue to increase at the current rate. ( Urban, M.C.,

2015 ). The tolerance to high temperatures from species that have only relied on moderate

temperatures could greatly alter the place they live in, possibly indicating a threat to mass

extinction. This will lead to a huge disturbance to the usual balance of nature and risk unraveling

the ecosystems on which all life depends.

In over just a decade, research scientists have generated multiple well-established

research on the state of Earth’s quality. Unsurprisingly, one of the leading factors for the gradual

destruction of our planet is what researchers have been in the interest of for some time, pollution.

Pollution is defined as the existence of pollutants in the environment that have the potential to

harm the natural environment. Air pollution specifically, contributes to the seven million deaths

every year worldwide. This is concerning, especially how air pollution levels in 97 percent of all

cities throughout the globe exceed the World Health Organization’s guidelines ( WHO, 2020 ).

The air we breathe that penetrates deep into our lungs contains high levels of pollutants and has
caused diseases with irreparable damage. The pollutants in the air, namely, carbon monoxide (

CO ), nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ), sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ), lead ( Pb ), ground level ozone ( O3 ) and

particulate matter ( PM ), all according to the national ambient air quality standards ( NAAQS,

2009 ). These small particles suspended in the air contribute to various health concerns,

including breathing difficulties, asthma flare-ups, and congenital disabilities. This is of course

without a doubt, the combustion of fossil fuels as the primary source. From an ecotoxicological

perspective, anthropogenic activities can be considered as a major source of environmental stress

and result in the damage to living organisms (Moriarty, 1999 ). The most significant

contributions are fossil-fuel-powered vehicles (cars, trucks, airplanes, ships, and other similar

vehicles) and coal- or oil-burning power plants and industries. Consequently, according to

various sources, toxic contamination is one of the most significant risk factors for the

deteriorating health of the population and harming biota life. This causes long-term damage to

anyone who inhales it, including plants and animals.

A scale of 0 to 500 represents the Air Quality Index ( AQI ). AQI values above 50

indicate higher levels of air pollution and more significant health risks. An AQI value below 50

indicates healthy air. When it rises above 300, it is considered hazardous. Organisms that live off

of the nutrients in the air will be considered serious threats when situations like this arise. It will

no longer be safe for them to live in their natural habitats. Epiphytic Lichens, another important

organism that has contributed a huge amount to our environment, are very sensitive to a range of

atmospheric pollutants. (Shukla and Upreti, 2008; Shukla and Upreti, 2012; Bajpai et al., 2014 ).

They are commonly known as plants but is actually a symbiotic combination between fungus and

2
alga. They thrive on rocks and trees but don't actually take any nutrients from the tree on which it

grows. Instead, it simply uses it as a home and is not parasitic. These unique organisms are

present throughout the world but cannot stand very polluted areas as they will rarely be found in

urban places. They have been considered as excellent indicators for air pollutants by many

previous studies and is currently the most researched bioindicator species. A major reason

lichens are so sensitive to air quality is their total reliance on atmospheric sources of nutrition (

Morin et.al, 2004 ). The fungus provides the physical structure and offers its partner protection

from the environment. The algae, which is slimy and has no structure, provides the food through

photosynthesis. It converts energy from the sun and carbon dioxide into sugars. According to

USDA Forest Services, lichens actually account for 50% of photosynthesis globally, surpassing

more than 275 mature trees. Lichens enable algae to live worldwide in many different climates

and thus provide more means to convert carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Lichens are important species and their contributions to the ecosystem is great evidence.

The fact, however, that they are so closely associated with particular environmental conditions

comes with more harm than good. Exposure to pollution changes the way how they interact with

the environment. Their morphology, physiology, behavior, and their diversity to one area can

change depending on the severity of the issue. The threat to their whole diversity is a serious

concern as this will indicate a massive imbalance to the ecosystem all organisms rely on. Aside

from their great role as indicator species, they have also been providing all other organisms with

their ability as food, shelter and nesting material. The complete disappearance of this species will

be a great risk not only to the air quality itself but also to all other organisms that rely on them

for food, habitat and cover ( USDA, 2020 ). Major factors that have contributed to their ongoing

3
decline include habitat destruction and anthropogenic activities which also have been the catalyst

of most environmental world-leading problems today. ( Steffen, 2013 ). The excess of nitrogen in

the air causes lichens to decline throughout the world and if no further action is taken, they might

lose the evolutionary race and disappear completely. Various sources have also stated that the

recent global warming is directly affecting lichen diversity and richness. Climate change is a big

problem that changes weather patterns all throughout the globe and it can impact nature and

human health with the worsening of air and water quality, increasing the spread of certain

diseases, and altering the frequency or intensity of extreme weather events. ( EPA, 2022 ). Air

pollution, global warming, and climate change have become a big issue all over the world as it's

affecting the entire ecosystem and human health. The recent actions by scientists are further

evidence of how serious these problems are. Anthropogenic activities may just be the source of

the worsened air quality and the decline of lichen diversity in any biota life.

The use of this technique, even with its effectiveness as indicator for air pollutants is

surprisingly rare in the Philippines. The Philippines are known to have high macro temperatures

throughout the country. Their place near the earth’s equator makes their weather and temperature

considerably hot. The recent climate change problem will make it ten times hotter than any of it

recorded in the past decade. According to a Philippine news outlet, the Philippines has reached

highest heat index so far this year at 53 degrees Celsius. Evidences from studies finds that air

quality and climate patterns show high correlation with each other ( EPA, 2022 ). Air pollution is

causing the climate to change, and climate change is also causing air quality to change. An

effective monitoring of the environmental quality is needed more than ever to take action and

practice prevention.

4
 Biomonitoring with lichens is based on the detection of changes in the community

composition (biodiversity) ( Bealey, 2008 ). Monitoring changes in biodiversity is a useful

method for evaluating the quality of an ecosystem. Lichen species occurring within an area show

measurable responses to environmental changes, and lichen biodiversity counts can be taken as

reliable estimates of environmental quality, with high values corresponding to unpolluted or low

polluted conditions and low values to polluted ones. Lichen diversity studies may be very useful

in the framework in the field of environmental science, since they may highlight the biological

effects of pollutants and constitute the base for the improvement and measures taken for this

area. It is important that great care is taken in the interpretation of the results, especially in the

context of a rapidly changing environment and facing global change scenarios

Sampling lichen diversity is not as expensive as chemical analysis, allowing a dense

sampling grid and reducing the costs. Lichen diversity can be used to identify more disturbed

areas, resulting from pollution, land use or ecological variables. The aim of this study is to

provide a general picture of the air pollution pattern within the survey area. Ocana National

Highschool is located at the western end part of Carcar which is known for having a high number

of students that go to every day. It is with great importance that the overall health and learning

quality of students are not affected by the air pollution in the school area. Mitigation and action

will be implemented after gathering data and results, informing new areas of research to further

lichen conservation for effective air quality assessment. This study could serve as a baseline for a

future study on lichen bioindication and seeing its effects and implications at Ocana National

Highschool.

5
1.2 Statement of the Problem

       Despite the potential of lichens as a biological indicator for air pollutants, it is

surprisingly rare in studies, specifically in the Philippines, of how the present-day pollution

affects and changes our environment over time as anthropogenic activities still continue. The

overall goal of this study is to seek answers to the following questions and determine whether the

presence of lichens has any significant relationship with the air quality and its implications in

Ocana National Highschool.

1. How does air quality affect living organisms near high lichen area cover and with no

lichen area cover–especially students?

2. How effective is Epiphytic Lichen diversity as bioindicators for air quality compared to

physical and chemical investigations?

3. What other factors are affecting the air quality in Ocana National Highschool?

4. Is there any significant difference between the diversity of lichen community and the air

quality with its implications at Ocana National Highschool?

1.3 Statement of Hypothesis

This study aims to measure the current air quality at Ocana National High School as the basis for

improvement and purification measures of its air condition.

Ho: There is no significant relationship between the presence of lichen and the implications of

air quality in Ocana National Highschool.

6
Ha: There is a significant relationship between the presence of lichen and the implications air

quality of Carcar City.

1.4 Significance of the Study

         The assessment of air quality in a certain area, specifically a school where a number of

students go every day, is of increasingly urgent importance. Here, the researcher addresses the

impacts of air toxicity that were associated with the recent warming of the planet, using data

from previous studies and samplings found in the study area. The goal of this study is to see how

current-day pollution is affecting Ocana National High School and how lichens can help in

indicating those toxins. By recognizing the problem, we can take measures in mitigating the air

quality of the targetted area and see if any external factors are also affected.

1.5 Scopes and Limitations

The research is focused on the areas with lichen cover in the premise of the study area to

determine the diversity and abundance of Epiphytic Lichens. This study is only conducted in

Ocana National High School, Carcar City Cebu during the school year 2021-2022. Multiple

factors may affect the results of the study namely, temperature, specific time, and season.

7
1.6 Statement of Terminology

Lichen is a complex life form that is a symbiotic partnership of two separate organisms, a fungus

and an alga. The dominant partner is the fungus, which gives the lichen the majority of its

characteristics, from its thallus shape to its fruiting bodies. Lichens are useful as bioindicators

because of their sensitivity to environmental change.

Bioindicator is a living organism that gives us an idea of the health of an ecosystem. They either

change their morphology and nature when their ecosystem is threatened by atmospheric

pollution.

Epiphytic also called air plant, any plant that grows upon another plant or object merely for

physical support. Epiphytes have no attachment to the ground or other obvious nutrient source

and are not parasitic on the supporting plants.

Ambient Air is atmospheric air in its natural state. Ambient air monitoring is used to assess the

air quality of an area.

AQI ( Air Quality Index ) is an air quality assessment that is based on measurement of

particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), Ozone (O3), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

and Carbon Monoxide (CO) emissions.

IAP ( Index of Air Purity ) combines the number of species at the site with their sensitivity

towards environmental stressors, primarily air pollution.

8
Republic Act No. 8749, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Air Act It provides for the

creation of a national program of air pollution management focusing primarily on pollution

prevention; for the promotion of mass media communication in order to create social awareness

and active participation in air quality planning and monitoring.

1.7 Conceptual Framework

9
Chapter II. Literature Review

2.1 Review of Related Literature and Studies

Lichens have played a vital role in the breakthrough of bioindicator species in

environmental science. It was in the 1860s that lichens were recognized as potential indicators to

assess air pollution in local areas ( Nylander, 1866 ). Their sensitivity to air pollution makes

them great indicators and alternatives to modern air quality assessment tools. It wasn't that long

until lichens were the most studied biological indicator in this field of science ( Boonpeng, et.al

2018 ).

One major benefit of biological indicators is their ability to exhibit the indirect biotic

effects of pollutants when many physical or chemical investigations are unable to do so. (

Zaghloul, 2020 ) A common example of a bioindicator is the use of canaries in early coal

mining. Thousands have died while doing this job and one major cause was the buildup and

exposure to dangerous gasses such as methane. While a caged canary showed signs of activity

(e.g. singing), miners were assured that air quality was relatively good, lacking deadly levels of

methane. As the small birds were much less tolerant of such noxious gases, a canary’s death was

a miner’s sure sign to immediately evacuate. The use of canaries ended in 1980s when

automation took over. Unlike canaries, lichens grow all over the world in natural and

human-made environments, live a very long time, and can retain certain environmental pollutants

and heavy metals (Purvis 2000).

The loss of lichen diversity recently in relation to climate change and forest management has led

to many studies assessing and monitoring the patterns and trends of lichen biodiversity

worldwide. It is generally known that the undisturbed character of woods and persistent

10

ecological continuity are important for lichen diversity (Rose, 1974; Rose and Coppins, 2002;

Coppins and Coppins, 2002). Lichens usually occur in terrestrial habitats ranging from the Arctic

and Antarctica to tropical areas and may form stable communities which may thrive for years in

areas where the environment stays stable. The only thing that can reduce their diversity is the

presence of atmospheric pollutants. The present climate change is causing considerable

reductions in biodiversity in all terrestrial ecosystems. These consequences are expected to be

exacerbated in biomes that are particularly exposed to change in certain groups of more sensitive

organisms, such as epiphytic lichens. These poikylohydric organisms find suitable light and

water conditions on trunks under the tree canopy and make it their home. Despite their small

size, epiphytic communities contribute significantly to the functionality of forest ecosystems.

The correlation between lichen abundance and certain human activities was recognised

long before their symbiotic nature. Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles Darwin,

illustrated in a poem of 1790 his observations on the effects of a copper mine and smelting plant

on the surrounding vegetation,including lichens. Until everything shifted into industrialization,

the diversity of lichens have been rapidly declining. The Theory of Anthropogenic Climate

Change expounds on the fact that humans are responsible for more than half of modern warming.

This evidence persisted ever since the beginning of the industrial revolution and until today,

numerous big corporate industries still continue to burn fossil fuels and process agricultural food
that emits a large number of greenhouse gasses. Approximately, 65% of those carbon dioxides (

CO2 ) is emitted through fossil fuel use, and direct human-induced impacts on forestry and other

land use, 16% of methane ( CH4 ) is contributed through agricultural activities, waste

management, energy use, and biomass burning while Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) is generated through

both agricultural

11

activities and fossil fuel combustion that makes up for 6% of greenhouse emission ( IPCC, 2014

). This results in the warming of the earth by greenhouse emissions alone and will affect every

type of natural resource out there, including air supply, water supply, land supply, and food

supply that we all need to survive. 97% of climate scientists have all agreed before now that

anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gasses will be the leading factor in the destruction of our

planet, and this will have widespread impacts on human and natural systems if no further action

is taken ( NASA, 2020 ).

As a consequence, the demand for higher technology that will reduce climate change and

help the economy at the same time has never been this urgent before. Researchers all over the

world are finding ways to make green and eco-friendly products that will save the environment

using sustainable energy. The current trend seen in previous studies nowadays just shows that

using biologically-based research as an alternative to traditional chemical-based products proves

more to be effective, indicating that the new era of sustainability is near.

Lichens have been present in the world for thousand of years and it can grow anywhere. They

have been known as a pioneering species that first colonized rock where no other organisms have

done before. Their contribution to the ecosystem is great importance. Many extant lichen species
have cyanobacteria as primary or accessory photosynthetic partners and are therefore collectively

referred to as “cyanolichens.” Cyanolichens are found in most terrestrial habitats, from humid

tropical and boreal forests to hot and cold deserts. They are important in the nitrogen cycle of

many ecosystems through their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Although, the pollutant that

most directly affects the health of lichen communities is sulfur dioxide (McCune 1988; Nimis et

12

al. 1990).

A number of federal land management agencies such as the Forest Service, the National

Park Service, the Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Bureau of Land Management, along with

regulatory agencies and the regulated industries have had an ongoing interest in studying lichens

to determine the presence and effects of air pollutants on natural ecosystems (Ryan and Rhoades

1991; Rhoades 1988; Wetmore 1983; Gough and Erdman 1971; Thomas and Rosentreter 1992;

Showman and Hendricks 1989; Nash 1989; McCune 1988). In North Africa, diversity richness

of lichens has been well studied in Algeria since the second half of the eighteens (Nylander, 1853

and 1854 ; Werner, 1939; 1941; 1946; 1954; 1955 and 1956; Faurel et al., 1951a; 1951b; 1952;

1953a and 1953b; Ozenda and Clauzade, 1970; Semadi, 1989; Zouaoui, 1989; Haluwyn and

Letrouit-Galinou, 1990; Semadi et al., 1989; Semadi et Tahar, 1995; Semadi et al., 1997;

Haluwyn et al., 1994; Rahali, 2003; Bendaikha, 2006; Ajaj et al., 2007; Ait Hammou et al., 2008,

2011 and 2013; Rebbas et al., 2011; Khedim, 2012; Serradj et al., 2013; Slimani et al., 2013; Ait

Hammou et al., 2014), less more for the Moroccan lichen flora whose main works are (Maire,

1924; Maheu and Gillet, 1924 and 1925; Maheu, 1928. Maheu and Werner, 1933 and 1935;

Gattefossé and Werner, 1931 and 1935; Egea, 1996; Nattah et al., 2012a; 2012b and 2013; Ajaj
et al., 2013). However not much is known about Tunisia lichen flora diversity and distribution.

According to Werner (1951a), sporadic collection of lichens from Tunisia has occurred since

1640, but the first recorded species are attributable to Desfontaines in 1783, followed by Kralik

in 1854. First published lists are those of Hue (1897) and Pitard and Bouly de Lesdain (1909).

The most comprehensive published list is to be found in the phytogeographical interpretation of

the Tunisian lichen flora by Werner (1951a) and the most extensive unpublished list resulted

13

from the expedition led by Poelt in 1968. Further information on the history of lichenological

recording in Tunisia, albeit scant, is to be found in Patouillard (1897), Werner (1951a) and Faurel

et al. (1951). When Werner (1951a; 1951b; 1956) made his phytogeographical interpretations of

the Tunisian lichen flora, there were only 186 species recorded. Then a checklist published by

Seaward (1996) includes 415 taxa (395 species, 3 subspecies, l3 varieties and 4 forms). Since

this checklist, very scarce studies have been carried out dealing with diversity richness and/or

eventual air pollution and its effects on Tunisian lichen flora (El Mokni et al., 2010; 2011a;

2011b; 2013a; 2013b; Neffati et El Mokni, 2013).

The abundance of lichens is unlike any other organisms. Both mosses and lichens are

considered non-vascular plants, but only mosses are truly plants, according to US Forest

Services. Lichens aren't plants at all. They are complex organisms formed by a symbiotic

relationship between a fungus and an algae or cyanobacteria (or, in some cases, both). Mosses

are among the most primitive plants on Earth, the ancestors of the trees, flowers, ferns and other

plants that grow all around us today, the Forest Service reports. And while they do have the

stems and leaves characteristic of all plant species, they do not have roots and do not produce
flowers. Instead, mosses reproduce via spores rather than seeds from flowers. And instead of

roots to anchor them in place, they have very shallow root-like structures called rhizoids.

Because mosses don't have roots, they can't transport water like other plants. This makes them

very vulnerable to drying out, which is why mosses grow in wet or moist habitats. Lichens, on

the other hand, can survive in a variety of habitats, from tropical rain forests to deserts to the

frozen tundra of Antarctica, according to the Forest Service. In the absence of water, lichens will

simply go dormant, turning dry and brittle, until water becomes available again.

14

Biotas could often be used to estimate pollutant levels in their habitats indirectly. It might

also be possible to track population density over time and notice changes that might result from

changes in the ecosystem. Abundant plant species, e.g., higher plants, lichens, and planktons,

usually donate basic minutes about the wellbeing of a given ecosystem. Plants are very delicate

tools for the prediction and recognition of ecosystems stresses. Recently, following

industrialization and urbanization terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems pollution had been

intensified (Joanna, 2006). Most plants promote useful estimation of the polluted ecosystem

status, as they are immobile and easily strike a balance in their natural environment (Jain et al.,

2010).

Some lichens have evolved resistance to particular contaminants and therefore their presence is

not evidence of clean air (Fenn et al. 2007). Nitrogen-loving lichens grow well in situations

where there are relatively high levels of nitrogen compounds, often as a result in too much

nitrogen. When the air has too many pollutants, such as sulfur, heavy metals (copper or lead), or

nitrogen, it can be deadly for lichen. Because lichen are so sensitive to changes in air quality,

they serve as an excellent indicator of pollution levels. Too much sulfur and heavy metals can
either kill lichen or slow their growth. On the other hand, certain lichen species thrive with

excess atmospheric nitrogen, while other species dislike those conditions. These characteristics

are important, and can be used to our advantage when we assess air quality. If nitrogen-loving

lichen begin to flourish in a certain area while nitrogen-disliking species begin to disappear, that

can tell us about the amount of atmospheric nitrogen in that region.

In the 1980-1990’s the impact of atmospheric nitrogen (mainly ammonia) especially from

intensive animal husbandry units (poultry, pigs, dairy) on epiphytic (growing on trees) lichens

was recognised. A number of studies have assessed the effects of ammonia on epiphytic lichens

15

(van Herk 1999; Wolseley et al. 2004, 2006; Leith et al. 2005). In addition to ammonia,

emissions of nitrogen oxides from traffic contribute to atmospheric nitrogen and several papers

have shown that lichens respond to nitrogen from this source (Davies et al. 2007, Seed et al.

2013). This research on epiphytic lichens and their response to atmospheric N-pollutants has

shown that two functional species groups can be identified: lichens that are sensitive

(N-sensitive) to increasing N and those that are tolerant (N-tolerant) of increasing nitrogen.

Historically, lichens have been used in a qualitative way, with observations of population

changes and morphological effects serving as indicators of pollutants. In the last few decades,

quantitative measurements of the chemical content of lichens and sensitive physiological

processes have increasingly been used to indicate pollutants. Possible responses to air pollution

stress include chlorophyll degradation, changes in photosynthesis and respiration, alterations in

nitrogen fixation, membrane leakage, accumulation of toxic elements, and possible changes in

spectral reflectance, lichen cover, morphology, community structure and reproduction.

A study conducted by O.L Gilbert shows field evidence for an acid rain effect on lichens at two

sites in Northern England is presented. Well established populations of Lobaria pulmonaria on

oak, and Sticta limbata on ash trees in remote rural areas were observed to decline to the point of

extinction. This was accompanied by bark acidification. Only lichens containing a blue-green

algal component and growing in habitats poorly buffered on the acid side were affected. This

phenomenon is discussed in the context of general acid rain effects on lichens.

Most lichen related studies often explores on the diversity abundance, richness, distribution of

the community of lichens. Their use for bioindification make them the most studied bioindicator.

16

It is important that their conservation as a species is in utmost priority. Using living organisms

capable of responding measurably to any disturbance in the environment in which they are

introduced, is a simple and inexpensive alternative, to evaluate the atmospheric pollution and the

impacts caused to the environment (Filho et al., 2006). The techniques that use bioindicators as

monitoring mechanisms, are called bioindications and biomonitoring and unlike mechanical

monitoring, which is generally of high cost and offers results of the current and/or momentary

situation of the environment studied, monitoring with biological indicators besides having low

cost, offers the history of local pollution, as well as the peaks of pollutant concentration, and can

be used as a complement or at the intersection of information arising from Instrumental

automatic stations. Among the most used plant forms for this purpose are the lichen, mosses and,

to a lesser extent, some vascular. Lichens

Even though most lichen bioindicator studies have been done in temperate regions, lichens have

also been used as bioindicators in tropical cities, albeit infrequently. For example, a recent
review of lichen biomonitoring studies conducted in one of the largest tropical countries, India,

found that despite the obvious advantages of this technique, it has seldom been used in that

country (Shukla & Upreti 2012). The same applies to other tropical ecosystems and therefore,

studies with lichens as bioindicators from tropical regions have special value (Monge-Nájera et

al. 2002b, Anze et al. 2007)

In another study, researchers also found that before 2003, lichens sometimes declined

temporarily and bounced back; recently, however, they seem to be always on the decline. The

biocrust may have reached a tipping point, Finger-Higgens says, wherein there’s a permanent

17

shift in the makeup of its organisms, one that could lead to more bare ground. “The clear decline

in lichens is both impressive and alarming,” says Kristina Young, a dryland ecologist at Utah

State University Extension, Grand County, who helped collect the survey data. When biocrusts

disappear, soils dry out and are more likely to blow away. A biocrust that hangs on but with

fewer lichens will produce less nitrogen fertilizer, and so fewer plants may be able to survive,

leaving ever more bare ground. Because the animals rely on the plants that rely on nutrients from

the biocrust, the loss of biocrust can have a cascading effect on the entire ecosystem,

Finger-Higgens says. Such “biocrusts” cover 12% of all land on Earth, so keeping them healthy

is essential for the health of the planet. As they disappear, deserts may expand, says Bettina

Weber, an ecologist at the University of Graz who was not involved with the work.

Lichens in forests have been showing immediate changes that never often happens. So

far, the changes are as expected with a rather rapid increase of (sub)tropical species in temperate
areas, and a gradual decrease of some boreo-alpine elements. Studies have shown that lichens are

in danger of losing the revolutionary race. There are more than 7,000 kinds of lichen powered by

Trebouxia, making it the most common algal partner in lichens. If the Earth continues warming

at the rates predicted, it'll be too hot for many Trebouxia species in parts of their ranges, and this

could have downstream impacts on other organisms. Researcher stated losing lichens could have

a profound effect on their ecosystems. “Lichens are the dominant vegetation on 7% of the Earth's

surface. They play roles in ecosystem hydrology by retaining moisture. They also play roles in

carbon and nitrogen cycling, and some of them are used by animals for food or nesting

materials.” ( Nelson, 2022 )

18

Lichens adapt to several places to find a temperate temperature to adapt. One is not a rare

place such as schools. Research shows that the estimated total air pollution concentrations

around schools are linked to decreased concentration and poor test results ( EPA,2021). Results

from a new literature review carried out by The University of Manchester suggests traffic-related

air pollution, specifically particulate matter (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), is detrimental to

cognitive functioning in children (particularly working memory, a type of short-term memory

essential for everyday life. This will affect not only to the school but the whole cognitive

function of a person. Children will show severe symptoms and find excuses not to go to school.

Air pollution is a serious problem and lichen is an important species that can help in

purifying the air we have. Therefore, monitoring is an instrument of paramount importance, not

only to control damages, but also to prevent them.

 19

Chapter III. Methodology

3.1 Procedure

1.1 Sampling of the Geographical Area

Delimit the geographical area to be sampled on lichen distribution in the study. Carry out

a preliminary survey on the availability of suitable trees before deciding on the tree species and

size of the sampling unit in order to avoid many units with no trees. Next, select a geographical

grid for obtaining an even location of sampling units across the geographical area. Sampling

units are located at the intersection points of the geographical grid. Choose a sampling area

ranging from 0.25km2 (for large-scale studies) to 1 km2 (for small-scale studies) which must

then be used throughout the survey. The shape of the sampling unit can be rectangular, quadrat,

or circular. Establish the number of trees (x) to be sampled in each unit according to the

availability of suitable trees. Recommended ranges are 4-8 trees for studies where a rather
imprecise estimate of lichen data is sufficient, 9-12 when greater precision is required. If fewer

than x trees are available in any area, use the following standard procedure to shift the unit to be

sampled: Identify the 8 sampling units adjacent to the original. Move to the unit north and then

clockwise until the sampling requirements of x trees are met

1.2 Collecting Lichen Samples

Select trees of the same species, or with similar bark properties. Selected trees must be

free-standing, with girths >70 cm and near straight trunks (inclination <10° from vertical). Trees

subject to damage or disturbance from liming/fertiliser, grazing animals etc. should be avoided.

Attach the four sampling ladders (each having five 10x10 cm contiguous quadrats) to the trunk at

the cardinal points, so that the upper edge of the ladder is 1.5 m above the highest point of the

ground. A shift of 20° max clockwise is allowed for individual ladders, to avoid parts of the

trunk which are not suitable for sampling. Avoid the following situations: damaged or

decorticated parts of the trunk, parts with knots, parts corresponding to seepage tracks after rain,

parts with >25% cover of bryophytes. At least 3 ladders of the grid should be placed, or the tree

should be discarded. Record all lichen species in each ladder and their frequency in the 5

quadrats of the ladder (nr. of quadrats in which a species occurs). The list of species with their

frequency values in a single ladder constitutes a relevé of lichen vegetation.

1.3 Identification of Epiphytic Lichen Species

Lichens change color when a drop of bleach or caustic soda is applied. Scratching the

surface of the lichen carefully will remove the upper layer (cortex) and expose the fungal layer

(medulla) beneath. Observe a pink to red color change where bleach or caustic soda is applied to
the lichen medulla. This color change may fade rapidly. If the color changes this is called a +

reaction. ( UK Air Pollution Information System )

1.4

3.1 Research Approach

This study employed a mixed method approach where both qualitative and quantitative

data are used and analyzed. Collecting data in the study area will be used to assess sites of high

lichen cover and low lichen cover. Data that will be used to support the findings combine

primary and secondary sources. A structured questionnaire will be distributed to teachers from

grades 7-12 to assess the overall learning and health status of students in ONHS as well as their

familiarity of lichens and their presence in the school premice.

3.3 Research Design

A case study method will be used in this study, as this study aims to provide insight into a

particular environmental issue. The researcher will analyze the current air quality at Ocana

National Highschool using Epiphytic Lichens and study its effects and implications to the

surrounding area.
3.4 Study Area and Target Population

The study area will include the whole premise of Ocana National Highschool, where

samplings will be collected. Geographically, the study site is located 10.0673° or 10° 4' 2" N of

20

the western part of Carcar. Ocana National Highschool is a public place where a number of

students enter every day. The area is surrounded by trees and traffic regions and has moderate

temperatures. The study aims to collect tree and lichen samples within 10km of sight from

the school.

3.5 Sampling Techniques

1.1 Mapping of Lichen

In this case study, the researcher will first use a mapping strategy of lichen distribution

throughout the community to assess air pollution levels. The data will be sampled following a

replicated design. Mapping of air quality in an area can be made by following IAP (Index of

Atmospheric Purity) method (LeBlanc and De Sloover, 1970) based on number (n), frequency

(F) and tolerance of the lichen present in the area under study. IAP can be determined by using

the following formula:

IAP= ∑ Fi
Where F is the frequency (max. 10) of every ith species that is calculated as number of rectangles

in the grid. The rectangle is of the dimensions 30x50 cm each in which a given species appears.

It has been shown that the frequency method makes it possible to predict pollution levels with a

certainty of over 97% ( Lo Porto et.al., Gottardini et.al., 1999 ). The IAP values are grouped into

five quality levels which are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Quality levels of IAP value

IAP Levels Degree of Pollution

0 ≤ IAP ≤ 12.5 Very high level of pollution

12.5 < IAP ≤ 25 High levels of pollution

25 < IAP ≤ 37.5 Moderate level of pollution

37.5 <IAP ≤ 50 Low levels of pollution

IAP > 50 Very low level of pollution

Table 2: Lichen size and Air Quality

Size in cm Air Quality Rating

0-3 Poor

4-6 Fair

7-9 Good

10-12 Excellent

1.2

3.6 Statistical Analysis

This study will use t test by α = 0.05 to test each of the proposed hypotheses. The mean and

value of lichen species present and data from respondent will be used to see the relationship

between the variables, epiphytic lichen diversity and air quality implications in Ocana National

Highschool.
Chapter IV. Presentation of Data, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data

4.1 Presentation of Data

The IAP values of each station were used to construct a zone-map of air quality by the plotting

programme GIS (Geographical Information System), which transforms discrete data into a

continuous distributional model. Kriging (geostatic autocorrelation of the nearest randomly

placed value to produce an estimate of minimum least squares variance) was used as

interpolation algorithm. Limits between IAP zones were defined according to the method

suggested by HERZIG <& URECH (1991), which is based on the mean value and standard

deviation.

We found that the median air pollution concentrations of the areas within two kilometers of the

schools in the metropolitan area were greater than the concentrations in the one-kilometer

squares in the metropolitan area as a whole

 23

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