DraR TRH 15. pp 1-111, Pretoria, South Africa.

1994
Subsurface Dra~nage!
These recornm
Subsurface Drainage
H1 5, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994 (iii)
With the ever i

Subsudace Drainage
TR W 4 5,Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
 tirnate .....................................................................................................
eology ....................................................................................................
..........................................................................................
............................................................................................ 7
ei-ience ................................... ..... S . . . . . . . . . , 1
sensing .................................. *................................................ 10

ion ...................................,..................................................

nce .............................
.....................................................
............................................................................................

"l
.................................................................................................
lues of permeability ............................. . . ............................. 1
etermination of perrne ility .................................................................
ability ..............................................................................................
3. "6.5 ility ............................ . . . .......a........................,........

Subsuflace Drainage
i5, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
4.2.1 Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
.
.2.2 Grading . . .........................................................................................
.2.3 Cross-sec .........................................................................................
4.2.4 Roadside ..................................................................................

ion ...............................................................

U$@ .........................
.....................................
.8.2 Functions ......................................................................7*l
.8.3 Geortextil ...................................................................... 43
......................................................................
......................................................................

.9.1 I ...................................................................................................
.9.2 Trench dr nventionai) ................................................................
9.3 Fin drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

city ................................................................................................. 92
. l 0 2 Protection ............................................................................................. 92
4 . "1 0 . 3 Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
terials ............................................................................................. 92

ceptance and stor ..................................................

ion ...................... ....................................................
ile ...............................................................................
ckfilling ..............................................................................................

construction ................... 1
S ....................................................................................................
. . . ..
ets ................... . ....................................................................
s ..................................................................................... ?
Example Al lnterceptin
(Adapted from Gerke7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 ublication consi rs the occurrence

Subsurface Drainage
retoria, South Africa, 1994
 in the inputs r
system. This,

ru~tloncost, are th 0 main reasons for the

d construction an

ric

Subsurface Drainage
retoria, South Africa, 7994
Subsurface Drainage
retoria, South Africa, 1994
 Subsurface Drainage
$RH 15, Pretorta, S o u t h A f w a -1 994
 transpiration, as indicated on the
et areas of southern Africa accordi

lysis of long-term
ather patterns are subject
, and even from place to

Subsudace Dratnage
H 15, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
TRH 15 , Pretoria, South Afnca, 1994
 eneral dip of the str efines the direction of
ter movement.

hich indicate a perched ater table near the

y soil ov n

tion of ferricr

from the solution of soil

5, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994

e conditions c

TRH'E, Pretoria, South Afrtca, "1994

 evidence of patch patterns on existin
correlated with the local topography and

(e)

(f 1

12 TRHI 5, Pretoria, South Africa, "1994

Subsurface Dramage
retoria, So~~ltk
Africa, 1994
 oil i rrnined

Su b s u ~ a c eDrainage
M15, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
 voids ratio e or the

montmorillonite,

tur
ility t
Subsurface Drafnage
H 15, Pretoria, South
Porosity can be calculated as follows :

= dry density

ecific gravity
most useful of the indirect methods is the
d in Section 3.1
 Subsurface Drainage
TR H I S , Pretoria, South Africa, 3994
 erns due to shrinkage
ck joints or fractures

erosion, root

Subsuflace Drainage
toria, South Africa, 1994
TRH1S, Pretsna, South Afr~ca,1994
il construction. Various invest;
available, including local knowledge and experien

ads, since it is the c

Subsu~aceDrainage
TRHAS, Pretoria, South Africa, 4994
 ners should therefore be aware of t h e subsurface drainage

of other
S jor

Subsurface Dramage
H4 5, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
 from steeper to flatter grades looking do nhill in cuts,
ient results in the

ore abrupt change

3
Ls
. ross fags

SubsirrEace Drainage
TRH1S , Pretoria, South Africa, 'l994
avement, for instance in the top of S

T R H I 5, Pretoria, South Afr~ca,1994

 Side and median drains

Subsudace Dramage
'1 5, Pretor~a,South Africa, 199
4.2.4.4 Kerbing and channelling

TRH 15, Pretoria, South APrrca, W94

 ,-------collector dr

urface Drainage
"1, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
.3.1.l Settle
 1
ins

Subsurface Dramage
TRW 1S . Pretoria, South Africa. 1994
.1.2 Stability

(I) Construction

Where the ground wa close to the surface, I:

construction equipme

Subsurface Drainage
TRH 15, Pretoria, South Africa '4 994
The consequences of failure are so serio
provide not only for the interce
age, but also for the relief
h a stable rock toe.

Three types of subsurface drainage

Figure 12 and the c
eciation of the
 roximately 4,0 m)

Subsurface Dramage
45, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
. 32.1 ln terceptor drains

Part of the subgrade in a side cut may lie in a seepa

from the uphill slo e , in which case a subsurface
such as the on shown in Figure 13, ill serve ts cut off the

S U ~ S I J Drain
~%~C~
TRH l S, Pretoria, South Africa, 7 994
 the soil. Ho ever, final designs, e v e n in homogeneous
extensive teslj to establish the actual soil
n procedures usin
A3 in Appendix A il

.3.2.3 Top of subgrade

ntly occur on the flo

rained in order

Subsueace Draina
TRHI 5, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
 pular remedy for

blern, although

ore effective, provided that they are correctly

able materi I, in controllin the level of a

Subsudacc Drainage
retsrta, South Africa, 1994
 infiltration

(
 Cut-fill transition

de in the transition zone from cut to fill is

because it rests on the transported soil
re typically more susceptible to

5, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994

 Subsurface Drarnage
TWH'I 5, Pretorra, South Afrrca, W994
 chniques for controlling groun
and complicated
dy should be conducted to
d sources of

of the most i

rizontal drains

Subsurface Dramage
retaria, South Africa, 1994
 to provide drainage to cope ith leaks in a structure int

. # . 7.2 Susceptibility

nt for drainage

Subsurface Drainage
TRH15, Pretorra, South Africa, "194
 at concrete pavement joints;
of bitumen-bound materials.
ssure failures in gr
of fines along the c

Subsu&ce Drainage
TRH 15, Pretoria, South Africa, +l
994
ge of the pavement is particularly prone to distress

Subsudace Braina
TRH 15, Pretoria, South Afnca, 4 994
 ssumption of routine

eathered from cut

result of erosion on the shoul

rotective me

SubsurFace Dra~nage
t-etona, South Africa, 1994
Interceptor trenches should al ays be carefully
ensure :

Subsudace Drainage
TRH15, Pretoria, South Afrtc
Subskidace Drarnage
retsria, South Africa. 1994
)I Concrete I
 is very often indeterminable,
erience, to the e

iven a reasonable outlet spaci of 200 to 300 m, pipe sizes of

00 to 200 mm diameter, ty y 100 mm, will have adequ

or collectors, such ase course e

sizes of 50 to l 0 0 mm diameter, t y p ~ c

by an incre

Subsudace Drainage
TRW 1S, Pretoria, South Afrrca, 1994
The diameter of the hole, or the idth of the slot, should b
aterials, but the actual hole or slot shoul
be dimensioned to suit the roposed filter material, in th
hole diameter 5

material to pass throughg.

ices concernin

B in carrier zones

Subsurface Drat nag9

TRH15, Pretoria, South A
Subsurface Dra~nage
 Subsurface Draina
TRH?5, Pretoria, South Africa, 19
 rely soiled or are not adequately overlappe

main advant

TRH ? S , Pretoria, South Africa, 1994

retsna, South Africa, 1994
 mmended3lq32
Iter material shouf gap-graded, nor have
rcent passing 0,075 mm;
sign should be based on the finer fraction of

the fraction of

TRM "I,Pretoria, South Africa, 1994

 eir composition (i.e.,

ovens, no

cebsuflace Drainage
retoria, South Africa, 1994
 OVE

Subsurface Drainage
TRH"1, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
 are extruded thr

mer film. Geotextiles manufactured from t

on wovens and are usu

sin
(a) Fibre type

(1)

en used to m

(ii)

(0

(ii)

(iii)

Subsurface Drainag
TRH 15, Pretoria, South Africa, 799
: Stitch bonding is usually carried out on
techniques. The
s of stitching.

plications non oven geotextiles c

ly or chemically.
 synthetic (geonet) water carrier.

ere it is used for erosion con

.2.2 Properties

e summarise
ect on the rnor
in requirements for such a system to develop and remain stable

bility of the geotex ile must be hi her than that of the

rla, South Africa, 1994

 TILE TESTS (DESIGN) /I
J
RECOMMENDED FOR DESlGN l/
Long Term Flow Tests (LTFT)
Gradient ratio (GR)

I Creeo H Low
 rate the tests into two grou

outh Africa, 1994

 uses modified California Bearing
measure t h e load at rupture
to perform and resern
e field fairly close

) Tensile S

) Grab streng
 ility is of direct irn ance where a
Iter. It is usually measured in terms of
e to the high flo y measured, a
 no evidence exists of relationsh
performance in terms of perm
8 . 4 above) and openin
on opening sizes.

Despite these sho

or confirmed
 ntages of this test method are :

outh Africa, W94

(c) Interface Flow Capacity (IFC)

Subsurface Drain8
TRW I S , Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
 Permeab~lrty k400 m medium or high range 83,
reduction

chemical attack d water with a pH in the range of 4 to 12

ining salts with a conductance of up to

3ue can be reduce validation tests, that

aunt, show that a er value is required.

I stone size (9.5 - 19.0 mm)

nditions includ

he geotextile industry based on i

these values is limite
lcomed by the cornpil
.8.5.1Permeability reduction (cloggin

The permeability of a soil-geotextile system

described in Section 4.8.4, until the filter zone has been
hich the permeabilit should remain fairly con
ging, due to soil p
will either reduce

long term flo

textiles. The us
ed for reasons gi

a general in

.8.5.2 Piping

TRH 15, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994

 s stated earlier. Pipin potential can be evaluated with the
test, as suggested in Ta

r considerations

esive soils
 test may not be
Consideration can then be g1

surface Drainage
TRH15, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
 and testing

ility tests such as

require that soil samples be taken from the site where the
. This must b done at the design
or the long ter

sed on sound s
ermeable membranes can be used as shown on Fi
nt water from being discharged in a potential dry

ins over dry are

be conveyed from

fin drains are :

 --
f
I
i
. .
l .
l
l
* .
i L
l _
l
r
. I
t . .
t ~
B
W .
f .
l .
l
 total cost is usually lo er than that of a conventional drain of
same depth.

I disadvantages include the following :

 earing in mind that water m
area, but rna

estimated inf

flow line in the draina

0

such that the layer can be place

@
 Subsurface Dramage
TRH I S , Pretoria, South Africa, 'l 994
 handled in such a wa as to ensure delivery t
amaged con ition. Durin
t and stora iles must be ed in undamaged

ure to direct sun

Geotextiles m manually or by various rnecha
tat, but not str
contact must
out any cavitie
II determine th

Subsurface Drainage
TRH15, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
 gregates and ag regates that have

e such material

eotextile filter.

urface Drainage
15, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
the side from which the water is expected to flo
for holding the fin drain in asition must be su
caused to any of the ele
drain should be carefully inspected after installation to
connections ar

Subsurface Drama
TRH 15, Pretoria, South Afrrc
 ity of 93% Mod. SHTO should be obt ined. Densities
ntrolled by devices such as the dynamic cone penetrometer
oice of cornpaction equipment should be such that no d
ed to the pipe. The backfill materi ould also be plac
ted in such a ay as to avoid da to any components of
intenance of r

TRH 15, Pretoria, South Africa, 4 994

 inevitable and provision should be made for

Subsudace Dratnage
H%, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
 of the outlet structure;

ubsudace Dra~nage
W 15, Pretraria, South Africa, 1994
Possible mainten

r removal of v
repainting;

Subsurface Drainage
TW 1S, Pretoria, South Afrtca, 1994
"R
 The effect of poor drainaqe on
avement structures studied under HVS testing. Proceedings of the
tion Convention (ATC 19 7 ) , vol. 5

3
-. Structural design of
rurban and rural road pavements.

anual for the

for

5. rmeabilities of roa

Subsurface Drainage
retoria, South Africa, 1994 1Q7
 ST, LF. A new formula for the calculation of th
or with the auger

ovement of moisture through soils. Hi s-d

, Vol. 36, 1957.

. The prediction of mois

S u b s u ~ a c eDrajnage
TRH 15, Pretorra, South Afrtca, 9 994
 . Guidelines for the desi of subsurface
hway structural sections.

S . Standard Specificstion
uplings, and fittings. S 21.

. Standard Specification

Subsurface Drainage
H +l5, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
34. LEGGE, K R . Personal Communication. Dep

35. US AR
subsurface drai

. Geotextiles. Y

39. Proceedings e Second International Conferen

of the Third Intern

Subsurface Drainage
TRH 7 5, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
 , RC. Geotextile filter
nes, Vol. 11, Elsevier

of Southern Afr~ca. Volu

ce drainage S and airpo

n of filters usi

Scdbsuflaee Drarnage
TRH 15, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
ace Drainage
Pretoria, South Africa, 7 99
 Subs~lr-i"ace
Drainage
TRH 15, Pretoria, South Africa, '1
S u b s r ~ ~ a cDrainage
e
15, Pretoria, South Africa, +l
994
urPace Drainage
15, Pretoria, Solath Africa, 7 994
Subs~irfaceDrarna
oedlh Africa, W994
D/7 = 0,25, therefore Figure A2-2 is ap
n t s for depth of the impervious boundary.
From Figure )
 tive method th

SlBbsuPface Drainage
retoria, South Africa, 1994
and compare ith the results o 2.

= l 10-6 mls = 1,1

X
= 8,0 m and 12,O m
r = 0,150rnj

Subsurface Braewage
Subsk~daceDram
TRH 'l 5, Pretasrra, South Africa, 1994
 table

Scabsurlace Drainage
retoria, South Africa. 199
 r
S of hole (mm)
er table rise

Y s - Yt
5 , Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
 Subsurface Drarnage
reictria, South Africa, 7 994
overall meter, 50 mm;
mass o assembly, 1 kg; and

cil
either 250 mm X 250 mm square, or circ
2 mm.

re.

Subsurface Dratnage
TRH15, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
 osition the upper clam ing ring over the bolts and
r the ring onto t h e specimen.
to a torque of 30

"!"RH1 5, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994

 SubsurFace Draina
TRH?5 , Pretoria, South Africa, "i
LE-8 FROM 1.0 m CONSTANT HEAD

BLEEDING HOLE

IL SAMPLE ( I kg DRY

TEXTILE
 ith 25,O mm o

eigh up to 1 kg, accurate to 1 g or better.

eci il/

St~bsufiaceDrainage
retoria, South Africa, 1994
Place the perspex end caps in position and f
nuts. Place the assembled permeameter in its

Subsurface Drasnage
TRH?5 , Pretoria, South Africa, 19
 here :
I

ater head above g e

ubsudace Drainage
H 1 5 , Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
-U
8)
V)
C".
3
(D
where : k = permeability (mmls)

Subsurface Drainage
TRH 15, Pretoria, South Africa, 1994
Subsurface Drainage
15, Pretoria, South Africa, 7 994
suflace Drainage
out&Afrrca, 1994
 0
L"
T3
X
3
i,
v
LL?
m
0

-
8
Lc?
'D W

A
a 2
d ' ~ = Soil particle size of whic

ID

ilit
SubsurPace Drainage
retsria, South Africa, 199