CircuitsBasic Elements and Laws 1.1 Voltage Sources, Current Sources, and Resistors 1.4 Independent and Dependent Sources 1.2 Kirchhoff's Current Law 1.5 Instantaneous Power 1.3 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law INTRODUCTION The study of electric circuits is fundamental in electrical engineering education and can be quite valuable in other disciplines as well. The skills acquired not only are useful in such electrical engineering areas as electronics, communications, micro- waves, electromechanics, and control and power systems but also can be employed in other, seemingly different fields (e.g., acoustics and mechanics). By an electric circuit or network, we mean a collection of electric components (e.g., voltage and current sources, resistors, inductors, capacitors, operational am- plifiers, transformers, and transistors) that are interconnected in some manner. Our prime interest in this section will be in the process of determining the behavior of a given circuit, referred to as circuit analysis. We begin our study by discussing some basic electric circuit elements and the laws that describe them. It is assumed that the reader has been introduced to the concepts of electric charge, potential, and current in various science and physics courses in high school and college. 1.1 Voltage Sources, Current Sources, and Resistors Electric charge! is measured in coulombs (abbreviated C) in honor of the French scientist Charles de Coulomb (1736-1806); the unit of work or energy—the joule "an electron has a charge of 1.6 x 10°'"C.iti ici Joule (1818-1889). Although for en- O) is cami for Ue LR ee bake per coulomb (IC), we give it the erey expended on © in honor of the Tialian physicist Alessandro Volta (174 en cay ® it is a measure of electric potential difference, or voltage. Lee eae te Syst8me International d’Unités (International System of Gaal as of is sytem are referred to as SI units. Unless indicated to the contrary, SI units are the units used in this book. The SI unit for time is the second (s). ur Voltage Sources An ideal voltage source, which is represented in Fig. 1.1, is a device that produces a voltage or potential difference of v volts across its terminals regardless of what is connected to it, Terminal 1 ‘Terminal 2 Fig. 1.1 Ideal voltage source. For the device shown in Fig. 1.1, terminal 1 is marked plus (+) and terminal 2 is marked minus (—). This denotes that terminal 1 is at an electric potential that is v volts higher than that of terminal 2. (Alternatively, the electric potential of terminal 2 is v volts lower than that of terminal 1.) The quantity v can have either a positive or a negative value. For the latter case, it is possible to obtain an equivalent source with a positive value. Suppose that v = ~5 V for the voltage source shown in Fig. 1.1. Then the potential at terminal 1 is —5 V higher than that of terminal 2, However, this is equivalent to saying that terminal 1 is at a potential of +5 V lower than terminal 2. Consequently, the two ideal voltage sources shown in Fig. 1.2 are equivalent, In the discussion so far, we may have implied that the value of an ideal voltage source is constant, that is, it does not change with time. Such a situation is plotted Terminal 1 Terminal 1 ‘Terminal 2 ‘Terminal 2 Fig. 1.2 Equivalent ideal voltage sources,in Fig. 1.3 for the case that v = 3 V. For occasions such as this, an ideal voltage source is commonly represented by the equivalent notation shown in Fig. 1.4. We refer to such a device as an ideal battery. Although an actual battery is not ideal, there are many circumstances under which an ideal battery is a very good approxi- mation to an actual battery. For example, the 1!-V batteries that are used for portable transistor radios or cassette players roughly behave as ideal batteries. A 12-V auto- mobile storage battery is another case in point. More generally, however, the voltage produced by an ideal voltage source will be a function of time. A few of the multitude of possible voltage waveforms are shown in Fig. 1.5. Fig. 1.4 Battery symbols. Fig. 1.3 Constant voltage. ) i aa ' ' @ Fig. 1.5 Typical voltage waveforms.source is, in general, a function of time, say v( i tage source is that shown in Fig. ee 3 volt are not included in the Fig. 1.7 is identical to Since the voltage produced by a then the most general representation 7 ee is 1.6. There should be no confusion if the uni f representation of the source, Thus the ideal voltage source in the one in Fig. 1.6 with “volts”” being understood. volts 0 Fig. 1.7 Equivalent generalized ideal voltage source. Fig. 1.6 Generalized ideal voltage source. Example 1.1 Suppose that the voltage v(#) produced by the ideal voltage source shown in Fig. 1.7 is described by v(t) = 10e~! V. Let us determine the value of this voltage at the instants of time t = 0 s,t = 1s, 2s, andt = 3s. At time t = 0s, v(t) = v(0) = 10e~° = 10 V. Furthermore, at time t = 1 s, 10e~' = 3,68 V. Similarly, (2) = 10e~? = 1.35 V, and, finally, = 0.498 V. : Drill Exercise 1.1 Suppose that the voltage vi) produced by the ideal Voltage sousce! shown in . es ta Fig. 1.7 is described by 4) = 5 — 10e~” v, Detecmine the alsa or ti Voltage at the instants of time t= 0s,1= 0.5s,1=1s,andt= 15s. ANSWER -SV, 1.32 V,3.65'V,450V° > iv (Note that due to the definition of an ideal voliage source, we will ‘wo (or more) voltage sources to be connected to the same pa Ener allow ir of terminal’. Current Sources (Placing an electric potential difference (voltage) across some material generally re. Sults in a flow of electric charge. Negative charge (in the form of electrons) flowe-«Basic Elements and Laws 7 from_a_given electric potential to a higher potential. Conversely, positive charge tends to flow from a given potential to a lower potential), Charge is usually denoted by q. and because this quantity is generally time dependent, the total amount of charge that is present in a given region is designated by q(#). We define current, denoted i(), to be the flow rate of the charge; that is, is the current in the region containing q(t). The units of current (coulombs per second, to Cis) are referred to as amperes (A), or amps, in honor of the French physicist ‘André Ampére (1775-1836). Following the convention of Benjamin Franklin (a pos- itive thinker), the direction of current has been, chosen, to_be that direction.in which positive charge would flow in the study of electric circuits, typically the important circuit variables ar voltage and current, and the vast majority of circuit topics are described in terms of voltages ‘and currents, As a consequence, electric charge is relegated to @ minor role in the subject of circuit analysis. 'An ideal current source, represented in Fig. 1.8, isa device that when connected to anything, will always move I amperes in the direction indicated by the arrow. As a consequence of the definition, it should be quite clear that the ideal current sources in Fig. 1.9 are equivalent. ‘Terminal 1 Terminal 1 ‘Terminal 1 amperes nA = 3A ‘Terminal 2 Terminal 2 ‘Terminal 2 Fig. 1.8 Ideal current source. Fig. 1.9 Equivalent ideal current sources. Again, in general, the amount of current produced by an ideal source will Be function of time. Thus, the general representation of an ideal current source is shown in Fig. 1.10, where the units “amperes” are understood. CO} Fig. 1.10 Generalized ideal current source.gs. 1.8, 1.9, and 1.10 are not the implicit assumption is that a hing so that the current pro- Although the current sources depicted in connected to any other ci cuit elements, in general, (nonzero) current source is always connected to sometl duced by the source has somewhere to g0. To summarize the properties of the two types voltage source places a constraint on the voltage act no constraint on the current through a voltage source. The current through a voltage source depends upon what is connected to that source. Conversely, a current source places a constraint on the current through it—there is no constraint on the voltage across a current source. s a current source depends The voltage acros upon what is connected to that source. of sources already discussed, @ ross Its terminals—there Is Resistors and Ohm’s Law ected to the terminals of an ideal voltage source that v(t) = 1 V. Then the electric potential at the top of the material is 1 V above the potential at the bottom. Since an electron has a negative charge, electrons in the material will tend to flow from bottom to top. Therefore, we say that current tends to go from top to bottom. Hence, for the given polarity, when v(t) is a positive number, i(?) will be a positive number with the Hirection indicated, If v#) = 2 V, again the potential at the top is greater than at the bottom, so i(t) will again be positive. However, because the potential is now twice as large as before, the current will be greater. (If the material is a ‘‘linear’’ element, the current will be twice as great.) Suppose now that v(t) = 0 V. Then the potentials at the top and the bottom of the material are the same, The result is no flow of no current. In this case, i(t) = 0 A. But suppose that v(t) = oD V. Then the top of the material will be at a potential lower than at the bottom of the material. A current from bottom to top will result, and i(0) will be a negative number. Note that the current i(Q through the material must also go through the voltage source because there is nowhere else for it to go. ioe es Hie Ll 1 the resulting current i) is always directly ‘proportional to the voltage y function v(¢), then the material is called a linear resistor, or resistor, for short. Suppose that some material is conn: \(f) as shown in Fig. 1.11. Suppose electrons and, hence, {@ Fig. 1.11 Material with an applied volta;Basic Elements and Laws 9 Since voltage and current are direct! i i ¢ volt ly proportional for a resistor, there exists proportionality constant R, called resistance, such that a Le In dividing both sides of this equation by i(t), we obtain oy) cami ee ‘The units of resistance (volts per ampere) are referred to as ohms” and are denoted by the capital Greek letter omega, (2. The accepted circuit symbol for a resistor whose resistance is R ohms is shown in Fig. 1.12. A plot of voltage versus current for a (linear) resistor is given in Fig. 1.13. ve Ri —wn Fig. 1.12 Circuit symbol for a resistor. Fig. 1.13 Plot of voltage versus current for a resistor. It was Ohm who discovered that if a resistor R has a voltage w(t) across itanda current i(t) through it, then if one is the cause, the other is the effect. Furthermore, if the polarity of the voltage and the direction of the current are as shown in Fig. 1.14, then it is true that ys <2 oe SIT : - “i sag Fig. 1.14 Current and voltage convention for Ohm's law. Named for the German physicist Georg Ohm (1787-1854).10 Circui This equation is often called Ohm’s law. From it, we may immediately deduce that These last two equations may also be referred to as Ohm's law. It should be pointed ut here that directions of eurents and polarities of voltages are crucial when writing Ohm's law—the accepted convention is given in Fig. 1.14. For example, in the situation depicted in Fig. 1.15, before writing Ohm's law, note that the current's direction is opposite to that dictated by convention. However, this difficulty is easily remedied by redrawing the figure in the equivalent form given in Fig. 1.16. (A current of 5 A going through the resistor to the left is the same as a current of —5 A going to the right.) Since the direction of the current and the polarity of the voltage now conform to convention, we use Ohm’s law to write’ w@=R-AO) => vw) = -Ril) int of resistor in Fig. 1.15. Fig. 1.15 Situation requiring negative sign for Fig. 1.16 Equiv Ohm's law. Alternatively, we could have redrawn Fig. 1.15 in another equivalent form as shown in Fig. 1.17. Again we use Ohm’s law to write Vit) = Ri) >) = - Ri) Fig. 1.17 Another equivalent of resistor in Fig. 1.15. *The symbol => means ““implies."*Example 1.2 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.18. We use the letter “k" to represent the prefix ; Kilo,"” which indicates @ value of 10?, Frequently used symbols include the fol- jowing: 107? pico P 107 nano a 10°¢ micro » 10° milli m 10° kilo k 10° mega M Fig. 1.18 Circuit with a battery. 10° giga G For the circuit in Fig. 1.18, the voltage across the 1-kQ resistor is, by the definition of an ideal voltage source, w(t) = 10 V. Thus, by Ohm's law, we get v(t) 10 _ 1 i = = = F000 = too = = 10 mA and way = DO = Hl 2 =} = -001 = - L() = R 7000 > 1 0.01 10 mA Note that i,(t) = —ii(#) as expected. For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.19, by the definition of an ideal current source, i() = 25 pA = 25 X 107° A. By Ohm’s law, we have v(t) = —Ri) = —(2 X 10925 x 10~*) = -50V + asua(}) Xo Fig. 1.19 Circuit with a current source.L it 20, suppose that the voltage produced by q. source is described by the sinusoid v0) = 170 cos 120n1 = 170 cos 377¢ y gt \- R = 85 Q. By Ohm's law, we have ) 170 cos 120 at i = 2 = = 208 120m = 2 cos 3771 A Fig. 1.20 Circuit with a nonconstant voltage source. Specifically, at time t = 0 s, the voltage is (0) = 170 cos 0 = 170 V and the current is i(0) = 2 cos 0 = 2 A. When t = 1/240 s, then w(1/240) = 170 cos w/2 = 0 V and i(1/240) = 2 cos m/2 = 0 A. When t = 1/120 s, then (1/120) = 170 cos 7 = —170 V and i(1/120) = 2 cos w = —2 A. Drill Ex. ise 1.2 ° f Aid Niger fis bam PG (a) For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.19, at value of R will result in We) = |=2.5 V? (b) For the circuit shown in Fig. 120, when R = 4 0 what voliage _will produce the current i(f) = 367% Given a resistor R connected to an ideal voltage source v(s) as shown in Fig. 1.21, we conclude the following. Since i(t) = v(¢)/R for any particular ideal source v(1), the amount of current i(t) that results can be made to be any finite value by choosing the appropriate value for R (¢.g., to make i(¢) large, make R small). Thus we see that the current through an ideal voltage source can be anything! The current through A voltage source depends on what is connected to the voltage-source—only the voltage across the terminals of the voltage source is constrained to be 4X7) volts. When a resistor R is connected to an ideal current source as in Fig. 1.22, we know that v(t) = Ri(t). Therefore, for a given current source (1), the voltage (2) that resultsFig. 1.21 Current through a voltage source. Fig. 1.22 Voltage across a current source. can be made to be any finite value by appropriately choosing R (e.g., to make v(#) large, make R large). Hence, we conclude that the voltage across an ideal current source can be anything! The voltage across the current source depends on. what is connected. to.the current, source—only the current through the current source is con- Strained to_be i(#)_amperes_ Physical (nonideal) sources do not have the ability to produce unlimited currents and voltages. As a matter of fact, an actual source may approximate an ideal source only for a limited range of values. Short Circuits and Open Circuits Now consider a resistor R = 0 1. An equivalent representation, called a short circuit, of such a resistance is given in Fig. 1.23. By Ohm’s law, we have vt) = Ri(t) = Oi) = OV Fig. 1.23 Short-circuit equivalents. Thus, no matter what (finite) value i(#) has, v(¢) will be zero. Hence, we see that a zero-ohm resistor is equivalent to an ideal voltage source whose value is zero volts (provided that the current through it is finite). Therefore, for a zero resistance to be synonymous with a constraint of zero volts (and to avoid the unpleasantness of infinite currents), we will insist that we never be allowed to place a short circuit directly across a voltage source. In actuality, the reader will be spared a lot of grief by never attempting this in a laboratory or field situation.14 Circuits Next cot ra resistor havi called an open circuit, of such a i= Q-oa as long as v(t) has a finite value. Thus, we may conclude that an infinite resistance is equivalent to an ideal current source whose value is zero amperes. Remember, we will always assume that an ideal current source has something connected to its terminals. fi =o fin non ao) =e = o) Fig. 1.24 Open-circuit equivalents. 1.2. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) It is a consequence of the work of the German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff (1824- 1887) that enables us to analyze an interconnection of any number of elements (voltage sources, current sources, and resistors, as well as elements not yet dis- cussed). We will refer to any such interconnection as a circuit or a network. Fora given circuit, a connection of two-or. more.clements shall be called a node. The partial circuit shown in Fig. 1.25 depicts an example of a node. In addition to using a solid dot, we may also indicate a node by a hollow dot, as was done for a terminal. Conversely, we may use a solid dot for the terminal of a device. We now present the first of Kirchhoff’s two laws, Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), which is essentially the law of conservation of electric charge. KCL: At any node of a circuit, at every instant of time, the sum of the currents into the node is equal to the sum of the currents out of the node. Specifically for the portion of the network shown in Fig. 1.25, by applying KCL we obtain the equationBasic Elements and Laws 15 Fig. 1.25 Portion of a circuit. AO + 4) + is) = LO + KO + LO Note that-one-of the elements (the one in-which i3(0)-flows) is a short circuit—KCL. holds regardless of the kinds of elements in.the circuit. Am alternative, but equivalent, form of KCL can be obtained by considering cur- rents directed into a node to be positive in sense and currents directed out of a node to be negative in sense (or vice versa). Under this circumstance, the alternative form of KCL can be stated as follows: KCL: At any node of a circuit, the currents algebraically sum to zer “Applying this form of KCL to the node in in to be positive in sense, we get i — i — bf) + i — LO + 1 = 0 ‘A.close inspection of the last two equations, however, reveals that they are the same! From this point on, we will simplify our notation somewhat by often abbreviating functions of time # such as v(2) and i(#) as v and i, respectively. For instance we may rewrite the last two equations, respectively, as itigtiseigtis+i, and h-hh tie tis =O It should always be understood, however, that lowercase letters such as v and i, in general, represent time-varying quantities." “A constant is a special case of # function of time.16 Circuits Example 1.3 i -node Let us find the voltage v in the two-n Fig. 126 in wy directions of i, iz, and is and the polarity of v were chosen arbitrarily, (The di, ich of the 2-A and 13-A sources are given.) ete Fig. 1.26 Circuit for Example 1.3. By KCL (at either of the two nodes), we have W-i+h-2-h=0 > i -H+R=11 (1) By Ohm’s law, v = v -)-{—)+[-J=11 = (i G ) (5 d oe rr Having solved for v, we now find that v -y v WaTr6A bea -3A, heteza Note that a reordering of the circuit elements, as shown in Fig. 1.27, will result in Eq. 1.1 when KCL is applied. Since Ohm's law remains unchanged, the same an- swers are obtained.Basic Elements and Laws 17 Fig. 1.27 Circuit equivalent to Fig. 1.26. Drill Exercise 1.3 — 2 eS For the cirenit shown in Fig. 1.26, change the value of the 13-A current source to —9 A. Find the resulting values for ys fs la and is. 2 -6A,3 ‘ANSWER —6V, General Form of KCL wit (1.e., to satisfy the physical law of Just as KCL applies to any node of a cire ‘must equal the current coming out), $0 conservation of charge, the current going in must KCL hold for any closed region. three regions have been arbitrarily identified. For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.28, Applying KCL to Region 1, we get ptigtis=ir Applying KCL to Region 2, we obtain istigt ip =0 and by applying KCL to Region 3, we get atari,Region 3 Fig. 1.28 Circuit with three arbitrarily selected regions. Note that Region 3 apparently contains two nodes. However, since they are con- nected by a short circuit, there is no difference in voltage between these two Points, Therefore, we can shrink the short circuit so as to coalesce the two points into a single node without affecting the behavior of the rest of the circuit. Applying KCL at the resulting node again yields iz + i = i, + i,. The converse process of expanding a node into apparently different nodes inter- connected by short circuits also does not affect the behavior of the remainder of a circuit. For example, the portion of a circuit shown in Fig. 1.25 has the equivalent form shown in Fig. 1.29. Applying KCL to the shaded Tegion results in the same Node equivalent Fig. 1.29 Equivalent of circuit portion in Fig. 1.25.Basic El equation as is obtained when KCL is applied to the node shown in Fig. 1,25. Thus, although it may appear that there are four distinct nodes in the shaded region depicted in Fig. 1.29, the region actually constitutes a single node. It is because of the foregoing that we can redraw the circuit given in Fig. 1.26 in the equivalent form shown in Fig. 1.30. Even though it may not appear so at first, glance, the circuit shown in Fig. 1.30 has just two distinct nodes—and these nodes are indicated by the shaded regions. With this fact in mind, from this point on we shall draw such a circuit without the shaded regions, as shown in Fig. 1.31. ts and Laws 19 Fig. 1.31 Circuit in i Toe M/a- Resistors Connected in Parallel tp 4/3 4 fR, st cuit given in Fig. 1.32a. Let us express the current i in terms of i, coasts ocd : s each resistor is v. By Ohm's law, we can R, and v. Note that the voltage acros: write Applying KCL (at either node), we Bet a2) Fig. 1.30 with region indications omitted. 720 Circuits Fig. 1.32 (a) Parallel connection of resistors, and (b) equivalent resistance. Note that resistors R, and Rp are connected to the same pair of nodes (nodes n, and n;). We call this a parallel connection. Specifically, we say that two elements, _are connected in parallel if they are connected to the same pair of nodes, regard- Jess of what else is connected to those two nodes. This definition holds not only for two elements, but for three, four, or more, as well. As a consequence of the definition, we see that elements connected in parallel all have the same voltage across them, As far as the arbitrary circuit in Fig. 1.32a is concerned, there is an equivalent resistance R between nodes n, and nq as depicted in Fig. 1.32. But how is R re- lated to R, and R,? By Ohm's law, R = v/i, Combining this result with Eq. 1.2 we get Thus, we see that the parallel connection of resistors R, and R, is equivalent to a single resistor R, provided that Using reasoning as in the previous discussion, we deduce that m resistors Ry, Ry, Rie ~ + + + Rm Connected in parallel are equivalent to a single resistor R, provided that In the previous discussion, the reciprocal of a resistance appeared a number of ‘imes. It is because of the frequent occurrence of the quantity I/R that we denote7 7 @ separate symbol. Given an R-ohm resistor, we define its conductance G. Fumie since the units of R are ohms, denoted 9, the units’ of G are often called mhos and are denoted by the symbol U. Figure 1.33 shows two equivalent ways of representing the same circuit element, For example, a 44) conductance is the same thing as a - resistance. 1:3 R Fig. 1.33 Resistance and conductance. In summary, the equivalent forms of Ohm’s law are: Note that when combining resistors in parallel, to obtain an equivalent resistor, we add conductances. This fact is demonstrated in Fig. 1.34. Fig. 1.34 Combining conductances in parallel. Stn terms of SI units, conductance is measured in slemens (S) in honor of the British inventor William Siemens (1823-1883), However, because it is in widespread use, we will use mhos,22 Circuits Current Di nm Now consider the circuit given in Fig. 1.35a, We ask the question that has been haunting scientists for a long time: ““If you were an ampere, where would you go?" To answer this question, we simply replace the parallel connection of Ry and Ry by its equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 1.350. We then have ~R + Ra (3) @) b) Fig. 1.35 (a) Current division, and (b) equivalent resistance of parallel connection. Since this is the same v that appears in Fig. 1.35(a), we conclude that Since, by KCL, i + 2 = 4 these two formulas describe how the current i is divided by the resistors. For this reason, a pair of resistors connected in parallel is often referred to as a current divider. Note that if R, and R, are both positive, and if Ry is greater than R,, then i, is greater than i). In other words, a larger amount of current will go through, the smaller resistor—and amperes tend to take the path of least resistance! For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.36, since G, = 1/R, and G2 = WVR2, then by the current-divider formula for ij, we haveVG, Fig. 1.36 Conductances connected in parallel. Similarly, G. =i eG] + GL © (UG) + WG)! ~ G+ GGG" Basic Elements and Laws 23 UG; Gy Go+G, Thus we also have current-divider formulas in terms of conductances. Example 1.4 For the circuit given in Fig. 1.37, let us determine the currents indicated by using current division. 20—— 3a Fig. 1.37 Example of currant division. ALR PT SBR A PLS LOS TELE 5 RR 5 MOREE OTE MET24 Circuits The current that is to be divided by the two 2-10 resistors division formulas, 12. A. By the curren, . 2 i = p= 12) = 6A ‘The current that is to be divided by the 3-2 and 6-1 resistors is i) + iz = 12 4, By the current-division formulas, we have mig = Sy) = 4A => = -4A Finally, the current that is to be divided by the 1- and 3-0 resistors is —12 A. Thus, by current division, i= mer =-9A | is = 24112) = 8A 8346 | i | | | A + | 1 tm ig = TGCID= “3A = = Drill Exercise 1.4 For the circuit shown in Fig 1.37, replace the 1-2 resistance with a 1-U con- ductance, the 2-2 resistances with 2-U conductances, the 3-2 resistances with 3-U conductances, and the 6-2 resistance with a 6-U conductance. Use the current-divider formulas to determine i,, i2, is, is, is, and is. ANSWER 6A,6A,4A,-8A,-3A,9A 1.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) We now present the second of Kirchhoff"s laws—the voltage law. To do this, we must introduce the concept of a “‘loop."* Starting at any node 7 in a circuit, we form a loop by traversing through elements (open circuits included!) and returning to the starting node n, and never encountering any other node more than once. As an example, consider the partial circuit shownin Fig. 1.38. In this circuit 2-A current source, eraiioe nein 2-0, 3-0, and 6-0 resistors, along with the Toops ar: (8) abc dees fg ee bef aA few (but not al) of he other a,b, ef, a; (6) b,c, e, b. + ds e, ¢; (3) dye, f, di (4) a, b,c, €, dy f, a3 (5) Fig. 1.38 Portion of a circuit. ‘We now can present Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL): KVL: In traversing any loop in any circuit, at every instant of time, the sum of the voltages having one polarity equals the sum of the voltages having. the opposite polarity.° For the partial circuit shown in Fig, 1.38, suppose that the voltages across the elements are as shown. Then by KVL around loop a, b, ¢,-e, f, a, we get vy + vg = v2 + ¥3 + Ye and around loop }, c, d, e, b, we get va tv = 3+ v4 sed (the element between nodes 6 and ¢) f the nature of the elements in the circuit. then KVL is another way of In this last loop, one of the elements trave is an open circuit—KVL holds regardless of | Since voltage is energy (or work) per unit charge, stating the physical law of the conservation of energy. Is the sum of the voltage drops. where statement is: The sum of the voltage rises equals voltage drop. “Another form of this ‘ to plus is a voltage rise and from plus to minus is & traversing a voltage from minu26 Ci An alternative statement of KVL can be obtained by cor i tering voltages across elements that are traversed from plus to minus to be positive in sense and voltages across elements that are traversed from minus to plus to be negative in sense (or vice versa). Under this circumstance, KVL has the following alternative form: KVL: Around any loop in a circuit, the voltages algebraically sum to zero. By applying this form of KVL to the partial circuit shown in Fig. 1.38, and selecting a traversal from plus to minus to be" positive in sense, around loop a, b, c, e, f, a, we get 0 vy — V2 — V3 + — V6 and around loop b, c, d, e, b, we get —yt+3+u-yW= These two equations are the same, respectively, as the preceding two equations. Example 1.5 ELT NOAA ELLIE ME RNS. Let us find the current i for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.39a, where the polarities of Vi» Vay ¥3 and the direction of i were chosen arbitrarily. -. 69 4o 20 Fig. 1.39 (a) Single-loop circuit, and (6) circuit with elements reordered. Applying KVL, we obtain WAM EM wy 1=0 = yw ty vy = -24 By Ohm's law, vy = 2i, vy = 4i, . > V2 = 4i, and vy = —6i., fil toni the preceding equation yields 3 6i. Substituting these expressions intoi+ 4i-~(-6) = 24 ip QA and using this value of i, the indicated voltages are w= = %-2)=-4v, y= 4 = 4(-2) = -8 V, vs = —6i = -6(-2) = 12 V No i ; Nels ta a reordering of the circuit elements in Fig. 1.39a as shown in Fig. 1.395 elas ‘the same equation when KVL is applied. Since Ohm's law yields the expressions for v4, vz, and vs, the same values are obtained for the current and the voltages. Seah aa aE 5 im NS ke NRRL AURAL Bit Drill Exercise 1.5 For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.39a, to what value should the 34-V battery be changed such that the resulting current is i = 2 A? What are the corresponding values of v1, v2, and ¥3? ANSWER —14V,4V,8V,-12V Resistors Connected in Series Now consider the circuit given in Fig. 1.40a. For this circuit, let us express the voltage v in terms of Rj, Ro, and i, By Ohm's law, we can write v= Ri and v2 = Ral ion of resistors, and (b) equivalent resistance. Fig. 1.40 (a) Series connectiFo Se Applying KVL, we get (1.4) vs vy + vy = Ry + Rol = (Ri + Rodi d Ry have a node in common (node n), and no other element see eee as aoe This is known as a series connection. Specifically, we say that two elements are connected in series if they have a node in common and ii0 dither element is_connected.to this. common node—In general, if m elements are connected together such that each resulting node joins no more than two of the elements, then these elements are connected in series. As a consequence of the definition, we see that elements connected in series all have the same current through them. As far as the arbitrary circuit in Fig. 1.40a is concemed, there is an equivalent resistance R between nodes n, and n, as depicted in Fig. 1.405. From Eq. 1.4, by Ohm's law, R = v/i. Combining this result with Eq. 1.4 we get =R=R +R mie Thus we see that the series connection of resistors R, and R; is equivalent to a single resistor R, provided that Using reasoning as above, we deduce that m resistors Ry, Ra, Ray . « in series are equivalent to a single resistor R, provided that » +R» connected R=R +R, + Ryt-++ + Ry Example 1.6 SRC Nees cea Let us find i in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.41. To find i, we can replace series and parallel connections of resistors by their equivalent resistances. We begin by noting that the +A tnd 3-0 resins are connected in series. Combining them, we get tht circuit in Fig. 1.42a, Note that in Fig. 1.42a it i i i: windisuad’a Fig Lac ig. is not possible to display the voltage Since the two 4-0 resistors in Fi; i i Bince ti L ig. 1.42a are connected in arallel, we can simplify this circuit and obtain the circuit shown in Fig. 1.426. Here the 5-0 and 2-0 resistorsElements and Laws 29 70, Fig. 1.42 Combining resistors connected in series and in parallel. are connected in series, so we may combine them and obtain the circuit in Fig. 1.42c. + In this circuit, by Ohm's law, we have 4 In this example, we see that the equivalent resistance ‘‘seen by the source’’ or “loading the source,” is 7:2. 4 eeacta ADORE VI ASST DURE TH SMAI BS wer soma Drill Exercise 1.6 ‘For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.41, change the value of the 1-02 resistor to 9 2. Find the resistance loading the source and i. ANSWER 81,3.5A Voltage Division ne how the voltage v is Now consider the circuit given in Fig. 1.43a. To determi and v by replacing the divided between R, and R2, we express i in terms of Ry, RxFig, 1.43 (a) Voltage division, and (b) equivalent resistance of series connection. series connection of the resistors by its equivalent resistance R as shown in Fig, 1.436. By Ohm’s law, v ¥ 1.5) R R+R as) Thus for the circuit in Fig. 1.43a, we have “=Ri and yy = Ry and substituting the expression for i given by Eq. 1.5 we get and these two voltage-divider formulas describe how the voltage v = vy, + v is divided between the resistors. Because of this, a pair of resistors that are connected in series is often called a voltage-divider network, or voltage divider. Note that for positive-valued resistors, if R, is greater than Rp, then ¥; is greater than v2. In other words, the larger voltage will be across the larger resistor. Example 1.7 hose WASAA We Let us find the voltage v2 in the circuit given in Fig. 1.41 by using the voltage- divider formulas. Combining the series connection of the 1-0 and 3-0. resistors, We obtain the circuit shown in Fig. 1.42a, The connected in parallel can be combined as sh we have resulting pair of 4-0 resistors that are jown in Fig, 1.426. By voltage division,a OEE = 2 56 Y= 7x28) = P= 8v Returning to the original circuit (Fig, 1.41) and employing the voltage-divider for- mula again yields * ’ | =-— 3 3 waa yt = ge) =6V ‘Drill Exercise 1.7 For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.41, change the value of both the 1-0 and 5-0 resistors to 9 0. Use voltage division to find v; and v2. ANSWER 7 V, 1.75 V " 2 vac For a given circuit, there is generally more than one way to analyze it—as long as the different techniques are employed correctly, of course, the same results will be obtained. To demonstrate this, let us again consider the circuit given in Fig. 1.41 and take a slightly different approach. Example 1.8 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.44. By Ohm's law, i = v2/3. By KCL, Fig. 1.44 Series-paraliel circuit given In Fig- 141,By Ohm's law, vy = lis = v2/3. By KVL, vy _ 4, wewtnemt sas By Ohm's law, i) = vy/4 = v/3. By KCL, fata Br B= By Ohm’s law, vy = Si = 10v,/3. By KVL, 4 1 14 = B=ntnu=in+ Daa => =6Vv hana Drill Exercise 1.8 ircuil i 1-2 and 5-0 For the cireuit shown in Fig: 1.44, when the value of both the d5 resistors are changed to 9 9, then v2 = 1.75-V. (a) Use the voltage-divider formula to find v,. (b) Find é. (c) Use the’ current-divider formula to find i. ANSWER (a) 7 V, (b) £75 A, (¢) TBA 1.4 Independent and Dependent Sources Combining Sources We mentioned earlier that we will not be allowed to connect ideal voltage sources in parallel. However, consider the series connection of two ideal voltage sources as shown in Fig. 1.45. By KVL, we have that v = v, + v2, and by the definition of an ideal voltage source, this must always be the voltage between nodes a and b, re- gardless of what is connected to them. Thus, a series connection of two voltage sources as shown in Fig. 1.45 (remember, no other elements can be connected to node c!) is equivalent to the ideal voltage source shown in Fig. 1.46. Clearly, the + obvious generalization to m voltage sources connected in series holds. In a dual manner, consider a parallel connection of ideal current sources as shown in Fig. 1.47. By KCL, we have that i = i; + iz, and by the definition of an idealFig, 1.45 Series connection of voltage sources. Fig. 1.46 Equivalent of voltage sources connected In series. current source, this must always be the current into the arbitrary circuit. Therefore, a parallel connection of two current sources as shown in Fig. 1.47 (remember, other elements can be connected to nodes a and bl) is equivalent to the ideal current source shown in Fig. 1.48. Again, this result can be generalized to the case of m current sources connected in parallel. Fig. 1.48 Equivalent of current sources connected in parallel. Fig. 1.47 Parallel connection of current sources. Example 1.9 Reconsider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.31 on p. 19. Combining the parallel connection of the current sources, we obtain the circuit given in Fig. 1.49. The equivalent resistance of the three resistors connected in parallel is R, where NA lent of circuit in Fig. 1.31.3H Circuits In other words, the resistance loading the current source is R = j; 0. By Ohm's law, we have that v= Sap =6V Drill Exercise 1.9 26, what is the value of the voltage ircuit shown Fig. 1.396 on p. Fe ee Se icaakeing 1 2 What is the equivalent resistance obtained by combining the two batteries loading this combined voltage source? ANSWER ~24V, 120 Dependent Sources Up to this point, we have been considering voltage and current sources whose values are, in general, time dependent. However, these values were given to be independent of the behavior of the circuits to which the sources belonged. For this reason, we say that such sources are independent. We now consider an ideal source, either voltage or current, whose value de- pends upon some. variable (usually-a-voltage-or_current) in the circuit to which ‘the source belongs, We call such an ideal source a dependent (or controlled) ‘Source, and represent it as shown in Fig. 1.50. Note that a dependent source is repre-. sented by a diamond-shaped symbol so as not to confuse it with an independent source. = wt Dependent voluge source Dependent current source Rg. 1.50 ci wes Gireuit symbols for dependent Fig. 1.51 Circuit with current-dependent Current source,ea OS TRG Sa AAR Example 1.10 ane Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.51 in which the value of the dependent current source depends on the current i; through the 3-12 resistor. Thus, we say that it is a current-dependent current source. Specifically. the value of the dependent source is 2i,, and the units are amperes, of course. (This implies that the constant 2 is dimensionless.) Hence, if the current though the 3-0 resistor is #y = 2A, then the dependent current source has a value of 2i, = 4 A; if the current is iy = —3 A, then the dependent current source has a value of 2i; = —6 A; and so on. To find the f actual quantity i}, we proceed as follows: Applying KCL (at either node), we get +i =2 a6 i+ = 2, +2 = - By Ohm's law, i, = w/3 and i, = w/2. Substituting these expressions into Eq. 1.6, we get v\ oy -e)+s= = () 522 = velv and the value of the dependent current source is 2i, = 24) = 8A . Remember, if the independent source has a different value, then the quantity 2; will in general be different from 8 A. eR EERSTE TI See Drill Exercise 1.10 For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.51, reverse the direction of the arrow in the independent current source. Find v, i}, and iz. answer —12V,-44,-6A36 Circuits Example 1.11 Fig. 1.52. In this circuit, the value of te words, the value of the across the 3-2 resi, Let us now consider the circuit given dependent current source is specified by a voltage! In other source is 0.5v amperes, where v is the amount of voltage (also the 4-0 resistor in this case). This implies that the constant 0.5 has as unig, AV, or mhos—so it is a conductance. Such a device is a voltage-dependent curreny Fi 1.52 Circuit with voltage-dependent current source. To solve for v, we apply KCL and obtain i+ =O05v+2 Since i, = v/3 and i, = v/4, then pt pts t2 = v=24V Consequently, the numerical value of the dependent current source is i t ! f 0.5v = 0.5(24) = 12A Again, we will point out that if the independent source has a value other than i 2 A, then the dependent source's value of 0.5v amperes will be something other than 12 A. ‘ The other variables in this circuit are iBasic Elements and Laws 37 Drill Exercise 1.11 For the circuit given in Fig. 1.52, change the voltage-dependent current source to a curent-dependent current source whose value is 3i,/2. (Do not change the direction of the arrow in the dependent source.) Find v, iy, and i. ANSWER 24V.8A,6A Example 1.12 The circuit shown in Fig. 1.53 contains a current-dependent voltage source. The value of this dependent voltage source is determined by the loop current i and is 4 V. In this case, the constant ! has as its units V/A, or ohms—so it is a resistance. Fig. 1.53 Circuit with current-dependent voltage source. Before we analyze this circuit, let us compare it with the circuit given in Fig. 1.52. What is a parallel connection there is a series connection here; what is a voltage (5) there is a current (i) bere; what is a current there (2 A. iy, iz, 0.5 A) is a voltage here (2 V. v1, vs. 0.5i V, respectively); and what is a resistance there (3 4 ) is a conductance here (3 U. 4 U, respectively). For this reason, we say that this circuit js the dual of the preceding circuit (and vice versa). Once a circuit has been analyzed, its dual is analyzed automatically. A more formal discussion of the concept of duality is given in Chapter 3. However, for the time being, let us verify it for this particular case. By KVL, vy, — OSi +: = 2 By Ohm’s law, v, = #3 and v, = U4. Thus,~ 24A which is the numerical value for v in volts in the dual circuit (Fig. 1.52). Th the value of the dependent source is reLore, 0.5i = 0.5(24) = 12 V Furthermore, which are the respective values for i, and iz in the dual circuit. Drill Exercise 1.12 For the circuit shown in Fig, 1.53, triple the value of the independent voltage source to 6 V. Find i, v;, and v2. How do these values compare to those obtained in Example 1.127 : ANSWER 72 A, 24 V, 18 V. The values are. tripled. The concept of dependent sources is not introduced simply for abstraction, but it is precisely this type of source that models the behavior of such important electronic devices as transistors and amplifiers. Comments about Circuit Elements Certain types of nonideal circuit elements, such as positive-valued resistors, come in a wide variety of values and are readily available in the form of discrete components. For many situations, the assumption that an actual resistor behaves as an ideal resistor is a reasonable one. With a few exceptions, however, this is not the case with independent voltage and current sources. Although an actual battery often can be thought of as an ideal voltage source, other nonideal independent sources are approximated by a combination of circuit elements (some of which will be discussed later). Among these elements are the dependent sources, which are not discrete components, as are many resistors andBasic Elements and Laws batteries, but are in a sense part of electronic devices such as transistors and oper- ational amplifiers (which consist of numerous transistors and resistors). But don't try to peel open a transistor’s metal can (for those that are constructed that way) so that you can sce a little diamond-shaped object. The dependent source is a theoretical clement that is used to help describe or model the behavior of various electric de- vices. In summary, although ideal circuit elements are not off-the-shelf circuit compo- nents, their importance lies in the fact that they can be interconnected (on paper or on a computer) to approximate actual circuits that are comprised of nonideal elements and assorted electrical components—thus allowing for the analysis of such circuits. 1.5 Instantaneous Power Recall that electrons flow through a resistor from a given potential to a higher po- tential, and hence (positive-valued) current goes from a given potential to a lower one. Potential difference or voltage is a measure of work per unit charge (i.e., J/C). To _obtain-a-current-through an element, as shown in Fig.-1.54, it-takes-a certain amount of work or energy—and_we-say.that this energy is absorbed by the element, By taking the product of voltage (energy per unit charge) and current (charge per unit time), we get a quantity that measures energy per unit time. Such a term is known as power. It is for this reason that we define p(t), the instantaneous power absorbed by an element as in Fig. 1.54, as the product of voltage and current. That is, PO) = v(i) The init of power (J/s) is called the watt’ (W). Given an expression for instantaneous power absorbed p(1), to determine the power absorbed at time fo, simply substitute the number fy into the expression. Fig. 1.54 Arbitrary element with conventional current direction and voltage polarity. "Named for the Scottish inventor James Watt (1736-1819), 3940 Circuits ‘As with Ohm's law, when using the formula for power absorbed, we must always be conscious of both the voltage polarity and the current direction. For example, for the situation shown in Fig. 1.55, going back to the definition for instantaneous power absorbed, we have in this case pi) = vi Fig. 1.55 Nonconventional current direction with respect to voltage polarity. Since power absorbed in a given element can be-either a positive or a negative quantity (depending on the relationship between voltage and current for the element), we can say that the element absorbs x watts, or, equivalently, that it supplies (or delivers) —x watts. Example 1.13 oI TEP Consider the circuit in Fig. 1.56. Let us determine the (instantaneous) power absorbed by each of the elements for the case that / = 10 A. Fig. 1.56 Circuit containing a voltage and a current source. Since all the elements are connected in parallel, then the voltage across each of the elements is 6 V. Therefore, by Ohm’s law, 6 6 A=T6A B=5=3A B= and the powers absorbed by the 1-9, 2-2, and 3-2 resistors are Pi = 6 = 36W, pr = 6i2=18W, 3 = 643 = 12 WBasic Elements and Laws 41 respectively, for a total of Pr = Pi + pr + ps = 36 + 18 + 12 = 66 W absorbed by the resistors. By KCL, P+10= ++ =64342=11 = THIA Thus the power absorbed by the voltage source is Py = -6i= -6W in other words, the power supplied by the voltage source is 6 W. Alr> note that the power absorbed by the current source is Pi = —6(10) = —60 W in other words, the power supplied by the current source is 60 W. Hence, the total power absorbed in the circuit is Prt py t+ p= 66 -6-60=0W Recalling from elementary physics that power is work (energy) per unit time, we see that the fact that the total power absorbed is zero is equivalent to saying that the principle of the conservation of energy is satisfied in this circuit (as it is in any circuit), In this case, the sources supplied all the power and the resistors absorbed it all. Now, however, consider the situation in which J = 12 A. In this case i =6A, 2=3A, B=2A and pi =36W, po=18W, p= 12W Pr = Pi + Pr + Ps = 66 W as before. But by KCL,L 42 Circuits Py = 61) =6W and py 6(12) 72 W s so that the total power absorbed is pe + py t+ p= 66 +6-72=0W | and again power (energy) is conserved. However, in is Case, not only do the sistors absorb power, but so does the voltage source.” It is the current source ed tha supplies all the power absorbed in the circuit. Drill Exercise 1.13 wade gat For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.56, determine the value of J for which i = 0 4 Find the power absorbed by each resistor, the voltage source, and the current, source under this circumstance, ANSWER 11 A, 36 W, 18 W, 12 W, 0 W, —66 Wo 319 Power Absorbed by Resistors In all the examples worked so far, the reader may have noted that the power absorbed in every resistor was a nonnegative” number. As we now shall see, this is always the case. Fig. 1.57 Resistor with conventional current direction and voltage polarity. Consider the resistor shown in Fig. 1.57. By definition, the power absorbed by the resistor is p = i, But by Ohm's law, v = Ri. Thus, p = (Ri)i, or “in practical terms, the voltage source (battery) is being charged. "A positive number is a number that is greater than zero; a none; ative number is a number that is greater than or equal to zero,Basic Elements and Laws 43 and both formulas for calculating the power absorbed by a resistor R demonstrate that p is always a nonnegative number when R is positive. eT Example 1.14 mera For the circuit given in Fig. 1.56, the voltage across each resistor is 6 V. Therefore, regardless of the value of /, the power absorbed by the 1-@ resistor is 2 = 36W a= the power absorbed by the 2-02 resistor is i f | £ t b i f yivten “ A resistor always. absorbs power_In a physical resistor, this Pow’ ipated as heat_In some types of resistors (e.g., an incandescent Tamp or bulb, a toaster, or an electric space heater), this property is desirable in that the net result may be light cor warmth, In other types of resistors, such as those in electronic circuits, the heat dissipated by a resistor may affect the operation of its circuit. In this case, heat dissipation cannot be ignored. The common carbon resistor comes in values that range from less than 10 0 to more than 10 M{®. The physical size of such resistors will determine the amount of afely dissipate. These amounts are referred to as power ratings. Typical power ratings of electronic-circuit carbon resistors are KA LD and 2 W. The dissipation of power that exceeds the rating of a resistor ean damage the resistor Physically. When an application requires the use of a resistor that must dissipate power that they can s:44 Circuits more than 2 W, another type—the wire-wound resistor—is often used. Metal-film resistors, although more expensive to construct, can have higher power ratings than carbon resistors and are more reliable and more stable. In addition to the lumped circuit elements such as carbon, wire-wound, and metal-film resistors, there are re- sistors in integrated-circuit (IC) form. These (ypes of resistors, which dissipate only small amounts of power, are part of the countless ICs employed in present-day electronics. / 1. An ideal voltage source is a device that pro- duces a specific (not necessarily constant with time) electric potential difference across its terminals re- gardless of what is connected to it. 2. An ideal current source is a device that pro- duces a specific (not necessarily constant with time) current through it regardless of what is connected to it. 3. A (linear) resistor is a device in which the volt- age across it is directly proportional to the current through it. If we write the equation (Ohm's law) describing this as v = Ri, then the constant of proportionality R is called resistance. If we write i = Gy, then G is known as conductance. Thus R= UG. 4. An open circuit is an infinite resistance and a short circuit is a zero resistance. The former is equiv- alent to an ideal current source whose value is zero; the latter is equivalent to an ideal voltage source whose value is zero. 5. At any node of a circuit, the currents algebrai- cally sum to zero Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL). 6. Around any loop in a circuit, the voltages al- gebraically sum to zero Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL). 7. Current going into a parallel connection of sistors divides among them the smallest resistance has the most current through it. 8. Voltage across a series connection of resistor divides among them the largest resistance has the most voltage across it. 9. Resistances in a series behave as a single resis- tance whose value equals the sum of the individual resistances. 10. Conductances in parallel behave as a single conductance whose value equals the sum of the in- dividual conductances. 11, Voltage sources in series can be combined into a single voltage source and current sources in parallel can be combined into a single current source. 12. Voltage and current sources can be dependent as well as independent. 13. A dependent source is a voltage or current source whose value depends on some other circuit variable, 14. The power absorbed by an element is the prod- uuct of the current through it and the voltage across it,Problems 4.1. An ideal voltage source is described by the function 0) = 10e~* V. Find the value of this volt- age source when (a) = 05, (0) t= 1, (0) = 2 s@t= 3s @ra4s. 4.2. An ideal voltage source is described by the function v() = 5 sin (w/2)t V. Find the value of this voltage source when (a) f= 0s, (d) 1 = 15, (r= 28, @ t= 3s, and(e)r= 4s. 4.3 An ideal voltage source is described by the fanction (f) = 3 cos (1/2)t V. Find the value of this voltage source when (a) 1 = 0s, 0) 6 = 15, (t= 28, @)1=3s,and@ra 4s. 4.4 Find the current in a region when the total charge in the region is described by the function (a) g(t) = 4e7 C, (b) g(t) = 3 sin at C, () g) = 6 cos 2nt C, and (d) q(#) = Se“ cos 34 C. 4.5. An ideal voltage source is described by the function shown in Fig, P1.5. Find the value of this voltage source when (a) t = 0 5, (b) ¢ 1s, (t= 2s, r= 3s,and (r= 4s. Fig. PLS g(t) in some region is de- ig. P1.S. Sketch 1.6. The total charge scribed by the function shown in Fi the current i(t) in this region. Basic Elements and Laws 45 1.7 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. P1.7. (a) Given i, = 4 A, find v,. (b) Given ip = ~2 A, find v2. (c) Given i; = 2 A, find vs. (d) Given i -2 A, find ve. Fig. P17 4.8 Consider the circuit in Fig. P1.7. (a) Given vy = 30 ¥, find iy. (b) Given v, = 12 ¥, find fx (©) Given vy = 9 V, find is. (d) Given va = ~3 Ys find ig. 4.9 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. P17. (a) Given v, = —10 ¥, find iy. (b) Given i, = 1 A, find Ys. (©) Given vs = 3 Y, find is. (d) Given ig = 1 A, find v4. 4.10. Consider the circuit in Fig. P1.10. (a) Given vy = 6 ¥, find i. (b) Given v3 = 24 V, find ia. (©) Given vy = 11 Y, find is. (d) Given v4 = 21 ¥, find in (€) Given vs = —14 Y, find is. 4.11 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. P1.10. (a) Given i, = 1.5 A, find v,. (b) Given ip = —4 A, find vp, (€) Given i = 5.5 A, find vs. (d) Given ia = 3.5 A, find vq. (€) Given is = 3.5 A, find v5. 30 19 oe46 Circuits 12 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. P1.12. (a) Given i, = —4 A, find vy. (b) Given iz = 1 A, find V2. (¢) Given i; = 1 A, find v3. (d) Given i, = 2 A, find v4. Fig.P1.12 1.13 Consider the circuit in Fig. P1.12. (a) Given —2 V, find i,. (b) Given v) = -1 V, find iz. 6 V, find i. (d) Given vg = 3 V, (©) Given v3 = find is. 1.14 Consider the circuit in Fig. P1.14. (a) Given i, = 3 A and v, = 6 V, find Ry. (b) Given iz = 3A and v, = —15 V, find Rp. (c) Given is = —2 A and vy = 6 V, find Ry. (d) Given ig = —1 A and v3 = 6 V, find Ry. Fig. P1.14 1.15 Consider the circuit in Fig. P1.14, (a) Given i, = 6 A and v, = 18 V, find R,. (b) Given i, = 6 A and v; = 36 V, find Ry. (c) Given iy = 4A and v; = 16 V, find Ry. (d) Given i, = -2 A and vy = 16 V, find Ry. 1.16 For the circuit shown in Fig. P1.16, find v when (a) i, = 1A, (b) i, = 2A, (0) i, = 3 A. Fig. P1.16 1.17 For the circuit shown in Fig. PL.17, fag, when (a) v, = 1 V, (0) %» = 2 V, Ome 3V, r o® Fig. P1.17 1.18 For the circuit shown in Fig. P1.18, find », when (a) v, = 2 V, (b) yy = 4 V, (C) , = 6V. Fig. P1.18 1.19 For the circuit shown in Fig. P1.19, suppose that i, = 6 A. Use the current-divider formula to determine i, is, ig, and is. Fig. P1.19 1.20 For the circuit shown in Fig. P1.19, supP°* that i, = 4 A. Use the current-divider formula determine iy, in, i, and is.4.21 For the circuit shown in Fig, P1.19, suppose hat iy = ~2 A. Use the current-divider formula to determine iy, is, ig, and is. 4.22, For the circuit given in Fig. P1.19, suppose gut is = 4A. Use the current-divider formula to determine i, fz, isp and ig. 4.23. For the circuit shown in Fig. P1.23, suppose that i, = 2 A. Find v for the case that (a) i, = 1 A, (0) iy = 2A, and (0) ip = 3A. 4.24 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. P1.23. Find v when (a) i) = 12 A and i, = 6 A, (b) i) = 6 Aandi, = 6A, (0) i = 6 Aandi, = 12 A. 4.25 Find the variables indicated for the circuits shown in Fig. P1.25. 4.26 Find the variables indicated for the circuits shown in Fig. P1.26. (See p. 48.) 4.27 Find the variables indicated for the circuits shown in Fig. P1.27. (See p. 48.) Fig. P125 a-d Basic Elements and Laws 47 1.28 For the circuit shown in Fig. P1.28, find the variables indicated when R is (a) 2 9, (b) 4, and ©) 60. 4.29 For the circuit shown in Fig. P1.29, find the variables indicated when R is (a) 2 9, (b) 4 9, and ©)62. -9v48 Circuits © Fig. P1.27 ac 1.30 Find v and i for the series-parallel circuit shown in Fig. P1.30. 1.31 Find v and i for the series-parallel circuit shown in Fig. P1.31. 1.32 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. P1.32. (a) Find i, vs, vz, and v3. (b) Remove the short circuit @ between a and b (erase it), and find i, v), and Yr (Don’t try to find Vy—it can’t be done!) 1.33 Consider the series-parallel circuit shown it Fig. P1.33. (a) Find V, when v, = 2 V. (b) Find Vs when is = 3 A. (c) Find V, when is = 4 A. (d) What is the resistance Rg = V,/i loading the battery for Part (a)? For part (b)? For part (c)?Basic Elements and Laws 49 an an + wv(*) 30 20gy Fig. P1.30 3U 20 Fig. P1.31 Fig. P1.33 4.34 Consider the nonseries-parallel circuit shown in Fig. P1.34. (a) When R = } 0, then v, = 6 V. Determine the resistance Req = V,/i loading the bat- tery. 1.35 Consider the nonseries-parallel circuit shown in Fig, P1.34, When R = 4 0, then v, = 4 V. De- termine the resistance Reg = V,/i loading the battery. 1.36 Consider the nonseries-parallel circuit shown in Fig. P1.34. Determine R and the resistance Reg = V,/i loading the battery when v, = 3 V. Fig. P1.3450 Circuits 1.37 The nonseries-parallel circuit shown in P1.37 is known as a twin-T network. (a) When Ry = 1 Qand R; = 3 O, then v2 = 6 V. Determine the resistance R.q = V,/i loading the battery. 1.38 For the twin-T network shown in Fig. P1.37, suppose that Ry = } © and v2 = 3 V. Deter- mine R, and the resistance R.q = V,/i loading the battery. 1.39 Shown in Fig. P1.39 is a nonseries-parallel connection known as a bridge circuit. When Ry 10 © and Ry = 10, then v, = 10 V. Find v2, i, V3, and the resistance R., = V,/i, loading the voltage source. 1.40 For the bridge circuit shown in Fig. P1.39, when R; = 2 Mand R, = 4 0, then v, = 4 V. Find ‘V2, i, v3, and the resistance R,, = V,/i, loading the voltage source. 1.41 For the bridge circuit shown in Fig. P1.39, when the current i = 0 A, we say that the bridge is balanced. Under what condition (find an ¢, sion relating R, and R,) will this bridge je | anced? Me 1.42 For the circuit shown in Fig. P1.42,¢, when (a) K = 2, (b) K = 3, and (<) K= 4. th KiA ¢) 30. 1.43. The circuit shown in Fig. P1.43 contains « voltage-dependent voltage source as well as a current-dependent current source. Find i; when (@) K = -3, (b) K = —1.5, and (¢) K = 15. V,=12V Fig. P1.39Basic Elements and Laws 51 4.44 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. P1.44. Find v when (a) K = 2, and (b) K = 4. 1.45 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. P1.45. Find i when (a) K = 2, and (b) K = 4. 4.46 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. P1.46. (a) Find the resistance Re, = vyliy. (b) Find the voltage vy» in terms of the applied voltage ¥,. 4.48 For the circuit shown in Fig. P1.48, suppose that R = 10.0. Determine (a) v,, and (b) Reg = Yslix a. 19 loo 30 Fig. P1.46 1.47 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. P1.47. (a) Fig. p1.48 Find the resistance Reg = vif. (b) Use voltage di- vision to find v in terms of v,. (c) Find the voltage 1.49 For the circuit shown in Fig. P1.48, suppose v2 in terms of the applied voltage v,. that R = 8 ©. Determine (a) v,, and (b) Reg = ¥slis Fig. P1.45,§2 Circuits 1.51. For the circuit shown in Fig. P1.50, suppose that R = 3 0. Determine (a) i,, and (b) Reg = Vs 1.52 The circuit shown in Fig. P1.52 is a single field-effect transistor (FET) amplifier in which the input is v; and the output is v2. The portion of the circuit in the shaded box is an approximate model of an FET. (a) Find v,, in terms of vy. (b) Find vq in terms of v,. (c) Find v; when y, = 0.1 cos 120m V. 5X10", A 10k Fig. P1.52 it shown in Fig, p bipolar junction transistor (BIT) amples Ye the input is vy and the output is v,. The 9” "4 the cireuitin the shaded box i an approxingr of a BIT in the common-emitter configura Find iy in terms of the input voltage v, a y output voltage v, in terms of ¥,. () Fing ne ¥ = 0.1 cos 120m V. 1.54 The circuit shown in Fig. P1.54 jg single bipolar junction transistor (BIT) ampige which the input is v, and the output is The pang in the shaded box is an approximate model of; in the common-base configuration. (3) Find i, terms of the input voltage ,. (b) Find the voltage v3 in terms of v4. (c) Find vy when y= 0.1 cos 120m V. 1.55 For the circuit given in Fig. 1.51 on p., v = 12 V, i) = 4A, and iy = 6 A. Determine te power absorbed by each element in the circuit 1.56 For the circuit given in Fig. 1.52 00 p.36, v = 24 V. Determine the power absorbed by ea element in the circuit. 4 Fig. P1.53Basic Elements and Laws 53 Fig. P54 1.57 For the circuit given in Fig, 1.53 on p. 37, 24 A. Determine the power absorbed by each element in the circuit. 1.58 For the circuit given in Fig, P1.42, determine the power absorbed by each element when (@) K = 2, and (b) K = -2, 1.59. For the circuit shown in Fig. P1.44, deter- mine the power absorbed by each clement given that (a) K = 2 and y = 1.5 V; (b) K = 4 and vy = -1.5 V. 1.60 For the circuit shown in Fig. PI.45, deter- mine the power absorbed by each clement given that (a) K = 2andi = 1.5 A;(b)K = 4andi = -15A.Created by PDF Combine Unregistered Version ‘Created by PDF Combine Unregistered Version remove the watermark, Please registerCircuit Analysis Principles 2.1. Nodal Analysis 2.4 Ideal Amplifiers 2.2 Determinants and Cramer's Rule 2.8 Thévenin’s and Norton's Theorems 2.3 Mesh Analysis 2.6 Linearity and Superposition INTRODUCTION The process by which we determine a variable (either a voltage or a current) of a circuit is called analysis. Up to this point, we have been dealing with circuits that are relatively uncomplicated. Don't be fooled, though, because some very simple circuits can be quite useful. As part of the set of problems, we have already come across some simple single-stage amplifier circuits whose analysis was accomplished by applying the basic principles cavered to date—Ohm’s law, KCL, and KVL. None- theless, we will want to analyze more complicated circuits—circuits for which it is simply not possible to write and solve a single equation that has only one unknown. Instead, we will have to write and solve a set of linear algebraic equations. To obtain such equations, we again utilize Ohm's law, KCL, and KVL. ‘There are two distinct approaches that we will take. In one, we will write a set of simultaneous equations in which the variables_are voltages, known as nodal anal- aia. in the other, we will write a set of simultaneous equations in which.the variables “re currents, known as mesh analysis (also called loop anelysis), Although nodal analysis can be used for any circuit, mesh analysis is valid only for planar net: works—that is, circuits that can be drawn in a two-dimensional plane in such a way that no. element crosses over another, ‘A very important circuit element is the operational amplifier. Because of the evo- lution of integrated-circuit (IC) technology, the operational amplifier (or op amp) is both small in size and inexpensive. Its versatility and usefulness have made it ex-Circuit Analysis Principles 55 tremely popular. In this chapter, we study the operational amplifier from the point of view of an ideal circuit element, and a number of applications are presented. A discussion of the operational amplifier from the electronics point of view is given in Chapter 10. An important circuit concept is Thévenin’s theorem. This result says, in essence, that an arbitrary circuit behaves as led voltage source in series with an appropriately valued resistance to the outside world. A major consequence of this the dete ion of the maximum power that can be delivered to a load and the condition for which this occurs. “When a circuit contains more than one independent source, a response (a voltage or a current) of the circuit can be obtained by finding the response to each individual independent source and then summing these individual responses. This notion, known as the principle of superposition, is another important circuit concept that is frequently used. Although in this chapter we consider resistive circuits—that is, circuits that con- tain only resistors and sources (both independent and dependent)—we will see later that the same techniques are applicable to networks that contain other types of el- ements as well. 2.1 Nodal Analysis Given a circuit to be analyzed, the first step in employing nodal analysis is the arbitrary choice of one of the nodes of the circuit as the reference (or datum) node. ‘Although this node can be indicated by any of the three symbols shown in Fig. 2.1, we will use the symbol depicted in Fig. 2.la exclusively. Lo ted @ O} o Fig. 2.1 Symbols used to indicate a reference node. We can label any node in a circuit with its potential with respect to the reference node in the following manner. Suppose that the voltages between nodes a, ¢, and the reference node are as shown in Fig. 2.2. Then, Fig. 2.3 indicates how the nodes are labeled. Of course, since the potential difference between the reference node and itself must be zero volts, we can mark the reference node ‘0 V"" if we wish, but this is redundant. It is possible and easy to express the voltage between any pair of nodes in terms of the potentials (with respect to the reference node) of those two nodes, Suppose56 Circuits Fig. 2.2 Some node voltages. Fig. 2.3 Node voltage designations, that we wish to determine the voltage va. between nodes a and c, with the plus at node a and the minus at node c, in terms of v, and v,. This situation is depicted in Fig. 2.4. Since the labeling in Fig. 2.5 is equivalent to Fig. 2.4, by KVL we have that vac = Va — vg. Similarly, the voltage v., between nodes a and c, with the plus at node c and the minus at node a, is Veq = = Ve ‘ + + Fig. 2.4 Voltage between nonreference nodes. _Fig. 2.5 Determination of voltage between nonreference nodes. With these ideas in mind, let us see how to employ nodal analysis for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.6. After choosing the reference node arbitrarily, the two nonreference nodes are labeled v, and v;, The next step is to indicate currents (the names and directions are arbitrary) through elements that do not already have currents indicated through them. For this example, the values and directions of the current sources are given whereas ij, i3, and i; were chosen arbitrarily. Fig. 2.6 Example of nodal analysis,Circuit Analysis Principles 57 Now apply KCL at the node labeled y,. The result is itis = 6 Quay By Ohm's law, i) = v)/1 and is = (», — v,)/3. Substituting these into Eq. 2.1 yi 4yuow 1 3 8 = Ay vy = 18 (22) When we apply KCL at node v, (ie., the node labeled v2), we obtain in + iy = 12 and by Ohm's law 2/2, this equation becomes = wy — Sy. = 72 (23) Equations 2.2 and 2.3 are simultaneous, linear equations in the unknowns v, and v2. Multiplying Eq. 2.3 by 2 and subtracting the result from Eq. 2.2, we get = -12%6 = w=-14V Substituting this value of v2 in Eq. 2.2, we obtain 4y,-(-14)=18 = MLV Having determined the values of v; and vz, it is a routine matter to determine iy, and is. By Ohm's law, Now that we have seen an example of the application of nodal analysis, we can state the rules of nodal analysis for circuits that do not contain voltage sources. We will discuss the case of circuits with voltage sources immediately thereafter.58 Circuits ee Nodal Analysis for Circuits No Voltage Sources Given a circuit with n nodes and no voltage sources, proceed as follows: 1, Select any node as the reference node. 2. Label the remaining n — 1 nodes (€.g., 1, V2. «+s Yp-i)- 3. Arbitrarily assign currents to the elements in which no current is designated, 4, Apply KCL at each nonreference node. 5. Use Ohm's law to express the currents through resistors in terms of the node voltages, and substitute these expressions into the current equations obtained in Step 4. 6. Solve the resulting set of n — 1 simultaneous equations for the node voltages. Having seen an example of nodal analysis for a circuit without a voltage source, let us now consider a circuit in which a voltage source is present, Example 2.1 ener eee Figure 2.7 shows a circuit that contains a 3-V independent voltage source, as well as a dependent current source whose value depends on the voltage across the 6-0 resistor which is drawn vertically. This circuit has four nodes—one is the reference node and the other three are labeled v,,"v2, and v3. The directions of the currents i. iz, is, and i, through the resistors were chosen arbitrarily, Fig. 2.7 Nodal analysis of a circuit with an independent voltage source. Because there is a voltage source connected between node vy, and the reference node, we do not have to apply KCL! at node v4. By inspection we have that 7 ‘Since there is no constraint on the current through a voltage source, KCL should not he applied at nove ¥ at is umeCircuit Analysis Principles 59 v1 = 3 V. This is the equation that is obtained at node v,. Thus, essentially, there are only two unknowns, v; and vs, To determine these, we proceed as discussed previously. ‘At node v2, by KCL, ithta=0 By Ohm's law, this equation becomes Mov, ye Aer 6a 4) 7 Git H=0 4a 10m + 6 At node v3, by KCL, 1 4G get hti=o S and so by Ohm's law, int 3 6, +9%,=0 % Q5) From Eq. 2.5, v3 = 2v,/3. Substituting this into Eq. 2.4, we get 2 =10v, + (2) =-9 = w= 3 =15V (26) and hence . Having completed the nodal analysis for the circuit, that is having found all of the circuit's node voltages, we can now calculate the currents. By Ohm's law | wo i= 45 wT aoe60 Circuits Thus, the resistance loading the voltage source is R = 3/is pea Exercise 2.1 SS For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.7, replace the dependent current source with , voltage-dependent voltage source (+ on top) whose value is 2vz V. Use nodg analysis to find v;, v2, and v3. What is the current, directed down, through the dependent source? What is’ the resistance loading the independent voltage source? ANSWER 3 V, —45 V, -5 V, 5.63 A, 0.8 2 Voltage ‘Sources Between Nonreference Nodes Up to this point, when we employed nodal analysis, a voltage source in a circuit was connected between a nonreference node and the reference node. For the case that a voltage source is connected between two nonreference nodes, say Va and vp, and no other voltage source is connected to either of these two nodes, assign a current, say i, through the voltage source in question. Apply KCL at nodes vq and yp, and then combine the two equations to eliminate i, Thus, instead of getting two equations from nodes v, and v,, only one is obtained. However, we can get the other equation from KVL by expressing the value of the voltage source in terms of vq and vp. siento 2.2 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.8, the 4-V source is connected between two nonr ference nodes. Fig. 2.8 Circuit with voltage source connected between two nonreference nodes.Circuit Analysis Principles 61 By inspection, v; = 24 V. By KCL at node v2, Mitt 7) By Ohm's law7i; = (24 ~ v;)/2 andi; = —v2/6. However, there is no constraint on the current through a voltage source. Therefore, we cannot express i directly in terms of v2 and v5. By KCL at node vs, +3 w (2.8) i where i; = vs/8. Again, we cannot express i directly in terms of v2 and v3. However, by combining Eq. 2.7 and 2.8, we get th=ip +37 and by Ohm's law this equation becomes W-vw my _v - Sota Fts = lin + 3y = 216 @9) So far we have one equation and two unknowns. We need another equation in the unknowns v2 and y3. Such an equation can be obtained from the 4-V source itself. Specifically, by KVL, F wow =4 ei | and this is the needed equation. 5 ‘The solution to Eq. 2.9 and 2.10 is v) = 12 V and v3 = 8 V. Using these voltages, we may now calculate the circuit’s currents. In particular, : i -2A } } E i aronmmmers ‘Drill Exorcise 2.2 'For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.8, change the value of the 4-V source to 23 Vv. Use nodal analysis to find vy, v2. and v3. Determine the currents for the circuit. Answer 24V, 15 V,-8V,45 A, -25A,2A,-1A62 Circuits Circuits with more than one voltay are treated in a manner similar to that 2.2 Determinants and C For the ayxy + ax, = dy bixy + boxy = dy where the coefficients a), dz, by, by are given, as are dy, dz, and the unknowns x, X2, are to be determined. The determinant D of the coefficients a), a2, by, be, is defined by a >=), To use Cramer's rule, two more determinants D, and D2 must be calculated. To find Dy, replace coefficients a, and b, by d; and dy, respectively, that is, Dy To find D,, replace the coefficients az and by by dy and dp respectively. That 1s, D2 = By Cramer’s rule, 4 = 2 '"D analysis of circuits previously encountered, we had situations in which we were required to solve two cquations in two unknowns. Although the approaches taken were slightly different, there is yct another technique, known as Cramer’s rule, that can be employed. To sce how this is done, first consider the pair of simultaneous equations, dy, jd d, o 4 = ad, — bid, re source connected between nonreference nodes already discussed.* amer’s Rule a Ba] = aba — bias 2! = dyby — daa and x = 22 D Examplo 2.3 a Consider Eq, 2.2 and 2.3, which are now repeated. Avy — v2 = 18 2vy — Sv, #72Circuit Analysis Principles 63 Forming determinants, we have _{|4 -1 b D= |i 2 = (4(-5) — (2-1) = -18 j 18-1 D= 2 a = (18-5) — (72(-1) = —18 A 4 18) Dz = | | = (4)(72) — (2(18) = 252 sa and by Cramer's rule, Dy, =18 5 D -18— Exercise 2.3 ‘For the two equations 10v, — 62 = 9 and 2, — vz = 0, use Cramer's rule to find D, Dy, Dz, v1, and v2. ANSWER 2, —9, —18, 4.5 V, -9 V For the case of three equations and three unknowns yxy + ax, + ayty = dy byxy + bax + dys = de em tan + Or = ds the determinant D is given by a, a, ay D= |b, by bs = aibses + arbyer + aybicr — aybaey — aybyez — asbicy 1a 6% A simple way to remember this formula is to repeat the first (wo columns and thea Put in solid and dashed lines as follows: a 4) Pi. bs by hh St a Ia Hy GS64 Circuits The ne} id lines indi five products. To obtain D,, replace the column consisting of ay, by. ¢, with the column con. sisting of dj, ds, dy and the resulting determinant, Similarly, Dy is obtained by re- placing a3, bs, ¢2 with dy, dy, ds and Dy is obtained by replacing ay, by. ey with dj, dy, dy. Again, by Cramer's rule, ry | “Sp BSD BSD Just as Cramer's rule can be applied to the cas and three simultaneous equations, so simultaneous equations, However, thi 's of two simultaneous equations an it be employed for the case of four or more ubject is beyond the scope of this book. Example 2.4 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.9, which contains two voltage sources—one independent and one dependent. In this circuit, the reference node and the node es have been labeled, Even though currents have not been explicitly indicated, let us go ahead and employ nodal analysis, sa Fig. 2.9 Nodal analysis of a circuit with two voltage sources. Since there is a voltage source between node v, and the reference node, by itt spection we have “M=S5V Summing the currents out of node v3 to zero, by KCL, = Wy, - 24g = 25 QuCircuit Analysis Principles 65 Since there is a voltage source (even though it is a dependent source) between node vs and the reference node, we again obtain, by inspection, w= 102 = 10+, =0 (2.12) Summing the currents into node vy to zero, we get Yo — Ve | V3 ve | ~My “y tajptestqo = -12v, — 20) + 47¥4 = 0 (2.13) The three equations in three unknowns that must be solved are given in Eq. 2.11, 2.12, and 2.13. Again, these equations are 17v) + Ovy — 2vg = 25 10v) + 1v3 + Ov, = —12v, — 20v3 + 47v, = 0 Calculating determinants: 17 0 2] =(17)(1)(47) + (0-12) + (—2)(10)(—20), D= 10 1 0 — (—12)(1(—2) — (—20)(0)(17) — (47)(0)(10) -12 -20 47) =1175 25 0 —2| = (25)(1)(47) + (OVO) + (—2)(0(-20) Dz=]0 1 Of = CNIN-2) = (-20(0)(25) — 4700) 0 -20 = 1175 17 25 —2| = (17)(0)(47) + (25)(0)(—12) + (—2)(10)(0) D;=} 10 0 Of ~(~12)(0-2) = (0)(0)(17) — (47)(25)(10) =12 0 47] =-11,750 17 0 25] = (17)(1)0) + ()(0)(—12) + (25)(10)(-20) Dy=]} 10 1 0} == (—12)(1)(25) — (—20)(0)(17) — (0)(0)(10) =12 -20 0]= —4700 Thus by Cramer's rule, the remaining node voltages are Dz _ 1175 a2 UE aay, “=D ~ 1175 vg = Dt aw AOL gy66 Circuits Having determined all the node voltages, by Ohm's law we have that CEPTS EE I Drill Exercise 2.4 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.9, replace the voltage-dependent voltage soz; with a current-dependent voltage source (having the same polarity) whose v2): _is 5i, V. Determine the resulting node voltage v;, v2, ¥3, and v4. ANSWER SV, 1V,>10.V,-4V Pe Mesh Analysis As mentioned previously, mesh analysis can be used only for planar networks, that is, circuits that can be drawn in the plane in such a way that elements do not cross. As a result of its definition, we deduce that a planar network necessarily partitions the plane into regions or ‘windows’ called meshes. One of the meshes, which surrounds the circuit, is infinite. The remaining meshes are finite. The first step in employing mesh analysis is to visualize a current, called a mesh current, around each finite mesh (whether clockwise or counterclockwise is arbi- trary). To be specific, consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.10. The (finite) mesh Fig. 2.10 Example of mesh analysis.Circuit Analysis Principles 67 bounded by the 5-V source, the leftmost 1-9 resistor, and the 2-0 resistor has the clockwise mesh current ij. The other finite mesh (the mesh bounded by the 10-V source, the 2-0 resistor, and the rightmost 1-0 resistor) has the clockwise mesh current i. Although mesh currents are an invention, we can express the actual current through any element in a circuit in terms of the mesh currents. For the circuit in Fig. 2.10, the current going to the right through the leftmost 1-02 resistor is é, and that going to the right through the other 1-0 resistor is ig. The current going down through the 2-01 resistor is iy — iz, What is the current through the 5-V source? What is it through the 10-V source? : Having selected mesh currents for the circuit in Fig. 2.10, we now apply KVL to each mesh. (The polarities for the voltages v,, vz, and vs were chosen arbitrarily.) For mesh i; (i.c., the mesh labeled with the mesh current i,) by KVL, vy +3 = 5 Using Ohm's law this equation becomes ly +2%-)=5 + 34 -M%W=S 2.14) For mesh iz, by KVL, vy + v3 = 10 Using Ohm’s law this equation becomes Pili +A -—)=10 => 2 — 3h = 10 (2.15) Solving Eq. 2.14 and 2.15, we get the values of the mesh currents:, =-1A and = -4A se Once we know the mesh currents, we can find any current or voltage in the circuit. For example, the current going down through the 2-0 resistor is i, — ig = 3A. The voltages labeled in the circuit are y=ly=-1V, we-lk=4V, w= 2-1) =6V Now that we have seen an example of the application of mesh analysis, we can State the rules for mesh analysis for planar circuits that do not contain current sources. We will discuss the case of circuits with current sources immediately thereafter.Mesh Analysis for Circuits with No Current Sources Given a planar circuit with m meshes and no current sources, proceed as follows: 1s is, «+ + iq) in the m (finite) meshes. 1. Place mesh currents (€.g. 2, Arbitrarily assign voltages to the elements for which no voltage is designated, 3. Apply KVL to each of the m meshes. 4. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages across resistors in terms of the mesh currents, and substitute these expressions into the voltage equations obtained in Step 3. 5. Solve the resulting set of m simultaneous equations for the mesh currents. Having seen an example of mesh analysis for a circuit without a current source, let us now consider a circuit in which a current source is present. Leone 2.5 ee ae TS RSE, Let us determine the clockwise mesh currents ij, iz, and is indicated in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.11. (The polarities for the voltages v1, v2, v3, and v4 were choset arbitrarily.) Fig. 2.11 Mesh analysis of a circuit with a current source. Since the only mesh current that goes through the current source is i, we DYE by inspection that i, = 3 A. This is the equation obtained for mesh iy, Thus, es" Ually, there are only two unknown mesh currents, iy and iy. To determine thest. * Proceed as discussed previously.Circuit Analysis Principles 69 For mesh i:, by KVL, —¥ — ¥y — 0.6% = 0 Using Ohm's law this equation becomes “Mh + 4) -— Mi — 4) - 0.605) = 0 => 10iz — Bi; = Si, = 15 (2.16) 4 For mesh is, by KVL, ‘ Using Ohm's law this equation becomes“ i -i, -H) + 1H) + i+ 1y=0 = j -i+ 5ip= 3 =9 QIN 5 Solving Eq, 2.16 and 2.17, we obtain ip=35A and fp =25A Since i, = 3 A, then by Ohm's law, (iy - §) = 15, = M-m + 4) = -1V (i, —2)=-O05V, w= 1s =25V OR A Drill Exercise 2.5 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.11, replace the dependent voltage source with a 3-M resistor. Use mesh analysis to find the three clockwise mesh currents for the circuit. Use these currents to determine the voltages vj, v2, v3. and v4. ANSWER 3A,1A,2A,3V,1V,2V,2V In the preceding example, the circuit contained a current source that was common to a finite mesh and the infinite mesh, In such a case, we can express the finite mesh Current in terms of the value of the current source by inspection. For the case that & current source is common to two finite meshes, say i, and i,, assign a voltage, Say70 Circ ly KVL around meshes 3 ‘Thus instead of getting two equations r, we can get the other equation by ‘of the mesh currents i, and i,. vy across the current source in question. Appl then combine the two equations to eliminate v. from meshes i, and ig, only one is obtained. Howeve expressingthe value of the current source in terms ‘xample 2.6 IRSA , ae, * Let us find the clockwise mesh currents depicted in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.1), Fig. 2.12. Circuit with a current source common to two finite meshes. For mesh ij, by KVL, vty -6=0 Substituting into this equation the fact that vj = 3(i, — is) and vy = 2(i, — i), thea 3a — 4) + 2G - 2) - 6 = => Si — 2, - 313 = 6 For mesh is, by KVL, ven—vy Although v2 = 2(i, ~ i) and vy = 4ip, across the 7-A current source, For mesh is, by KVL, My whereas vi = 3¢i, ~ is) and vy = Tiy, Combining Eq. 2.19 and 2.20 we get Ya Vy = yy there is no constraint upon the voltage ¥Circuit Analysis Principles 71 from which 2h = b) — Aig = Tis - Hy - iy) = Si, — iy — 1 =O (2.21) ‘Therefore, we have eliminated the need to express v in terms if the mesh currents. However, so far we have only two equations—Eq. 2.18 and 2.21—in terms of the three mesh currents. The third equation is obtained from the 7-A current source. Although there is no Constraint on the voltage v across it, there is a constraint of 7 A through it. Jn terms of mesh currents, we have that ip =7 (2.22) and this is the third equation. The solution to the simultaneous Eq. 2.18, 2.21, and 2.22 is h=2A, h=5A, i=-2A Having found the three mesh currents and, therefore, completed mesh analysis, we can now determine the resistor voltages. by using Ohm's law. Specifically, i H i u i y= 3h -—H)=324D=12V, » vy = 4i, = 4(5) = 20V, Ms i — _) = 22-5) = -6V Tis = 1(-2) = -14V Finally, we may now calculate v by using KVL. From Eq. 2.19, vay — y= -6-20=-26V or from Eq. 2.20, ye=uy—-y = 14-12 = -26V —— Drill Exercise 2.6 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.12, replace the 7-A current source with a 1.0 resistor and the 2-0 resistor with a 14-A current source directed up. Determine the three clockwise mesh currents for the circuit. ANSWER -9A,5A,—2A72 Circuits ; 2.4 Ideal Amplifiers ' Of fundamental importance in the study of electric circuits is the jdeal_voltage ch a device, in general, has two inputs, v1 and. Vo,_and one output, v,. chip between the output and the inputs is given by\vo = A(v2 — v4)} where A is called the gain of the amplifier. The ideal amp! modeled by circuit shown in Fig. 2.13a, which contains a dependent voltage source. The resis- tance R is the input resistance of the amplifier. Note that since the input resistance, R= @Q for an ideal voltage amplifier, when such an amplifier is connected to.a circuit, no current will go into the input terminals. (In general, however, there will be a current going into or coming out of the ovtput terminal.) Also, since the output v, is the voltage across an ideal source, we have that v. = A(v2 — vs) regardless of what is connected to the output. For the sake of simplicity, the ideal amplifier having gain A is often represented as shown in Fig. 2.13b. (Note that the reference node is not explicitly displayed in this figure.) We refer to the input-terminal labeled ‘*—* as the inverting input and the-input terminal labeled ‘‘+"" as the noninverting input. v, = AQy=) (b) Fig. 2.13 Model and circuit symbol of an ideal amplifier having gain A. Example 2.7 mererresss — Let us find v, for the ideal amplifier circuit shown in Fig, 2.14a, The explicit fo | Of this circuit is shown in Fig, 2.14b, fz ae circu gives in Fig. 2.14, the noninverting input is at the reference potent ta " = bt ‘urthermore, since node v, and node v, are constrained by vols S Gindependent and dependent, respectively), in using nodal analysis we 5%t Circuit Analysis Principles 73 Le | bee net i | t * r jaa a @ () Explicit form of circuit | Fig. 2.14 (2) Ideal-amplifier circuit, and (b) explicit form of the circuit. currents only at node v, (the inverting input). Since the amplifier inputs draw no current, by KCL, iti =0 By Ohm's law , : s 5 0 = Ry, = (Ri + Ry — Rive (2.23) 2 | But due to the amplifier, y, = A(¥2 — v1) = —Av,, so i = (2.24) and substituting this into Eq. 2.23, we get i ' Ze — 1 Rav, = (Ri + Ry? ~ Rive = [ies +R)+ ahs Thus, i i t y _ -Ry, Ry + (AYR, + R:) Yo ear IESE TET Drill Exercise 2.7 For the ideal-amplifier circuit given in Fig. 2.14, suppose that Ry = 1 kA, Ry = 10 kM, A = 100,000, and v, = 1 V. (a) Find vg, vi, dy, atid i, (b) Find athe power absorbed by each resistor, the independent voltage source, and y: ideal amplifier (ie., the dependent voltage source). he ANSWER. (a) — 10.0 V, 0.10 mV, 1.0 mA, —1.0 mA; } (b) 1.0 mW, 10.0 mW, —1.0 mW, —10.0 mw . | For a circuit such as that in Fig. 2.14, let us consider the case that the gain A becomes arbitrarily large. When A > ®, from Eq. 2.25 we have that Vo = ——y, R,* We see that although the gain of the amplifier is infinite, for a finite input voltage v,, the output voltage v, is finite (provided, of course, that R, # 0). Inspection of Eq. 2.24 indicates why the output voltage remains finite—as A —> ©, then v1, = —v,/A —> 0 V. This result occurs because there is a resistor connected between the output and the negative input. Such a connection is called negative feedback. The Operational Amplifier An ideal amplifier having gain A = © is known as an operational amplifier, or-op amp, In an op-amp circuit, because of the infinite gain property, we must have a feedback resistor and must not connect a voltage source directly between the am- plifier’s input terminals. For the circuit given in Fig. 2.14, the corresponding op-amp circuit is usually drawn as shown in Fig. 2.15. Using the fact that v, = 0 V, and summing the currents at the inverting input (node v,), we get wee y= By, 2.26 RR eR" (226) and the gain of the overall circuit is % Ri (2.27) This circuit is called an inverting amplifier. Notice how simple the analysis of the op-amp circuit in Fig. 2.15 is when we use the fact that », = 0 V. Although this result was originally deduced from Eq. 2.25, }Fig. 2.15 Op-amp circuit—an inverting amplifier. the combination of infinite gain and feedback constrains the voltage applied to the op-amp (between terminals v; and v3) to be 0 V. In other words, we must have that vy = Mae Example 2.8 UNE Consider the op-amp circuit with feedback in Fig. 2.16a, Again, the inputs of the amplifier draw no current, and so in applying KCL at node vi, we have soermmesmsmaemenoS me (a) Noainverting amplifier (b) Voltage follower Fig. 2.16 (a) Noninverting am| r, and (b) voltage follower. or equivalently, since both input Since the input voltage to the amplifier is 0 V, > vq, and substituting this fact into ¢ terminals must be at the same potential, then v) = the last equation, we obtain 4 M29 = Ry t+ Rivr- Rive = 0 RR