FIBER THEORY

The basic unit of textile structure is fiber.

Each individual fiber is made up of millions of individual long molecular chains of discrete
chemical structure. The arrangement and orientation of these molecules within the individual
fiber, as well as the gross cross section and shape of the fiber (morphology), will affect fiber
properties, but by far the molecular structure of the long molecular chains which make up the
fiber will determine its basic physical and chemical nature. Usually, the polymeric molecular
chains found in fibers have a definite chemical sequence which repeats itself along the length of
the molecule.

FIBER FORMATION AND MORPHOLOGY

Fiber morphology refers to the form and structure of a fiber, including the molecular
arrangement of individual molecules and groups of molecules within the fiber.
The basic building blocks that organic materials form as covalently-bonded organic compounds
are called monomers.
Monomers react or condense to form long-chain molecules called polymers made up of a given
number (n) of monomer units which are the basic building unit of fibers.
The total number of monomer units which repeat themselves in a chain (n) is referred to as the
degree of polymerization (DP) for molecules within that fiber.

Polymer Formation
Synthetic polymers used to form fibers are often classified on the basis of their mechanism of
polymerization—
1. step growth (condensation)
Condensation polymers form when bifunctional monomers react to form a long chain
polymer molecule. Small molecules, such as water, are eliminated during the reaction
Eg, Polyesters, polyamides, proteins and polysaccharides such as cellulose, are all examples
of condensation polymers.
2. chain growth (addition) polymerization.

Addition polymers form when unsaturated carbon (organic) molecules react to form a long
chain polymer molecule and no small molecules or atoms are eliminated during the reaction

The general reaction can be represented as:

R R'
catalyst
| |
n (R-C=C-R') → -(- C - C -)n-

where R and R' can represent hydrogen atoms, halogen atoms, alkyl or other carbon-containing
side chains.

Homopolymer or Copolymer- Polymers may be either homopolymers or copolymers

depending on the composition. Polymers composed of only one repeating unit in the polymer
molecules are known as homopolymers. Polymers composed of two different repeating units in
the polymer molecule are defined as copolymers.

The repeating units on the copolymer chain may be arranged in various degrees of order along
the backbone; it is even possible for one type of backbone to have branches of another type.
There are several types of copolymer systems:

• Random copolymer — The repeating units are arranged randomly on the chain molecule. It
we represent the repeating units by A and B, then the random copolymer might have the
structure shown below: AABBABABBAAABAABBA

• Alternating copolymer — There is an ordered (alternating) arrangement of the two repeating

units along the polymer chain: ABABABABABAB

• Block copolymer — The chain consists of relatively long sequences (blocks) of each repeating
unit chemically bound together: AAAAA BBBBBBBB AAAAAAAAA BBBB
 • Graft copolymer — Sequences of one monomer (repeating unit) are “grafted” onto a
backbone of the another monomer type.

BONDING IN FIBRES
Inter polymer bonds
In basic senses these bonds are responsible for holding the polymers together for the formation
of a fibre. The major bonds used for interpolymer bonding are as follows,

 Van der Waals forces

 Hydrogen bonds
 Salt linkages
 Cross links

Van der Waals forces

They are weak forces which exist in the interpolymer forces of attraction when the atoms come
close to one another. They are formed between atoms along the length of adjacent polymers
when these are less than 0.3 nm apart but no closer than about 0.2 nm.

Hydrogen bonds
They are formed between hydrogen and oxygen atoms, and hydrogen and nitrogen atoms on
adjacent polymers when these are less than 0.5 nm apart. They occur within the natural
polymers, regenerated cellulose polymers, nylon polymers, polyvinyl alcohol, polyester
polymers, protein and secondary cellulose acetate fibres.

Salt linkages
They are formed between the carboxyl radical on one polymer and the positively charged amino
group on an adjacent polymer. They exist mainly in the protein and nylon fibre polymers. They
are responsible for the attraction of the water molecules and they too contribute to the strength of
the fibre. The presence of salt linkages is necessary for dye absorption

Cross links
They can be classified as the strongest bonds and exist in all protein fibres except silk. They
contribute to the elastic nature of the fibre. The cross links are capable of breaking and reforming
with adjacent atoms.

Inter polymer force Bond energy Relative strength Polymers in between About the bonds
of attraction and its (Kilojoules) it occurs
formation
Vander waal’s 8.4 Very weak All fibres They are formed
forces between atoms along
the length of
adjacent polymers
 when these are less
than 0.3nm apart but
no closer than about
0.2nm
Hydrogen bonds 20.9 weak Natural regenerated They are formed
cellulose, nylon, between hydrogen
polyester and oxygen atoms,
and hydrogen and
nitrogen atoms on
adjacent polymers
when these are less
than 0.5 nm apart.
Salt linkages 54.4 strong Protein and nylon They are formed
fibres between the
carboxyl radical on
one polymer and the
positively charged
amino group on an
adjacent polymer.
Cross links 245.3 Very strong All protein fibres They are formed as a
except silk and single covalent bond
elastomeric fibres between adjacent
polymers of wool
due to the disulphide
bond or crosslink

POLYMER ORIENTATION
The arrangement of molecules within the fiber is the major determinant of fiber properties.
Within the fiber molecules can be arranged in various ways , they are-
1. amorphous arrangement- Polymers have the option of lying around without any order
or in random manner. These regios show lower inter polymer forces of attraction. They
show good water absorption and dye uptake. However they are plastic in nature, soft in
handle with low chemical resistance.
2. crystalline arrangement- polymers may be arranged in parallel bundles giving more
ordered appearance, than amorphous arrangement. They are inflexible regions with
strong internal bonds. Do not permit easy entry to water and dyes. They are chemically
strong with stiff handle. Oriented arrangement – A variation of crystalline arrangement
is the oriented arrangement, in which the bundles of fibres are not only parallel to each
other but also to the longitudinal axis of the fibre. Example- Wool has 70-75%
amorphous regions and 25-30% crystalline regions. Silk, on the other hand, has 65-70%
crystalline regions and 30-35% amorphous regions
FIBER CLASSIFICATION
Textile fibers are normally broken down into two main classes, natural and man-made fibers.
All fibers which come from natural sources (animals, plants, etc.) and do not require fiber
formation or reformation are classed as natural fibers.
Man-made fibers are fibers in which either the basic chemical units have been formed by
chemical synthesis followed by fiber formation or the polymers from natural sources have been
dissolved and regenerated after passage through a spinneret to form fibers. Those fibers made by
chemical synthesis are often called synthetic fibers, while fibers regenerated from natural
polymer sources are called regenerated fibers or natural polymer fibers. The synthetic man-
made fibers include the polyamides (nylon), polyesters, acrylics, polyolefins, vinyls, and
elastomeric fibers, while the regenerated fibers include rayon, the cellulose acetates.
Textile fibres- Classification
A. Natural fibres
(a) Animal/ Protein fibres
-Extruded
 Silk (Silk moth, domesticated, wild silk)
- Hair
o Wool (Sheep)
o Specialty (Alpaca, cashmere, llama, mohair, vicuna)
o Fur (animal pelt)
(b) Plant/ cellulosic fibres
- Seed hair (cotton, kapok, coir)
- Stem or bast (flax, jute)
- Leaf (pina from pineapple leaves, sisal from agave leaves)
- Miscellaneous (from parts other than above three)
(c) Rubber
(d) Mineral
o Asbestos

B. Man made fibres

(a) Regenerated
- Cellulosic
o Rayon (viscose, cuprammonium rayon, High wet modulus rayon)
o Acetate
o Triacetate
o Lyocell

- Protein
o Azlon (from corn and soyabean)

(b) Synthetic
o Nylon
o Polyester
o Acrylic
o Modacrylic
o Olefins
o Spandex
o Aramid (Kevlar, Nomex)
o Carbon

(c) Inorganic
o Glass
o Metallic
Questions
1. Define/ explain the following in brief (2-3 marks)
 Amorphous molecular arrangement in textile fibres
 Crystalline molecular arrangement in textile fibres
 Degree of polymerization
 Polymerization
 Fibre
 Homopolymer
 Staple fiber
 Filament fiber

(4-5 marks questions)

2. Give the classification of textile fibres