Ethics

Ethics or morality is essentially a philosophy subject.

So, what is philosophy?

Etymological definition:
Definitions of Philosophy
The term philosophy was first coined by Pythagoras, a Greek Philosopher.
Nominal Definition: Philos – means love
Sophia – means wisdom

Essential definition: philosophy is the search for ultimate meaning of reality.

Real Definition: It is a science of the ultimate reason/s of beings as acquired by the aid of
human intellect.
4. important elements in the real definition:
 As a science – IT is an orderly body of knowledge based on facts and
principles governing the existence of life.
o Science is knowledge but not every knowledge is
science. There are few requirements for knowledge to
become a science : one, it must be a certain and
demonstrated knowledge which means that you are 100%
sure about it; and two, it must be organized not mere
aggregation of data; and three, it must be
causal knowledge that tells us why things are as they are
and not bare statements of facts or a mere description of
events. For these reasons, we call philosophy a science.
 Ultimate reason – this refers to the deepest reasons why things come into
being or why particular events are taking place.
 Being – it means anything that exist; it means anything that can think of be
it corporeal or incorporeal; material or immaterial. Here we can see how
wide is the scope of our study in philosophy from most insignificant insect
to the most sublime God.
 By the aid of human reason / intellect alone – our sole source of information
or way of obtaining truth is our human capacity to think.
Importance of Philosophy
a. It develops students their ability to comprehend, systematized learning and enhance
their critical thinking ability in evaluating their gained knowledge and information.
b. Develop their own philosophy in life which will provide them principles necessary in
directing their lives.
c. Provide students with fundamental views in coping with the changing demands and
ethical problems.

Major disciplines in Philosophy

A.
1. Logic as the study of right and sound reasoning.
2. Epistemology as the study of the validity of knowledge.
3. Metaphysics seeks to explain the fundamental concept of being.
4. Aesthetics as the philosophical study of beauty.
5. Cosmology deals with the study of real things in the universe.
6. Theodicy is the study of God and His nature.
7. Social Philosophy as the study of human and their relation to society.
8. Ethics as the science of morality of human acts.

B. Ethics in Particular

1. Postulates of Ethics
a. The existence of God
God is the source of our existence and the ultimate end. He is the Supreme Law Giver and the
Absolute Judge. During the end times everything will be accounted for. It is said in the
Divine revelation of God as contained in the New Testament of the Bible, “during the
judgment day not an iota of the law will be forgotten”.
b. Immortality of the human soul. A number of world religions claim about the immortality of
the human soul. So that many
of us believe that the human soul outlives earthly existence. This life after death will be
characterized by everlasting happiness in heaven for the righteous ones and eternal
damnation in hell for the evildoers. If we will take the opposite position – if there is no life
after death, we will lose the sufficient reason to do good because to do good is hard and
difficult to do evil is easy and enjoyable. And besides, in this world we can see many good
people died unrewarded and many evildoers go unpunished. But because we strongly
believe about the immortality of the human soul then we have all the reasons to always
chose and do what is good and to avoid what is evil. Consequently we have all the reasons to
study ethics because the study of ethics will teach us the rightness and the wrongness – the
goodness and the badness of human actions.
c. Freedom of the will
Every human being is free. This is our basic presupposition that man is free. We are
capable of making evaluation, judgment and choice. We can make a choice between what
is right and what is wrong – between good and evil. If man is not free then there is no
reason for us to study what is right and what is wrong – what is good and what is evil in
ethics anyway we cannot make a choice. But man is free. Therefore, we have all the
reasons to study ethics to heighten our ethical or moral sensitivity in making ethical choices
for us to always opt for the good and avoid evil.

2. The distinction between human act and act of man

a. Human act
Human act is an action performed with knowledge, freedom and intention. This is the only
type of human action that can be subjected to moral evaluation. It can be evaluated as right
or wrong – good or bad. The moral agent in this case is taken fully responsible for his/her
action. As a consequence the moral agent deserves all the merits of his/her good action
and moral culpability and demerits of his evil action. In other words, the moral agent
deserves the affirmation or reward for his/her good action and blame or punishment for
his/her bad action

b. Act of man
Act of man is an action performed without knowledge, freedom and intention. Usually
these actions are natural bodily processes like the blood circulation, metabolism, growth
and etc. These actions are performed by the body without our awareness and they do not
require the exercise of our freedom and volition. These actions cannot be subjected to
moral evaluation. They cannot be considered morally right or morally wrong – morally
good or morally evil.

C. Cultural Conception of the Good Prelim. Remarks:

(1) There is a basic presupposition that everyone already have a sense of what
is good and bad
behavior and that everyone have already an instinct about what one ought to do and
what one’s duties are.
(2) Why is there a need to spend time thinking about what already inherent in everyone’s
mind?
1. Tradition
Firstly, there are traditions that guide one’s actions. Traditions are part of culture. It is
unthinkable for anyone not to have grown up with some sense of good and evil, pro
per and improper, “the ought” and “ought not”. People mostly think that they know exactly
their basis of the good and that this basis of the good is reasonable. However, a person’s
understanding of the good hardly ever goes unquestioned, especially in today’s world.
Example (1). Devoting one’s life to one’s parent’s needs seems perfectly logical until one’s
wife who grew up in a different tradition, questions it.
Example (2). The contractualization of labor for greater profit seems the most reasonable
course
of action until one encounters the sufferings of people who have to face the end of their
contracts every five months.
Example (3). The subtle harassment of women, such as ogling and throwing lewd jokes, seems
harmless until a woman files a case against an offender in Quezon City where ordinances
against harassment exist. People like to think that their traditions are already clear and
unquestionable to serve as basis for how they should act. This is because people grow up with
traditions.

2. Culture
Culture is a system of codes that gives the world meaning and shapes the behavior of
people. It also determines proper behavior. This includes what we eat and how we prepare
food, how we talk and what language we use, what we make and how we make and utilize
things;
How we understand the meaning of life and death and how we recognize the ultimate
meaning of life.
Culture is our code that shapes how we understand, what life is worth living, and what it
means to be human. These are some of the ways culture shapes the way people act.
Example (1) In the province of Pampanga, penitents line the streets during Holy Week to whip
themselves. For them, it is a way to participate in Christ’s sacrifice and by doing so, they
cleanse themselves of their sins and are spared from punishment. Mostly,
people who engage in these practices
come from the more traditional communities influenced by Spanish-
style Catholicism and the so-called animistic world view. Other Catholics who are educated
in more Westernized modern
systems, do not feel the need to engage in such practice and even judge the flagellant as
“backward”. However, the flagellation is perfectly natural and acceptable to those who
practice it because in their culture, flagellation is a way to participate in Christ’s existence and
in a way, participate in His Being and Power.
Example (2) In some cultures, engaging in sexual activities for excitement and fun is
amoral. Sexual partners
may not always have serious relationship with each other and merely “hook-
up” for fun, and that is perfectly acceptable as long as contraceptives are used and partners
protect themselves against diseases. Therefore the meaning of
sexual activity in these cultures is not necessarily connected to love and procreation,
lineage propagation and property
transmission. In other cultures, which are more agricultural or where the transmission
of property is important perhaps sex as a leisure activity is less acceptable. Also, in cultures
where monogamy
is associated with romantic love and personal flourishing, sex is often related to com
mitted relationships, although no always to
marriage. Among these people, their system of meanings coded by their culture shape
s how they understand sex and acceptable sexual behavior. Some people cannot even
conceive of sex as a leisure activity because in their culture, the idea or set of behavior related
to it does not exist. The experience of sex as fun is not even a real experience for them because
it is not part of the experiences that their culture provides.
Example (3)Wife beating is another kind of behavior that is culturally determined. In some
culture where
the status of women is that of property or is tightly controlled because of the import
ance of lineage, it is customary that women accept their husband’s authority, submit to their
will, and serve all their needs. So women can be forced to have sex with their
husbands. Women accept the fact that they cannot move in public without a male
chaperon; that they cannot own real estate as individuals; they cannot travel without a male
family member’s permission; and they can be beaten for whatever reason their husbands
deem right without recourse to any relief. In other cultures where women’s happiness and
fulfillment are valued above those of the clan or the community, all of those aforementioned
acts are considered violence, violation of basic
rights and crimes. People from cultures whose women are more “liberated” cannot b
egin to understand how women of the “non- liberated” cultures accept such abuse. But
because the culture of the “non-liberated” women shape their perceptions of the relationships
between men
and women, their rights and duties, and their feelings regarding the “strictness” of their
husbands, it is possible that they do not feel being abused or violated. It can therefore be
noted that the conception of the good is shaped by culture as it is the very
basic system of codes that shapes human behavior. But this could be dangerous in
a way because not all cultures and their conception of the good reflect the good or what ought
to
be. Some cultures can be destructive to human beings. For instance, some cultures t
end to
encourage war and colonial plunder. Others encourage overconsumption and exploitat
ion of
the poor for profit. Because of these people’s culture, they are oriented toward violent
behavior and do not even realize that they do violence toward
their neighbors. Most corrupt
government officials do not think that they are doing harm because they were forme
d in a culture where self-interest allows for violation of rules of governance and the common
good. Thus, one cannot rely solely on one’s culture to come to a genuine understanding of the
good. There is always the possibility that one’s cultural conception of the good can le
ad to destructiveness and violence. But whose conception of the good is “the good”? Usually,
the good is defined by a dominant system or group. The good is defined by what has worked
for people to flourish. People value
cooperation over conflict because it makes human survival easier. People value arranged
marriages to build alliances. Thus, what people usually believe to be the good is usually what
is useful and effective for survival and flourishing. But people are not only concerned about
the useful and effective. People also seek to realize what they consider to be ethical acts that
lead to human flourishing.
How does one know what is actually the good that genuinely leads to human flourishing? Here,
the significance of our study in Ethics is highlighted. The discipline of ethics provides people
with a basis upon which to discern their own accepted ethical systems and a basis for
broadening their own conception of the good.

What is Ethics?
1. Ethical Reflection
What do people think about when they think ethically? What is the experience on which
ethical reflection is grounded? It is grounded on the experience of a free person who have to
act in difficult situations. It happens when a person is pushed to know not only the best way
to realize something but he is pushed to know the way that realizes the good.
The good does not always mean the easiest way or the most expedient way. Ethical
norms or guides and the question of the good and evil arise when people need to act as
free persons. Not all actions are inherently ethical. Actions only require ethical
reflection when they are free acts that involve a person’s desire to realize the good
The good does not always mean the easiest way or the most expedient way. Ethical norms or
guides and the question of the good and evil arise when people need to act as free
persons. Not all actions are inherently ethical. Actions only require ethical reflection when
they are free acts that involve a person’s desire to realize the good.

The good
The question of the good is not a question of what is practical and what is realizable as an
end. The questions of the good refer to a person’s freedom and ability to live according to
what he/she considers to be good. In different ages of human civilizations, the particular
norms of the good have taken on different forms.
These norms of the good may have assume different forms in the different ages of civilization
but at the heart of these varied forms is the human realization that man’s free action is defined
by what one ought to do. What one ought to do is not the easiest way and what is commonly
practiced by other people. What we ought to do is achieved when a person act in a way that
realizes his capacity to freely and creatively conform to the order of things. These order of
thing may be grounded on a transcendent order, an order from the above or from the divine
or an order according to the dictates of reason. In other words our free actions are actions
that conforms either to the order from above or according to the norms of right reason.
Our ethical concern arise when we think that our actions must authentically fulfill our freedom
to live an authentic human existence. For example, eating and breathing are not considered
ethical or unethical because they are just functions of the body. The rest of the irrational
animals or the brutes are doing them. In other words, eating and breathing do not make us
authentically human.
However when eating is thought of in relation to human freedom, our ethical concern comes
in. For instance, eating of food produced by people who are exploited. They are underpaid
workers for the factory owners to earn more profits. On top of this, they are taking the raw
materials at the expense of polluting the waters of the community.
So whoever eats that product participates in the exploitation and destruction because buying
the food supports the activity of the manufacturer. In this case eating becomes an ethical
concern because although eating is a bodily function, eating this exploitatively produced food
is a free choice. In other words there is the exercise of one’s freedom.
It entails the human capacity to choose what makes one good or what makes one bad. It also
entails how human beings have a choice to be creative or to be destructive towards others.
Therefore, ethics has something to do with the person working freely to become perfect,
freely working for the actualization of his potentialities as a human being and freely doing
what is right towards others. In other words, ethics has something to do with the person freely
fulfilling his full potentials as a human being.
Ethics is not about being efficient or achieving certain goals. Ethics is about realizing what
people think to be the good. We realize that life is not just about existing and survival and
our actions are not just about expediency (doing things the fastest way possible). We know
and we understand that there is this thing, “the good” that we need to realize for us to become
a genuinely human being and for us to build better societies.

The moral Act

1. Human beings as complex beings
We, human beings are complex beings. Unlike other organisms that are simply driven by the
survival instinct, we human beings experience the world in a variety of ways through a variety
of perceptive capacities – e.g. senses (sensual), feelings (emotional) and intellect
(rationality).Bacteria are driven solely to replicate themselves; plants seek only nourishment
and growth and animals seek to address their hunger and reproduce themselves. But we
human beings, we have the rationality which allows us to reckon or evaluate reality with
imaginative and calculative lenses. For example, when we look at a huge rock, we can imagine
the statue of Moses that can be made out of it through our artistic activity of sculpture at the
same time we can make a calculation on the volume of that huge rock.
Aside from our rationality we have our feelings which will also play a crucial role in determining
the way we deal with various situations we will be experiencing. We do not simply know the
world and other people; we also feel their existence and their values. We do not look at a
human being like a thing to be used and exploited. Rather we look at him or her as a precious
being who deserves our love and respect.
We feel the existence and the value of other people. This is the reason why we are pleased
when others compliment us for a job well done. We get angry when we are accused of a
wrong doing we did not do. We become afraid when we are threatened by someone. We feel
anguish and despair in moments of seemingly unsurmountable hardships and
difficulties. Most of the time, we act based on how we feel. This is something we share with
animals to a certain degree. We seek food when we are hungry and we wish for
companionship when we are lonely.
But unlike animals that are instinctively programmed to act in accordance with how they feel,
we have the capacity to reflexively examine a situation before proceeding to act with how we
feel. In other words, although feelings provide us with an initial reckoning of a situation, they
should not be the sole basis for our motives and actions.

Feelings and Reason

A person who is in a state of rage towards a perceived enemy or competitor is likely is likely
unable to process the possible consequences of his or her actions done impulsively.
Feelings seek immediate fulfillment, and it is our reason that tempers these
compulsions. Feelings without reason are blind. Our reason set the course for making ethical
and impartial decisions especially in moral situations although it is not the sole determining
factor in coming up with such decisions. Reason and feeling must constructively complement
each other whenever we are making choices.
When feeling such as anger, jealousy and shame are out of control, hence without the proper
guidance of reason, one’s moral capacities become short-sighted and limited. Reason puts
these emotions in their proper places seeking not to discredit their validity but calibrating
them in such a way that they do not become the primary motive or driving force in making
moral decisions.
Example: A traffic incidence in CDO Sometime in December of 2018 on our way for a family
Christmas vacation in our home town in Zamboanga del Norte, we met an untoward traffic
incident along the Bulua Highway at CDO. I was driving at the outer lane of the highway when
all of a sudden a family van from the inner lane turn right cross cutting our lane. With God’s
grace I was able to apply the break, maneuver the steering wheel and stop perpendicular to
the family van without touching it at the shoulder of the highway. Unexpectedly the passenger
window of the family van opened, here comes a woman with a horrible face so angry shouting
at us as I can see in the expression of her face. I was caught surprised of her actuations
because it was not my mistake, it’s theirs. Luckily I was not able to open my window so I didn’t
hear anything of all the “bullshits” uttered by that woman. Honestly deep inside I was angry
and I was driven to succumb to my anger and to retaliate. But on the other hand, thinking
that we still have a very long drive from Cagayan to our place, I decided not to min d her. We
went on with our long trip but of course with so many questions in mind. What were those
she was murmuring about? Why was she so angry when she was not supposed to be
angry? Fittingly and supposedly we should be the ones who should be angry. Nevertheless
thanks be to God for the gift of patience. We were save from trouble and we arrived at our
destination safe and sound.

For me, that family experience of ours was a concrete example of a moral decision in which
my emotion was tempered by my reason. My feeling and my reason go hand in hand to arrive
at the decision not to mind that woman and to avoid the possibility of trouble.
Reason in and by itself is not a sufficient instrument in assessing moral situations. Reason can
sometimes be blinded in implementing and following its own strict rules that it becomes
incapable of empathy for the other.
While it is morally wrong for someone to steal food out of hunger, to punish a person for the
act of stealing without even trying to listen to his/her reasons for committing such an act may
be considered cold and cruel. That is not to say that the act of stealing is deemed right after
one finds out why that someone stole. It is then viewed as a complex act, connected to a web
of various circumstantial factors and motives.
A person’s act of stealing may, in fact appear to be a symptom of a greater injustice in one’s
society prompting one to do good not by simply punishing an immoral act but by proactively
seeking justice for the disadvantaged people who are pushed by poverty and social injustice
to feed themselves by stealing.
In other words, reason, while a reliable ground for moral judgment, needs the feeling of
empathy to come up not just with a moral but also just decision. Moral situations often involve
not just one but others as well. Our decisions have consequences and these have an effect on
others.
Matters of moral import need to be analyzed with a perspective that takes the welfare and
feelings of others into consideration. What is good for one may not be good for others.
If a motor-rela driver thinks it is only right for him to get as many passengers as he can in order
to address the needs of his family of by breaking a few traffic rules that to his mind harms
nobody (he does not run anyone over or he does not bump other vehicles on the road), his
reasoning may be construed as narrow and selfish. The inconvenience and stress, he causes
other drivers by picking up and dropping off of passengers anywhere and anytime as he
pleases actually harm others more than he thinks.
Possible effects:(1) Some people may come late for work and get fired because of this habit.(2)
Some drivers may feel too much stress which endangers their lives and this has an effect on
people that depend on them.
In other words, if one’s reasoning does not consider the interests of people that are affected
by his actions, then he/she is actually being prejudicial to his/her own interests
Saying that the actions do not harm anybody is not a sufficient moral justification u ntil one
actually take into rational account the effects of the actions on others.
Morality involves impartiality because it ensures that all interests are accounted for, weighed
rationally and assessed without prejudice. Prejudices make decisions partial. Reason must
recognize not only the good oneself but also the good of others.
One way of ensuring the rationality and impartiality of moral decisions is to follow the seven
steps moral reasoning model which can serve as a guide in making choices of moral import.(1)
Stop and think. Before you make any decision, take a moment to think about the situation
itself. What is your place in that given situation? What are other surrounding factors that you
need to consider? For instance, the people who will be involved and the potential effects of
your decision towards these people. This step requires a step back from the situation to reflect
in order to be sure that you do not act out impulse or out of your emotion only.(2) Clarify
goals. It is necessary that you should clarify your goals. You make a distinction of your short-
term goals and your long-term goals. We often decide on the basis of what we want to
accomplish. Some times in the heat of the moment, our short term wants eclipse our long-
term goals. That is why, you must determine if you are willing to sacrifice more important
goals in life to achieve your short-term goals. For example: You are seeking retribution for
the harm caused by another person, you have to think about the long-term consequence of
revenge on your character as a person in the long run.(3) Determine facts. Make sure you
gather enough information before you make a choice. An intelligent choice is one that is
supported with verified facts. You must first be certain that what you know is enough basis
for your action. Without verifying facts, you may regret your choice in the future once various
aspects of the situation come to light. (Mao, nang usahay moingon ta usahay, Sus! Kabalo pa
lang ko daan nga ingon ani diay ni dili gyud unta ko mohimo ani..)Never make a choice on the
basis of hearsay. Make sure that your sources of information are credible and have integrity.

(4) Develop options. Once you are clarified of your goals and you already have enough verified
information, you try to come up with alternative options to exhaust all possible courses of
action. Most of the time, the pressure of the situation may make you feel that you are left
with less options than you think. Clear your mind and try to think of other creative ways of
clarifying your motives and implementing your actions with the least ethical compromise.
(5) Consider consequences. Filter your choices and categorize the ethical from the non-ethical
choices bearing in mind both your motives and potential consequences of your action. Think
of long-term consequences and act in accordance with the principles of justice and
fairness. Consequences are historical realities that bear upon the lives of
others. Consequences as historical realities are not only your personal history but the history
of others who will be involved and get affected by your action. Your decision turns something
in your mind into reality. Be sure you do not regret the decision you have conferred reality
upon.
(6) Choose. You make a decision. There are times when you find it hard to make a choice -
(when you are as if, turned between two lovers….. ). You try to consult with people who may
have knowledge or experience of your situation – people whose knowledge about the matter
has already been tested by experience. Find people with virtuous character and compare your
reasoning with your moral analysis. Once you make up your mind summon the will to do the
right thing even if it is hard and seemingly counter-intuitive.
(7) Monitor and modify. After the decision has been made and put into action, monitor what
happens after. If there is something that needs to be modified --action or behavior, be
humble enough to do so as necessary. Pride me come in the way of admitting that you might
have not thought out a decision well enough. As you become more aware of the consequences
of your actions, especially on the matters that affect other people, be strong in your
determination to make some changes to rectify any shortcomings. Do not hesitate to revise
your decisions in light of new developments in the situation.
These seven steps can help us ensure that we do not take moral decisions lightly. They shed
light on the various aspects of moral situations that we have to consider before making a
decision. One important element in a moral decision making is our will to commit to an action
based on moral principles.
We must have the necessary resolution to put your choices in motion after a long process of
deliberation. Goodwill must be enacted and applied to make a difference in the world of
practical moral affairs.
While feelings and reason set up the theoretical basis for moral action, it is the will which
implements your decision and projects your motives into reality. It is not enough to want to
do the good, you must actually do it not only for your sake but for the benefit of those that
may bear the consequences of your decision.
So every action that we will take no matter how private and personal it may be will always
have social repercussion. Ones action will always affect both the person concerned and other
people. To a great extent, you owe it to others to do the right thing. It shows how much you
respect them that you cannot allow yourself to not do something that may benefit them. It is
only by habituating yourself to doing good that your will becomes used.
From the Act to the Person
1. The importance of “personhood”
Contemporary ethicists point to the importance of “Personhood”. It is the human being
himself/ herself who gives meaning to the acts and it is also the human being who receives
significance from the acts that he/she executes.
Human acts and personhood are always bound together and they are inseparable. But the
personhood has the primacy over human acts. Human acts are human because the center of
identity and integrity that grounds them is the person. Human acts are particular actions that
flow from the personhood of the human being.2. The role of the human acts to the person
Human acts, in turn, determine the reality of the person. Human acts are significant to the
person. Human beings as doers of moral acts are responsible not only for what they do but
also for the persons that they grow into through their moral acts. In other words, you as a
human being is not only responsible for what you do but also to the kind of person you become
because of your action.
Human acts are relevant to the kind of person one becomes. Particular moral actions shape
the “person” that one desires. Therefore in ethics, it is not only “good moral actions” that are
important. Asking students about “the kind of person” they want to become is more
meaningful and significant in our study of Ethics.
We have the tendency to think of other people as victims of a wrong decision or bad actions
of a particular moral agent. It should be noted however, that in the relationship between
personhood and moral actions, as previously mentioned, the moral agent himself/herself is
the first victim of a bad decision or a wrong action.
However the depth of personhood cannot be fully objectivized and it always escapes
conceptualization. Kant insists in this mysterious center that is in the human person that he
refuses to say that the person is inherently evil. For Kant, the human person’s inexhaustible
ability to always change for the better is a source of surprise even for the moral agent.
No matter how much a human person is conditioned by culture and environment, there is
within that person a source for change and a turning towards the good.
This is confirmed by the conversion and even cultural revolutions that happen in human
history.