Sot Writing Guide

Guide to Graduate Theological Research and Writing
by Douglas E. Welch, Merle D. Strege, and John H. Aukerman

Anderson University School of Theology
Guide to Graduate
Theological Research
and Writing
By Douglas E. Welch, Merle D. Strege, and John H. Aukerman
Anderson University School of Theology Writing Guide

Table of Contents
Foreword
Introduction
Chapter 1: Philosophy of Research
Chapter 2: Gathering the Data
Chapter 3: Interpreting the Data
Chapter 4: Writing the Results
Chapter 5: The Practice of Inclusive Language
Chapter 6: Form and Style
Chapter 7: Master’s Thesis
Appendix A: Theological Library Resources at Anderson University
Appendix B: Electronic Databases
Appendix C: The Case Study Approach
Appendix D: Historical Studies—A Valuable Tool of Enrichment
Bibliography
General Works for Further Study
Editors and Compilers, Douglas E. Welch and Merle D. Strege, 1991

Revised and Enlarged by Douglas E. Welch, 1993
Revised and Updated by John H. Aukerman, 2002, 2006
Revised and Updated by David Neidert, John H. Aukerman, and Janet Brewer, 2010
1
2
Foreword
This Guide is intended to provide a how-to approach to graduate theological research and writing in gen-
eral. More particularly, however, it is concerned with research and writing in the context of Anderson Uni-
versity School of Theology.
The style of writing advocated in this Guide is, in our judgment, in keeping with that which is standard in
the field of "formal," technical writing at its best. That is, writing which passes the tests of simplicity, accu-
racy, economy, and clarity. We are fully aware that much formal writing, particularly in theological circles,
is overly-complicated, lacking in clarity, and full of jargon and gobbledygook. What may be good ideas get
lost in thickets of semantic fuzziness and hopelessly run-on sentences and paragraphs.
Good formal writing, in our view, need not be stiff, labored, or boring to read. It can be creative, direct,
and vigorous — even to the point of possessing some literary merit. Research scholars need not be
stuffy, unexciting writers whose only literary merit is to be found in the final period of their manuscripts.
We are concerned that graduate theological students develop skills in the use of language, both in spo-
ken and written form. It is often assumed in our educational theories that one may develop a high degree
of skill in verbal communication without developing any significant writing skills at all. Such a notion is not
substantiated either by accepted linguistic theory or critical observation.
Inasmuch as speaking and writing are closely related skills, it follows that those who write poorly speak
the same way, no matter how rhetorically impressive they may be. Eloquence alone is no guarantee of
accuracy and clarity. It may, in fact, be only "sound and fury" signifying nothing of any great importance.
We commend you, then, to the art of good writing. To develop good writing skills is, at the same time, to
develop a solid foundation for good public speaking skills. One does not say things well if they are not
clear and easily understandable to those who listen.
This Guide is concerned not just with writing, however. It is also concerned with research. In our ap-
proach, the primary stress is on the second syllable, rather than the first. Thus, re-SEARCH, not
RE-search. Our concern is not merely one of pronunciation, but of focus. In other words, research is con-
cerned more with searching than with covering the same ground endlessly covered by others or beating
the same bushes beaten to death by generations of re-searchers.
We recognize, of course, that a great deal of information has been inadequately or wrongly interpreted.
To look at the same information again from other theoretical perspectives is an important scholarly pur-
1
suit. Having confirmed the relative adequacy of the data themselves, the researcher then seeks to pro-
duce a better interpretation of them.
But the primary function of the research scholar is to dig out information that has not been gotten at be-
fore — at least, in any depth. Such information may fill in gaps in our knowledge — which are legion — or
demand that we rethink some of the things we are so confident we know. It is often that very confidence
that prevents us from entering more fully into the vast cosmos of knowledge which surrounds us and is
within us. The researcher of high moral character will thus struggle to push back the horizons of our col-
lective knowing.
Research, then, is not the process by which we seek to "prove" what we already believe on other grounds
to be true. Our concern, rather, is to find out what is going on and why and to come to a congruent under-
standing of it. And that is risky, for it may lead us in unanticipated directions and to uncomfortable conclu-
1
“Data” is a plural noun.
3
sions. But the honest researcher faces these squarely and reports them as fairly and accurately as possi-
ble.
Our position, then, is avowedly liberal, in the best sense of that word. Albert C. Outler refers to this as "the
refreshing liberal spirit," the temper and attitude of "openness, tolerance of critical, honest inquiry, a firm
insistence upon public evidence and rational argument, and . . . a sense of the immorality of uncritical
2
credulity."
2
Albert C. Outler, "Toward a Postliberal Hermeneutics," Theology Today 42 (October,
1985): 6.
4
Introduction: The Nature of Graduate Study
At several points, graduate study is different from the kind of education the student may have pursued as
an undergraduate. Moreover, graduate theological students must consider a particular list of virtues im-
portant to them as developing scholar-ministers. It will be well to review here these ideas as an introduc-
tion both to this manual and to expectations made of graduate theological students.
Virtues of a Graduate Student

In late 1984, the noted historian Jaroslav Pelikan gave an address to the Lutheran Church in America
Board of Publication. The title of the speech was "The Vocation of Scholarship in the Church." Theological
students may be well instructed by that title. Scholarship is a vocation, a calling to a certain kind of life.
This particular kind of life is one of which the church has great need. Therefore it is highly inappropriate to
suggest that theological students either leave or postpone ministry when they enroll in seminary. Their
theological studies are ministry in the full sense.
Since theological students are called to a particular ministerial lifestyle, the virtues of that character ought
to be known or, perhaps, reviewed. For these say something about the nature of the graduate student.
Pelikan listed these virtues as discipline, patience, curiosity, and imagination.
Discipline is the willingness to be introduced — more than casually — to the men and women of the
Christian tradition. Patience is the resistance to the easy and pat solution or means to the end, the will-
ingness to research and study to discover rather than merely to complete assignments. Curiosity is the
willingness to keep turning over new rocks, to resist the temptation to say, "I am finished." It is the proc-
ess of learning, never finalized, always provisional and at home in that temporality. Imagination is asking
3
new questions of old material, approaching it from a new angle of attack.
These are some of the virtues of graduate theological students called to serve the church through schol-
arship. Undoubtedly there are others, but these are offered as an introduction and challenge to those who
have come to study at Anderson University School of Theology.
— Merle D. Strege
Characteristics of Graduate Study

Critical
Graduate study is critical. It seeks to apply critical techniques and methodology to the subject under con-
sideration. Criticism in this sense is analytical and seeks answers to the question, "What is really going on
here?" This criticism is undertaken in the spirit of curiosity rather than reproof, for the real goal of criticism
is to further understanding and to open up completely new lines of inquiry.
Another dimension of criticism is a certain measure of objectivity on the part of the student. In realizing
this lies the importance of acquiring a method. Methodology assists the student in acquiring some objec-
tivity, to stand over against that which is being researched or otherwise studied. Of course, total objectiv-
ity is impossible; that is one of the commonplaces of modern epistemology. But to concede that point is
not to say that students have no responsibility to create a scholarly distance between themselves and the
material under consideration.
3
Jaroslav Pelikan, "The Vocation of Scholarship in the Church," LCA Partners (February-
March 1984:12.
5
A third dimension of criticism is that it represents the student's application of the findings of others, i.e.
scholarship, to his or her own subject of study. Critical study is informed study; it does not and cannot
occur in a vacuum. Students must apply the findings of others to their own knowledge and conduct, en-
gaging in discussion, as it were, with others through their recorded work about that which is of common
interest.
A final dimension of criticism is its basic attitude, one which requires reasons for accepting something as
true. Critical students always ask authors, professors, colleagues, and themselves, "Why should I believe
that? What convincing reasons are given for believing this rather than something else?" In short, critical
study supplies questions instead of credulity, tentativeness rather than dogmatism.
Independent
Graduate study takes place in the community of scholarship. But that does not mean it is not independ-
ent. Independent, not arbitrary. Immanuel Kant's great motto was "Dare to think for yourself." One may
not arbitrarily will to believe whatever one chooses or thinks must be believed. But graduate study does
value independent, i.e., creative, thought.
This means that graduate study and research must proceed beyond merely collecting that which already
has been considered. The graduate student must be prepared to state, with reasons, what he or she
thinks or has concluded about matters, however tentative those conclusions may be. It is to be expected
that among a student's reasons will be found some of the findings of other scholars. Of particular impor-
tance is the distinction between the work of others and that of the student. This distinction is the respon-
sibility of the student and the failure to make it is a most serious breach of academic ethics known as pla-
giarism.
The work of other individuals, whether as words or ideas, which contributed to the student's presentation
must be acknowledged through quotation or citation. Quotations are those instances where the exact
words of another are used. Citations are acknowledgements that ideas or conclusions of others, while not
directly quoted, contribute to the student's research (just because the work of another is not quoted ver-
batim does not relieve the student of the responsibility to indicate by citation his or her indebtedness).
Tentative
One of the differences between preaching and teaching is that sermons may conclude with a resounding
"Thus says the Lord!" while lectures never do. They are more likely to end in the question, "What do you
think?" Graduate study is in the spirit of the teacher more than that of the preacher. It is profoundly dia-
logical. One may conclude some things, and very firmly at that. But the conclusions are always open-
ended. Always there exists the possibility of new discovery of better argument that will bring us to deeper
insight or clearer awareness.
Thus, graduate students pursue study with a tentativeness akin to the virtue of humility. The business of
graduate study is not polemics or propaganda; it is to get at tentative answers to important questions.
Human knowledge has advanced greatly over the centuries and accelerated in more recent decades. But
it is far from perfect. Therefore, graduate students are advised to make their "sympathies . . . with those
who are not sure that they understand themselves and the universe rather than with those who make
4
hard things easy."
Critical Thinking
Students often have some initial problems with the idea that graduate study in a theological seminary is
"critical" in nature. Our ministerial "calling," they say, is to affirm and confess, not criticize. It is, however,
the very nature of graduate education that it demands of us that we think carefully and analytically about
what it is we are affirming and confessing. Often, in the critical light of day, the content of our affirmations
4
Henry F. May, The Enlightenment in America (New York: The Oxford University Press,
1976), xvii.
6
demands rethinking. In addition, the whys of our affirmations and confessions often need careful scrutiny.
Those, for example, who proclaim their truth as absolute and universal, to the exclusion of all others, may
be engaging in an ideological game. Thus, the personal and collective psychologies of truth-making need
careful scrutiny. The purpose of such critical thinking is to enable us to make a necessary distinction be-
tween tradition and truth. Even Jesus, in his engagement with the Pharisees had to engage in this critical
struggle.
7
8
Chapter 1. Philosophy of Research
This essay offers a definition of research, a brief description of the two major approaches to research
(quantitative and qualitative), some of the advantages of qualitative research, and argues for the appro-
priateness of qualitative research in most theological study.
In the 1989 Midwest Research to Practice Conference, meeting at the University of Missouri, James H.
McElhinny defined research as "a systematic way of asking intelligent questions about important topics
5
that yields dependable answers." The four key terms in his definition are: systematic; intelligent; impor-
tant; and dependable.
Systematic: Research is carefully planned and data are judiciously analyzed. Research activities are
guided by a theoretical rationale which provides unity and cohesion.
Intelligent: Researchers question and re-examine traditions, other related research, and their own con-
ceptual framework. They discriminate between what is relevant and what is irrelevant.
Important: Research contributes to what is already known about an area of inquiry, in a manner which
makes substantial differences in the lives of people. Research is worth the effort expended.
Dependable: Research yields answers which approximate truth. It also identifies areas for further inquiry.
There are two general categories of research methodologies: quantitative and qualitative. Each has a dis-
crete set of assumptions about reality, acceptable practices, rhetoric, and kinds of results.
Quantitative Research Methods
These methods are built on logical positivism, an epistemological stance that has been severely criticized
6
for more than 45 years. The positivist philosophy "assumes that there are social facts with an objective
7
reality apart from the beliefs of individuals." Therefore, quantitative methods attempt to explain social
changes through the use of objective measures and statistical analysis.
Quantitative researchers attempt to achieve objectivity by using experimental designs and correlational
studies, thinking that these techniques will reduce or eliminate error and bias. They therefore place heavy
emphasis on procedures, methodologies, and statistics.
Their reports rely heavily on the rhetoric of validity, reliability, generalizability, replicability, and predictabil-
ity. Validity means that an instrument actually measures what it claims to measure; reliability means that
an instrument consistently yields the same results, and is often tested by administering the instrument to
the same group of people on two separate occasions; the intent of generalizability is to estimate the ex-
tent to which data will be true for similar groups in similar situations (if something was true for this group
of people, it should likewise be true for another group); replicability means the extent to which research
can be repeated with similar results; and predictability is the estimated likelihood that research accurately
predicts the future.
5
James H. McElhinny, "Research 101," Paper presented at the Midwest Research to
Practice Conference, Oct 12-13, 1989. St. Louis MO. (John H. Aukerman's possession,
Anderson IN.), 1989.
6
Kenneth R. Howe, "Two Dogmas of Educational Research," Educational Researcher
(October 1985): 10.
7
William A. Firestone, "Meaning in Method: The Rhetoric of Quantitative and Qualitative
Research," Educational Researcher (October 1978): 16.
9
Qualitative Research Methods
These methods are built on a post positivistic, phenomenological world view, which assumes "that reality
8
is socially constructed through individual or collective definitions of the situation." The purpose of qualita-
tive research is to understand the current social situation, from the point of view of the participants. There-
9
fore, the researcher becomes “‘immersed’ in the phenomenon of interest.”
In qualitative research, the emphasis is on collecting data that lead to dependable answers to important
questions, reported in sufficient detail that it has meaning to the reader. "The proto-typical qualitative
study is the ethnography which helps the reader understand the definitions of the situation of those stud-
10
ied."
Qualitative research reports include descriptions, judgments, and evaluations. Because of a qualitative
researcher's post-positivistic paradigm, there is little or no attention paid to statistics of validity, reliability,
generalizability, replicability, and predictability, as used by quantitative researchers. Emphasis is laid on
dependability, which is enhanced by the use of prolonged engagement in the field, triangulation, case
11
analyses, auditing, and/or checks by stakeholders.
One of the qualitative approaches is descriptive research. According to David R. Krathwohl, "Descriptive
research involves collecting data in order to answer questions . . . about the current status of the situation
12
under study." If statistics are used, they are descriptive, not inferential, merely providing a description of
the variables. No attempt is made to test hypotheses, control variables, measure the strength of relation-
ships, or establish statistical significance. The intention of descriptive research is to develop a purposeful,
systematic, intelligent, and accurate description of some particular situation. Questionnaires and surveys
of people’s judgments are examples of descriptive research methods.
Qualitative research has the following advantages:
1. It allows the researcher to describe existing phenomena and current situations.

2. It is useful in examining the totality of a unit.
3. It yields results that can be helpful in pioneering new ground.
Qualitative methods are appropriate for theological study for the following reasons:
1. The phenomenological, post-positivistic paradigm of qualitative research is more congruent with

the realities most often of interest to theological study than the logical positivism of quantitative
research. In ministry, absolute objectivity is not attainable; therefore, attempts to approach objec-
tivity via quantitative procedures are illusory. The subjective beliefs, judgments, experiences, and
values of individuals and groups, combined, are important and valuable; therefore, they ought to
be collected, studied, and learned from.
2. The research questions in much theological study do not lend themselves to experimental design
or correlational study, quantitative methods. Qualitative methods are well suited for most research
questions relevant to ministry.
3. Replicability, a quantitative concept, is generally not an issue in theological study. Although inter-
views and surveys can be repeated, the population supplying the data cannot be replicated. This
is true, first, because the research questions are developed specifically with a particular popula-
8
Firestone, 16.
9
Ibid., 17.
10
Ibid.
11
McElhinny, 4.
12
David R. Krathwohl, Social and Behavioral Science Research: A New Framework for
Conceptualizing, Implementing, and Evaluating Research Studies (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publish-
ers, 1985), 178.
10
tion in mind, at a specific time and place in history, and second, because even if the same re-
search questions were used with the same individuals at a later time, their experience would be
different, which could change their answers to the questions.
4. Predictability, a quantitative concept, is not usually an issue in theological study. Ministers do not
generally attempt to control people's behavior, which is the major purpose of predictability (if one
does "A," people will respond with "B").
5. Qualitative research is useful in understanding a current social situation, an interest of much theo-
logical study. Therefore, qualitative research methods are appropriate.
6. Quite often, theological research intends to pioneer new ground, one of the strengths of qualita-
tive methodologies. In such instances, a qualitative approach is appropriate.
Students planning to undertake research at Anderson University School of Theology are advised to give
careful consideration to their purpose and goal before selecting either a quantitative or qualitative design.
They are also advised to consult with faculty members before designing any research project.
— John H. Aukerman
11
12
Chapter 2. Gathering the Data
Research is an adventure. It continually draws us onward to new dimensions of discovery and analysis. It
leads us into exciting new fields of inquiry and learning, adding both breadth and depth to our understand-
ing.
But, on the other hand, research is also hard work. It is patient, persistent, painstaking "detective work,"
with numerous frustrations and false leads. Good research has more to do with the shine on the seat of
one's pants than the shine in one's eyes. The good researcher is the one who perseveres, who is distrust-
ful of easy answers and quick solutions, and who knows that things are not always what they seem — or
what they are popularly believed to be.
The good researcher is concerned to get at the pertinent data and let those data, insofar as that is possi-
ble, speak for themselves. Here is where the adventure really begins: one cannot know in advance where
the data will lead. They may or may not support the researcher's hypotheses or answer the researcher's
questions. They may, indeed, point to quite different and unexpected ones, ones with which the re-
searcher may be somewhat uncomfortable. But, as we have noted elsewhere, good researchers seek,
above all else, to be rigorously intellectually honest. They do not ignore or cover over unwanted data and
disturbing conclusions.
But neither do researchers delight in unearthing "skeletons" and publishing "facts," or interpretations of
data, that may needlessly damage the reputations of individuals and institutions. Research is never mor-
ally or ethically neutral. Intellectual honesty is morally necessary, but it is not the whole of morality.
And so the researcher works critically and honestly at finding the relevant data, recognizing that even raw
data do not exist independently of contexts. Therefore, one carefully notes the full context in which the
data occur. Data are not detached propositions, floating about in some universal ether, complete and final
in themselves.
All of this impinges upon the gathering of data, but is not, in itself, the substance of this chapter. Our con-
cern here is with research methodology. That is, how one goes about the gathering of data. In the fol-
lowing pages, we shall briefly discuss basic research techniques. This is not to suggest that good tech-
niques alone make one a good researcher. Research is more an art than a science, so intuition is also
important. But good techniques help. Poor techniques can certainly cancel out good intuitions.
Books and Articles

In an academic institution, the most obvious place to begin collecting data pertinent to one's field of in-
quiry is in books and articles. Even though we live in the computer age, print libraries are still the richest
source of information readily available to us. So, become familiar, even friendly, with the libraries avail-
able to you, browse along the periodicals shelves, in the stacks, and in the reference areas. Experiment
13
with online catalogs, microforms and microform readers, and other electronic aids. (Note Appendix A,
Theological Library Resources at Anderson University.)
But above all, become acquainted with the professional library staff. Not only are they paid to assist you
in your research, they are quite happy to do so. Their suggestions can frequently save you hours of work.
They are often our most under-utilized resource in the gathering of research data.
Professional journals are one of the richest sources of information for the researcher. Many can be
searched on Nicholson Library’s website: click “Find Articles” at http://library.anderson.edu/. Many times,
books and articles that look most promising are not to be found in Nicholson Library. However, most items
13
Note: The correct spelling of “online” is without a hyphen, viz. “online.”
13
can usually be obtained through interlibrary loan (see Appendix A, Theological Library Resources at An-
derson University). See also http://library.anderson.edu/distancelearning.html.
Documents
Archives and personal documents are of particular value to those engaged in certain kinds of historical
research. These are not always readily available to the researcher and often restrictions are placed on
their use, such as selected access only under supervision.
Archives
Unlike regular library materials, archival material does not circulate. And generally it must be used on site
under the supervision of an archivist or assistant. Further, some archival material is not available to the
ordinary researcher, primarily because it is "official and confidential." This can prove to be quite frustrating
to the researcher, who "knows" that to which he or she is being denied access is exactly what is needed
to further the research and cannot be obtained elsewhere. Little can be done about it, however.
But, occasionally, even when the archival material is legally public material, rather than private, the re-
searcher may still be denied ready access to it. In discussing this problem, David C. Pitt notes that the
researcher not infrequently has to deal with officials "who have a deep-seated suspicion that the aca-
14
demic is an iconoclast whose main function is to discredit the establishment."
Nicholson Library houses the official archives of the Church of God. These are public archives and gen-
erally available to those doing research. Access is not unlimited or unrestricted, however. Archives hours
are posted at the entrance to the Archives. These are limited to a few hours each day (Monday through
Friday) during academic sessions. Further, much of the material is available only on specific request, to
be used under archival staff supervision, and none of it can be removed from the premises. Photocopy
machines are available in the Archives.
Even with these restrictions, archives are the best sources — and often the only sources — of certain
kinds of historical data. Before undertaking a research project requiring this kind of historical data, stu-
dents should acquaint themselves with the archives and what is available there.
Personal Documents
It may be, however, that even when the archives does not have the primary documents needed for the
kind of data the researcher wishes to collect, they are available elsewhere. On occasion, the researcher
will be able to uncover primary sources of data quite unknown publicly up to that point. The most likely
sources of such "treasures" are individuals who have retained, or who have knowledge of, private letters,
journals, or diaries of family members or friends.
These are generally referred to as "personal documents." John Madge defines personal documents as
documents in which the authors "describe events in which they participated, or [which] indicate their per-
sonal beliefs and attitudes . . . In its narrow sense the personal document is a spontaneous first-person
15
description by an individual of his own actions, experiences, and beliefs."
Behaviorists formerly considered the use of such documents to be unacceptable, primarily because they
are not "objective." Their essential "subjectivity," so it was said, made them scientifically suspect. Social
16
scientists and historians, however, now generally accept personal documents as historically valid.
14
David C. Pitt, Using Historical Sources in Anthropology and Sociology (New York: Holt,
Rinehart, and Winston, 1972), 36.
15
John Madge, The Tools of Social Science (Garden City, New York: Doubleday and
Company, Anchor Books, 1965), 76f.
16
Ibid., 78ff.
14
This is not to say that such documents are to be taken at face value as literal descriptions of what hap-
pened. But they do indicate personal attitudes, beliefs, and feelings about what the writer believes to have
occurred. This is historically important information, and it may, indeed, lead the researcher to question
official or published versions of the same events. In such cases, however, the researcher is obligated to
seek independent verification of the writer's information. If this cannot be done, the researcher must be
very cautious about deciding which version is true.
Among the various materials known as personal documents, personal and family letters are generally the
most useful. They are usually without the high degree of personal image consciousness and pose which
tend to characterize public and official letters. Particularly are private letters helpful in determining the ac-
tions, attitudes, and opinions of their writers — which are not normally revealed in official or public letters.
Such "official" letters are often propagandistic, promotional, designed to "sell" an idea or a program. They
cannot, therefore, be implicitly trusted.
Journals and diaries are valuable sources of data, but must be used with some caution. They both select
events and interpret them — often on the basis of "memory," or after-the-fact — occasionally days or
even weeks after-the-fact. So the researcher must seek to determine how frequently journal or diary en-
tries were made. Daily? Twice-weekly? Weekly? Periodic? Under such circumstances, gaps are bound to
have occurred. Many of them may be quite critical.
Further, such material is often intended for "publication," if only within a family. Thus, the material is
scarcely free from pose. Particularly is this true of memoirs or other kinds of autobiographical writing.
Here, the memory factor plays a crucial role. But in spite of these limitations, such personal documents
can provide a great deal of useful data, some of which cannot be obtained elsewhere.
Public Documents
A third frequently used documentary source of data is public documents. These consist of official records,
minutes, reports, accounts, newspaper reports, copies of speeches, pamphlets, statistics, official histo-
ries, and case history records. It must be remembered, however, that these are secondary sources, not
primary sources as we have been discussing above.
Documents such as annual reports and official histories should be used with a great deal of caution. Writ-
ers of them are usually concerned to put the best official or institutional foot forward. A healthy dose of
skepticism — not to be confused with cynicism — is the researcher's safeguard against gullibility and, in
the end, embarrassment over having published "facts" that turn out to be misleading, if not untrue. In the
case of these public documents, a double dose of skepticism is wise.
We are not saying that such reports are deliberate concoctions of truths, half-truths, and outright lies. But
the pressures of public and institutional life seem to generate a greater degree of self-delusion than is
generally characteristic of the rest of us. Most of us want our work and our institution to appear in the best
light possible, particularly when funding may depend on it. This — often unwittingly — leads to omission
and over-statement.
In spite of all of these handicaps, however, public documents are still potentially good sources of research
data. The wary researcher will use these data with caution, however, unless they can be corroborated by
other, less self-interested sources. It is always wise when using such information not to take it too literally,
but to get "behind the scenes," as it were. In other words, check and double-check.
Interviews
In the social sciences, one of the most frequently used methods for gathering data is the interview
method. Sociology and psychology in particular have used this method, structured in the form of case
15
studies (see Appendix C, The Case Study Approach) or life histories. This approach, as with most others,
17
has its limitations — as Daniel Yankelovich, a noted user of the method, admits.
In many areas of research, however, the interview method is most useful, particularly when combined
with other methods. Frequently, when using questionnaires or other field research instruments, follow-
up interviews with selected respondents can be fruitful indeed. And often they are quite necessary in
clearing up ambiguous responses.
Good interviewing is, of course, dependant on good listening, something most of us do not do well. Good
listening is, in this case, intensive listening. Intensive listening is that in which we listen not only to words,
but at the same time observe carefully the emotional reactions of the informant to what she or he is say-
ing. What emotions and attitudes are in evidence? How does the speaker feel about what is being said?
Any intensifying of emotion, any negative body language, evidence of uneasiness, embarrassment, or
resistance is significant. Avoidance techniques, such as evasive or non-committal answers or changing
the subject, are important clues and should be noted carefully by the interviewer. These all form part of
the context within which the verbal data must be interpreted, if it is to be interpreted at all fairly.
Intensive listening, then, involves careful observation, a method of data gathering to be discussed later.
Such observation can indirectly provide the researcher with a great deal of information that perhaps could
not be gotten at any other way. It can suggest to the alert researcher other questions that need to be
asked, other avenues that ought to be explored.
Interviews should be planned well in advance and informants carefully selected. Not everyone is equally
well informed about the subject of your research. Objectives should be well-defined. Know exactly what it
is you want to find out and do not be sidetracked by issues not related to your research. And clearly dif-
ferentiate between questions which call for information and those which call for opinion. If this careful ad-
vance planning is not done, the interview is not likely to be as useful as it could have been.
It is wise to plan well in advance for yet another reason. In interviewing, the researcher is often dealing
with problems of doubt, suspicion, and defensiveness on the part of the prospective informant. If the in-
terviewer catches the informant at a bad time, or is late for the appointment, the interviewer may experi-
ence abruptness, impatience, or resentment. What is already a tricky situation is thus made worse. The
informant is then not likely to be as communicative or helpful as he or she normally would.
If the interview method is to be your primary method of data gathering, it would be wise to spend time
learning about it from those who specialize in its use. An excellent source is The Dynamics of Interview-
ing, by Robert L. Kahn and Charles F. Cannell. The authors provide a most useful discussion of, among
other things, motivational, psychological and linguistic barriers in interviewing. James Engel also provides
18
some useful "rules" for interviewing.
As we have noted, interviewing is a difficult, even "tricky," process. It is doubtful that one can ever know
too much about it or practice it perfectly. But good preparation well ahead of time can enable the re-
searcher to avoid serious problems. It is wiser to spend time in attempting to anticipate problems than in
having to remedy them later.
Questionnaires
One of the most frequently used — and abused —methods of gathering primary data is the questionnaire.
The questionnaire is now one of the facts of life in our society. Educators, market analysts, sales firms,
social services, civic and federal governments, pollsters, politicians, and preachers all rely on them. And
17
Daniel Yankelovich, New Rules: Searching for Fulfillment in a World Turned Upside
Down (New York: Random House, 1981), 55.
18
James Engel, How Can I Get Them to Listen? A Handbook on Communication Strategy
and Research (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1977), 121ff.
16
this in spite of the fact that most of the questionnaires themselves are vague, muddled, and ambiguous.
Thus, the "facts" they are purported to yield can be no less.
The design, administration, and interpretation of questionnaires that yield trustworthy data is very difficult,
difficult because it is so complex. Also because it is much more of an art than a science, so Engel ar-
19
gues. The major difficulty in using the questionnaire, Engel asserts, is "to minimize that ever-present
problem of bias — errors and mistakes made in the communicative process which cause the findings to
20
deviate from the truth."
The questionnaire must then be designed in such a way that the ever-present problem of bias is at least
minimized. Unfortunately, so Engel laments, no formulae exist by which this can be done. The question-
naire is simply "structured, goal-oriented communication." And, as with all other forms of communication,
21
is an art rather than a science.
Engel then goes on to discuss types of questionnaires, their strengths and weaknesses, and suggests
general guidelines for questionnaire construction. The researcher who plans to use the questionnaire
method of gathering data should heed Engel well here.
Since the validity of the information gathered from questionnaires depends upon the respondents' under-
standing of the questions asked, the researcher must give very careful and detailed attention to the writ-
ing of the questions. This will take much more time than most students anticipate. Here again a writer's
maxim applies: "No such thing as good writing exists, only good re-writing."
How does one know when questions need to be re-written? One test is to have your research director
read them. If they understand exactly what information you are requesting, then the questions are proba-
bly clear — to academicians. A more certain method is to pre-test the questionnaire, using locally avail-
able respondents of the same general educational and social level as those who will ultimately be filling
out the questionnaires. If a question can be misunderstood, it will be in enough instances to alert the re-
searcher to the existence of ambiguity in the question itself. Questions can then be re-stated and re-
tested to assure that the correction is not itself ambiguous.
Ambiguous Questions
As the above discussion suggests, most problems in questionnaires come from inappropriately worded
questions. Ambiguous questions are one of the chief culprits. A question such as, "Would you say that the
pastor's sermons are helpful?" is highly ambiguous. Helpful in what way? It is conceivable that someone
could answer, "Yes, it is the only nap I get all week." Or, "No, he keeps shouting and wakening me."
The ambiguity of such questions is intensified by the fact that they most often, as in this case, call for a
yes-no answer. To ask for a yes-no answer to a question that is not itself a yes-no question adds to the
confusion the respondent is already experiencing. Yet, many questionnaires do exactly this.
A political opinion survey questionnaire in our possession consists of ten questions, all of which call for
yes-no answers. Yet few of them are genuinely yes-no questions. In some cases, "Don't know" is a more
appropriate answer. And at least in one other, respondents may want to answer both yes and no. "Is the
President doing a good job?" In some areas, yes; in others, no. But we have no doubt that this politician
used the results of his survey to score political points in Washington— even though the survey instrument
could not possibly yield accurate results.
Potential ambiguity lurks behind almost every word and sentence in any communication. Ferreting it out is
no easy task. But avoiding it is mandatory if our questionnaire results are to be trustworthy on specific
points. We must then be careful to avoid vague and imprecise language — often introduced by such
words as "usually," "generally," "normally," or "often." We should also avoid "jargon" or in-house terms
19
Ibid., 71.
20
Engel, 71.
21
Ibid., 72.
17
22
that may not be familiar to the respondents. Such language allows ambiguity to occur. We must re-
member, if it can be misunderstood, it will be.
Leading Questions
A second major problem in the wording of questions is the leading question. A leading question is one
which makes it easier for a respondent to give one answer than another. For example, "Wouldn't you say
that you are opposed to abortion?" The impulse of many respondents is to answer "yes," simply because
they are suggestible persons who are sensitive to what the questioner, or interviewer, wants to hear.
Indeed, the purpose of leading questions is either to find those who agree with the propositions implicitly
contained within the questions or those who can be represented as agreeing. In either case, the motive of
the so-called "researcher" is dubious, if not downright dishonest.
Loaded Questions
A third problem question is the loaded question. Like the leading question, the loaded question is one
23
which makes it easier to give one answer than another. The loaded question, however, also asks the
respondent to accept an assumption or set of assumptions that may themselves be highly volatile or de-
batable. For example, "If God forgives divorcees, is his forgiveness the same, in kind, as his forgiveness
of other sinners?" The issue here is not whether God forgives divorcees, but whether divorcing is sinning.
The unwary respondent who answers this question with a "yes" or "no" — as the questionnaire calls for —
may be accepting an assumption, namely, that divorcing is sinning, with which he or she really does not
agree. Wishing to affirm that God does forgive divorcees, the hapless respondent must also affirm that
divorce is sin, presumably against God.
Loaded questions are not uncommon in the survey instruments masquerading as research question-
naires. But, as in the use of leading questions, loaded questions are essentially dishonest. Their real pur-
pose is to assert a questionable "truth" and then to collect "reliable data" proving that a majority of "the
people" agree with the assumption. This is nothing short of self-serving manipulation of persons and
"facts."
Sampling
If questionnaires are to be manageable in terms of time and cost, then it is clearly impossible in most
cases to send out many of them. This will, of course, create a serious problem for the research project if
the population being studied is large. If the population is very large, then it is physically impossible to in-
clude every potential respondent in the survey.
To solve this problem, the researcher employs the technique generally known as sampling. Engel asserts
that "a sample will provide an accurate picture of the larger body within measurable error limits if the
24
sample is properly chosen." To be scientifically valid, the sample must be both representative and ran-
dom, so Engel continues. He then discusses in some detail how this representativeness and randomness
25
is achieved and how the sample size itself is determined.
Since sampling is based on probability theory and generally accessible only to mathematicians, it is ad-
visable that the researcher who is not mathematically skilled consult with someone who is. It will not do
simply to "guesstimate" as to the composition and size of the sample. If it is not both genuinely represen-
22
Ibid., 81.
23
Engel, 82.
24
Ibid., 50.
25
Ibid., 51f.
18
tative and random, the data gathered will not be of any value. Any results then reported as "facts" will be
largely fictitious.
Observation
One final method of data gathering to be discussed briefly here is observation. This is an approach used
chiefly by the social sciences, anthropology in particular. We are not talking about just any kind of obser-
vation, however. Rather, our concern is controlled, directed observation. We are all aware that casual,
26
everyday observation is quite unreliable, as John Madge convincingly argues. But observation as a re-
search methodology is not casual, everyday observation.
Controlled, directed observation may take one of two general forms: (1) detached observation; and (2)
participant observation. In detached observation, the researcher is trying to observe what is going on with
a minimum of intervention. The problem is that without interruptions, the researcher cannot ask questions
or benefit from interaction. Most researchers get around this problem, however, by keeping detailed
notes, often in journal form, noting questions that can be asked in follow-up conversations or interviews.
The advantage of this type of observation is that it leaves the researcher free to concentrate on what is
going on rather than on his or her participation in it.
The participant observer, on the other hand, deliberately seeks to enter the life of a community and to
participate as fully as possible in it. This helps to avoid the distortion which will inevitably result from self-
conscious behavior or responses. And it often opens up avenues of inquiry and response which would not
be available to an "outsider."
The difficulty with participant observation, of course, is that it takes a great deal of time — often years —
to become an "insider," one with whom other insiders can be themselves. Most researchers do not have
that kind of time, unless their degree program demands it. But if it can be done, it will yield information
and insights that really cannot be gotten at any other way.
To be maximally effective, however, observation as a general research methodology must, of necessity,

be combined with other methodologies. The interview method is the one most commonly linked to it. Ob-
servations do need to be carefully verified, however. Even the researcher engaged in control-led or di-
rected observation can all too easily be misled. Observers must ask questions of actors in events in order
to confirm or correct what they think they have seen in the events observed.
Beyond data gathering, observation as a research method has yet another benefit. It can be very useful in
developing and testing research hypotheses. Many good research ideas have been born in the minds of
patient and careful observers as they have engaged in the kind of observation we have been talking
about. Further, many inadequate hypotheses have been abandoned or radically modified as a result of
such observation.
Conclusion
By way of summary, we have touched briefly on a variety of ways of gathering research data: the use of
books and articles; the use of documents, including archival, personal, and public documents; interview-
ing; the use of questionnaires; and directed or controlled observation. Generally, in any major research
project, such as a thesis, various combinations of these methods are employed.
It is important that the data we gather be as comprehensive and inclusive as possible. It is for this reason
that research topics must be carefully delimited, otherwise too much has to be left out. By narrowing the
research topic sufficiently, however, one can limit the amount of data needed to manageable proportions.
In the gathering of data, a central concern is that of accuracy, fairness, and honesty. For a researcher to
eliminate from consideration data which would alter the hypothesis or thesis with which she or he has
26
Madge, 124ff.
19
been working is neither fair, accurate, nor honest. Data gathering, in other words, involves moral obliga-
tion on the part of the researcher.
20
21
Chapter 3. Interpreting the Data
Having collected a great deal of data — in many cases, much more than the researcher will need for the
task at hand — the next question is what to do with it. Raw data do not come with interpretations at-
tached. Indeed, the data themselves may be quite ambiguous, that is, capable of being understood in
more than one way. The researcher then has the obligation of making coherent sense out of this great
welter of facts and ideas.
Many uninformed researchers, however, appear to assume that having collected the desired information,
all they need now to do is to arrange it in some kind of order. And so, for example, we have a plethora of
writings purporting to be histories which, in fact, are merely chronologies. What the writers present is
merely raw data in chronological order. They fail to enter into critical engagement with it, to analyze, to
question, to suggest what it all means and why it is important for us to pay attention to it.
In one way, the data are like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle: they have to be put together to form a picture.
But in another way, they are unlike a puzzle. A jigsaw puzzle can go together in only one way. In many, if
not most, cases, this is not true of the masses of data we collect. It is precisely this fact that creates nu-
merous problems for the researcher.
James W. Davidson and Mark H. Lytle, in discussing the writing of history, assert that history is "some-
thing that is done, that is constructed, rather than an inert body of data that lies scattered through the ar-
27
chives." In other words, history is interpretation of events, rather than the events themselves. And histo-
rians are the interpreters. Davidson and Lytle conclude, “For better or worse, historians inescapably leave
an imprint as they go about their business: asking interesting questions about apparently dull facts, see-
ing connections between subjects that had not seemed related before, shifting and rearranging evidence
28
until it assumes a coherent pattern. This past is not history; only the raw material of it.”
Interpretation is a complex and difficult task. It is that because the interpreter's world inevitably intrudes
into the interpretive task. Each of us comes to that task with a different set of perspectives, presupposi-
tions, and life experiences that predispose us to understand things in certain ways. For that reason, a
common set of data is variously handled by various people.
This is not to say, however, that all readings of that data are equally valid. Nor is it to say that the data
themselves do not impose some categories and restraints upon us. What it is saying is that those who
handle research data have an obligation to be aware of their own biases, to the extent that anyone can do
that. And, further, that they attempt to follow the data where they themselves seem to go.
And so, to the task of interpretation. Following is a discussion of several areas of concern that will, we
hope, offer some guidance in this critical undertaking. The categories of discussion are not exhaustive, by
any means. But what we have included are those which, in our experience, continue to trouble research
students.
Selection
Generally our problem is not a scarcity of data, but too much of it. The success of our data gathering itself
usually dictates that we must select from the mass of data that which will be presented and analyzed. The
very act of selection is the beginning of interpretation. Davidson and Lytle comment, “The historian's sim-
ple act of selection irrevocably separates ‘history’ from ‘the past.’ The reconstruction of an event is quite
27
James West Davidson and Mark Hamilton Lytle, After the Fact: the Art of Historical Detection
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982), xvii.
28
Ibid., xxix.
22
clearly different from the event itself. Yet selection is only one in a series of interpretive acts that histori-
29
ans perform as they proceed about their business.”
If selection is an interpretive act, the question then is, how do we go about it in ways that do not force the
data to speak too narrowly or in a voice not their own? Two basic criteria should guide the researcher's
selection of data to be presented: (1) representativeness; and (2) pertinence.
The question is: Is this part of the data representative of the whole or is it, in some way, an aberration? It
is possible to select only what fits one's theories and ignore what does not. This is dishonest. The data
selected should represent the whole picture, not just that part of it which the researcher may wish to high-
light for apologetic or propagandistic purposes.
Second, what is selected must be pertinent to the objectives of the research project itself. The researcher
may uncover a great deal of fascinating information in the course of research. But a good deal of it may
lead the researcher far away from the stated intentions of the research project. So, select what enables
you to achieve your stated objectives — and be sure that what you select is representative.
Jacques Barzun and Henry F. Graff state: "To be successful and right, a selection must face two ways: it
30
must fairly correspond to the mass of evidence, and it must offer a graspable design to the beholder."
Barzun and Graff compare the researcher to a traveler who explores new country. In selecting from the
data, the researcher has no "synoptic view," with all the facts clearly laid out in plain sight. He is rather an
"explorer," who "forms his opinions as he progresses, and they change with increasing knowledge." The
selective conclusions of the researcher, however, are always "conditioned" by two things, Barzun and
Graff insist. First, the researcher’s "temperament," which includes "preconceptions." And, second, "the
31
motive or purpose" of the research.
Undoubtedly Barzun and Graff are correct in asserting that selection is greatly affected by the tempera-
ment of the researcher. But what exactly do they mean by that? The temperament of the researcher has
to do with her guiding ideas, intentions, and hypotheses. In other words, Barzun and Graff conclude, the
researcher's "total interest." This interest will determine discoveries, selection, pattern-making, and ex-
32
position.
While this apparently is the case — and we shall discuss it more fully below under the heading of bias —
the fact remains that selection need not be fully subjective and arbitrary. If the criterion of representative-
ness is maintained, the researcher's "interest" cannot fully control selection. If it were to do so, then the
data could say only what the researcher has decided they should say. And, again, that is fundamentally
dishonest.
Bias
The extent, then, to which the research project and its results are determined by the researcher's bias is a
question warmly debated by scholars. A significant part of the debate centers on what is meant by the
term "bias" itself. Barzun and Graff make a distinction between "good" and "bad" interest. Bad interest is
that which is uncontrolled, heavily intrusive, and which leads to unfair or dishonest selection. It is this
33
"bad" interest which Barzun and Graff designate as "bias."
However, this gives the term "bias" a bad name — and a name which it may not deserve. According to
Barzun and Graff, the historian Edward Gibbon was "biased in favor of pagan Rome and against Christi-
34
anity." We cannot, then, trust Gibbon to give us an accurate account of early Christianity. While this is
29
Davidson and Hamilton, 3.
30
Jacques Barzun and Henry F. Graff, The Modern Researcher, Fourth Edition (New York:
Harcourt Brace Janovich, Publishers, 1985), 198.
31
Ibid.
32
Ibid., 199.
33
Ibid.
34
Ibid.
23
probably true of Gibbon, the pejorative use of "bias" constitutes a semantic problem. In this context it ap-
pears to be closed-minded and intolerant and that mindset made it impossible for him to be fair in his
judgments of it.
Bias, however, is not prejudice. A bias is simply a slant, an angle of vision — in this case. Bias is thus an
inescapable human characteristic, inasmuch as all of us see things from a perspective, i.e., a particular
angle. We can no more be unbiased than we can be non-human.
What is at stake here, of course, is the tired and worn Positivist view of pure objectivity. In the Positivist
paradigm, "objective" and "subjective" are synonyms for "true" and "false." The notion was that one could
stand outside one's humanness, personally disinterested, and totally objective. Such a human being is a
fiction.
We are all inescapably bound by our subjectivity, yet able to some extent to transcend it intellectually. We
cannot be unbiased, but we can fight against prejudice. That is, we can endeavor to collect all of the rele-
vant evidence and to consider it fairly — even if the subject is personally distasteful. We cannot be impar-
35
tial, but we can be intellectually honest, as Barzun and Graff admit. This means that we will constantly
put our subjectivities to the test.
It may, indeed, be better to qualify the term "bias" and thus to redefine it, rather than limiting it to a pejora-
tive use. All of us are inescapably biased, but we are not all biased in the same way. That is to say, bi-
ases may be positive, or they may be negative. Better yet, they may be critical or uncritical.
Critical bias is the recognition that one cannot be disinterested, or neutral, or impartial. One has "interest,"
to use Barzun and Graff's term, and that "interest" colors research. But it does not control it to the point
that honesty and fairness are impossible. The researcher of critical bias will endeavor to get at all of the
pertinent data possible and be rigorously fair in the handling of it. If that means changing one's mind or re-
thinking one's hypothesis, so be it.
Uncritical bias is the failure to recognize or admit the distortion of perspective, the lack of self-awareness
of one's personal perspective and how that tends to force data into pre-formed boxes. The uncritically
biased researcher is unfairly selective, projects personal views on the data, and ignores what could force
modification of hypotheses. It is this kind of bias, it seems, which is so often in popular "thought" equated
with prejudice.
We must, then, deal with bias on at least two levels: the bias of the researcher; and the bias of the writers
of books, articles, and documents. Particularly is bias a critical problem in personal and public documents.
The bias of any document is determined by its character and function. What kind of document is it? Public
or private? Personal or official? What is the purpose of the document? Descriptive or promotional? Po-
lemical or conciliatory? As we have pointed out, documents must not be taken at face value. The re-
searcher is obligated to determine their biases and take those into account in his or her interpretation of
them.
Further, it is important to consider who wrote the document in question. Observer bias, as Pitt calls it, is
always at work as well. That is, the observer is influenced by a great many factors to write in certain ways,
36
and not in others. Who is it who has done the writing? A supporter or a dissenter? A man or a woman?
An elderly person or a young person? What kinds of constraints were they under? What kinds of emo-
tional, physical, and psychological stresses were they experiencing?
Bias is always with us: in the books and articles we read; in the documents we study; and in us ourselves.
We cannot escape it. But neither can we ignore it. If we refuse to recognize and own it, its power over
us is all the greater. It then functions in our research efforts as uncritical bias and all that we do is skewed
and distorted by uncontrolled subjectivity. Constant self-awareness is therefore mandatory.
35
Barzun and Graff, 200.
36
Pitt, 51.
24
Verification
Data must be selected and biases recognized and dealt with in preliminary stages of the interpretation of
the information we have gathered. A further preliminary step should then be taken, namely, to verify the
accuracy of the data. Barzun and Graff have stated it well when they say, “No [researcher] can hope to
unravel every mystery and contradiction or uncover every untruth, half-truth, or downright deception that
lurks in the raw material with which he must deal. But his unceasing demand for accuracy must make him
37
put to the test all the materials he uses. There is no substitute for well-placed skepticism.”
The Confusion of Facts and Ideas
A library, Barzun and Graff go on to say, is "a sort of ammunition dump of unexploded arguments." Every
book, every article, every document comes to us "dripping with ideas." They also, of course, contain a
great many facts, but facts are seldom free from interpretation and interpretations are ideas. Interpretation
38
will be quite inadequate until we recognize that facts and ideas are two different things.
The confusion of facts and ideas is very widespread. A newspaper in our possession speaks of a Church
of God preacher well-known to us as "one of the great preachers of modern America." That the person in
question is a preacher is a fact; that he is one of the great preachers of modern America is an idea. It is
likely that very many, if not most, church-going Americans would not agree with the writer of the article.
The idea, in other words, is disputable. The fact is not.
The problem here, of course, is that the idea is presented as a fact. It is not qualified in any way. It is as if
the writer is saying, "I believe it, therefore it is true. Just trust me, folks." The writer of the article, like many
writers of other things, obviously has not learned to differentiate between facts and their interpretation.
This confusion of facts and ideas, or opinions, can, however, be so subtle that it is difficult for the re-
searcher to tell the two apart. An example taken from Barzun and Graff well illustrates this. Charles Dar-
win's book, On the Origin of Species, so Barzun and Graff say, "did not immediately persuade mankind,
39
but set off a violent controversy that lasted twenty years." It is a fact that the book occasioned a great
deal of controversy. It is not a fact, however, but a disputable idea that it was "violent" controversy. Dar-
win himself was surprised that his ideas resulted in so little furor, particularly from the church. Such an
idea is easy to overlook, but it is an idea nonetheless.
Ali A. Mazrui, in The African Condition, in at least one instance makes this same error. He says, "With
regard to the size of the continents, it is quite amazing how far European ethnocentrism has influenced
40
cartographic projections over the centuries." His complaint is that Africa is the second largest continent
in the world, yet on the map, or cartographic projection, most commonly used, Africa appears much
smaller than it really is. Further, Europe and North America appear much larger than they actually are.
Mazrui would have us believe that the reason for these massive cartographic distortions is European eth-
nocentrism. The whole Southern Hemisphere, he appears to believe, is made to appear relatively small
and unimportant because those who made and standardized the maps were ethnocentric. Undoubtedly,
to some extent, they were. But is that the underlying reason why maps were drawn as they were?
Here the alert researcher will "smell" an idea masquerading as a fact. Can Mazrui's "fact" be verified? It is
no difficult matter to check it out. An hour or two in the library, browsing through materials on cartography
will soon substantiate the intuition that Mazrui has overreached himself.
The Mercator Projection, to which Mazrui is referring, was developed in the 16th century by a Dutch geog-
rapher and cartographer, Gerhardus Mercator. It was intended as an aid to navigation at high latitudes,
37
38
Ibid., 145.
39
Ibid., 149.
40
Ali A. Mazrui, The African Condition: a Political Diagnosis. The Reith Lectures (London:
Heinemann, 1980), 3.
25
not a "picture" of the world. The resulting map distorts the size and shape of land areas closest to the
poles. Thus Greenland will appear at least as large as Africa, even though Africa is really several times
larger than Greenland. This distortion has much less to do with European ethnocentrism than with the
"primitive" state of cartography in the 16th century, and with the purpose of Mercator’s projection.
The purpose of this lengthy illustration is to alert the researcher to the constant need for verification of the
materials he or she uses. One of the "red flags" is this confusion of facts and ideas. This confusion is of-
ten difficult to detect, but it is so frequently present that the researcher must be constantly alert.
Logical Fallacies
Another "red flag" is the occurrence of logical fallacies in our sources of data. On occasion, what are pre-
sented as facts are logically flawed and cannot therefore be accepted as truthful statements. High on this
list is over-generalization. A student was overheard saying, "Missionaries are boring speakers." This is
over-generalization. Most would agree that some missionaries are indeed boring speakers. Some, how-
ever, are not. And thus the statement as it stands is a partial truth.
Barzun and Graff point out that this "overextended generalization," as they call it, comes from two
41
sources: (1) the inappropriate use of universals; and (2) failure to think of negative instances. The case
of missionary speakers is an example of the inappropriate use of universals. That is, in generalizing from
a single instance, or a few instances, to a whole population. In a subsequent conversation, the student
who believed missionary speakers to be boring admitted that he had heard only one — and that when he
was sixteen years of age.
The second cause of over-generalization is failure to think of negative instances. Following is a statement
taken from a church bulletin: “History records that wherever there has been worship there has been mu-
sic. Three thousand years ago the Psalmist wrote, ‘O sing unto the Lord a new song.’” Here we must ask,
what history and where? And what of all those who through the ages have worshipped without music?
Music is very often a part of worship, but not always. Therefore, the bulletin statement as it stands is un-
true.
A related logical fallacy is reductionism: "This is nothing more than that." We have heard statements
such as, "Sexual immorality caused the fall of Rome." But the historical reality is much more complex than
that. No single cause can account for the fall of Rome, as historians well know. Such complex reality can-
not be reduced to a single level of analysis. Marxists, for example, do this when they attempt to explain all
social, political, and psychological reality economically. Such realities are reduced to an economic base.
A third logical fallacy is known as begging the question. To beg the question is to use an argument that
assumes the truthfulness of what one is attempting to prove. A common example of this is the use of bib-
lical texts to "prove" that the Bible is divinely inspired. One begins with the assumption that the Bible is
divinely inspired. Therefore when the Bible says it is inspired — which is an over-generalization — that is
sure proof that it is.
Such arguments are convincing only to those who are already convinced on other than evidential
grounds. This is a very common fallacy, one for which the researcher must be constantly alert.
A fourth fallacy is illusory correlation. David G. Myers points out that all of us are, to one degree or an-
42
other, susceptible to perceiving correlation between events "where none exists." Martin Marty reports an
interesting example of this, “California evangelist Bill Bright blamed the Supreme Court's ban on school
prayers for ‘crime, racial conflict, drug abuse, the Vietnam war, sexual promiscuity, and the demise of
41
42
David G. Myers, The Inflated Self: Human Illusions and the Biblical Call to Hope (New
York: the Seabury Press, 1980), 74.
26
American family life.’ Bright, who says that the court took God out of the schools, contends the question
43
now is, ‘are we going to bring God back to our schools?’”
Marty goes on to point out that at the time of the Supreme Court decision only a small percentage of Cali-
fornia schools conducted "home-room devotional services." At only 2.41 percent, God — in Bill Bright's
terms — really did not have much of a foothold in California public schools in the first place. So just how
the Supreme Court's decision took God out of the schools and resulted in the moral demise of America is
something of a mystery.
So convinced are we that two events which occur at relatively the same time or in close sequence must
be related that we accept as fact that they are. We are, in Myers' words, "disinclined to recognize chance
occurrences for what they are." Myers concludes: "The difficulty we have recognizing coincidental, ran-
dom events for what they are predisposes us to perceive order even when shown a purely random series
44
of events." Given this possibility, researchers must then be wary of authors and their correlations.
A fifth logical fallacy is false analogy. David Straker writes, “Analogy is saying 'A is like B' and is a power-
ful way of explaining one thing in terms of another. Where it falls down is when A is assumed to be like B
45
in all respects and any attribute or characteristic of B can be unequivocally attributed to A.” A ministry
example of false analogy would be “The church is like a business, therefore it must be run exactly as a
business is run.” While it may in fact be true that a church should make use of sound business principles,
it is probably not true that a church should be run exactly like a business, where the bottom line (profit) is
usually a main goal.
The Use of Statistics
A great many pitfalls exist in this area. Even noted scholars and writers occasionally blunder in their ac-
ceptance and use of statistics. Writers who are careless or uninformed in their use of statistical informa-
tion may well be careless or uninformed in other areas as well. For this reason, the researcher should
take the time to check out the basic information on which ideological castles are built. It is particularly im-
portant to seek to verify statistical information.
To be sure, a researcher cannot be constantly "reinventing the wheel." Often we have to rely on our
sources. We simply have no means of verifying the accuracy of their information. But too frequently, re-
searchers re-convey information that has little basis in fact. This can prove embarrassing.
If you do not have sufficient training in statistical analysis you should seek advice from a competent statis-
tician. For example, if you plan to make extensive use of statistics in your research, you should include a
statistician on your thesis committee. But if you will make only occasional use of statistics, you can simply
consult with a knowledgeable person as needed.
Causation
Another problem area for the researcher is the whole question of causation. Assigning causes to events
is commonly done, not only in the sources we use, but in our own thinking and writing as well. We are
accustomed to saying — and believing — that A caused B. For example, a local newscaster announces,
"There have been about 100 accidents since midnight. A thin layer of snow on the roads is the cause of
the problem."
But is it? If a thin layer of snow causes accidents, then theoretically anyone who drives on it should have
an accident. But that is not the case. Most drivers take extra care, reduce speed, and try to avoid abrupt
43
Martin Marty, "Things Fall Apart," Christian Century (November 10-17, 1980), 863.
44
Myers, 75.
45
David Straker, “False Analogy,” ChangingMinds.org,
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/argument/fallacies/false_analogy.htm (accessed August 20, 2010).
27
turns or stops. One could then say that the snow is the necessary condition for the accidents, to use
46
Barzun and Graff's term. But it is not, in itself, the cause of the accidents.
When events occur, a multiplicity of factors may be at work, some of them discernable, some of them in-
discernible. Causes are more likely to be chains of events than any single event. So reports which inform
us that "the accident was caused by speeding," are really not to be believed. Speed may have been a
contributing factor, but many other factors, such as poor tires, lack of driving skill, or poor visibility may
also have played a major role.
So rather than hastening to assign causes, perhaps we should talk about the "necessary conditions" for
and the "precipitating factors" of events. A church newsletter states, "Due to the pastor's illness, the eve-
ning service was canceled." Fact: the pastor was ill. Fact: the evening service was cancelled. But is it
then a fact that the pastor's illness caused the cancellation of the service? No, it is not. Perhaps the un-
availability of a substitute, or the pastor's unwillingness to trust lay leadership with the service, or many
other quite out of sight factors, combined to cause the cancellation. The pastor's illness was merely the
immediate and precipitating factor.
Barzun and Graff conclude that "what history reveals to mankind about its past does not uncover the
cause (one or more indispensable antecedents) of any event, large or small, but only the conditions
47
(some of the pre-requisites) attending its emergence." To argue, then, that "sexual immorality caused
the fall of Rome" is not only reductionistic, it is also "monocausalistic." The mono-causal fallacy is assign-
ing a single cause to an event — something too frequently done and often by people who should know
better. Generally, the causes of events are analogous to a tangled ball of string.
No event is an isolate. It has a time depth greater than itself. The researcher must be wary of writers who
seem not to be aware of this and who are so sure they know the single “cause" of an event. Nor should
the researcher fall into the same trap in interpreting the data he has collected. Events doubtless have
causes, but causes are complex indeed and cannot always be obvious and understood. The researcher
must not, therefore, seek to give the impression that this is not the case.
Inference
David Pitt notes that inference or "extended interpretation" is a method historians use to "get around
48
some of the problems raised by gaps and deficiencies in the record." If A and B are true, then C must
also be true. Or, stated differently, if we know that all Abaluyia eat obusuma and do so about noon, we
can reasonably infer that any individual in the society probably does so.
To infer is to derive or accept as a consequence, conclusion, or probability. If someone were to say, "By
alertness and hard work, any American can earn a good living," what could we reasonably conclude con-
cerning those who live in poverty? They must surely be lazy or stupid or both. This is an inference drawn
from the statement.
Occasionally students say something like, "The person who makes such a statement is implying that the
poor are lazy or stupid." We do not know what the speaker was implying, since we do not know his or her
intentions. But the logical inference of such a statement is indeed that poor people are lazy or stupid.
Thus, their poverty is their own fault; we have no responsibility for them.
Pitt admits that inferential conclusions are problematic at a number of points. But they are nonetheless
very often useful in moving us to new hypotheses. For example, D.S. Warner's views on sanctification
differ significantly from those of John Wesley and Wesleyans. We must remember that Warner attended
Oberlin College in 1865 and 1866, when Charles G. Finney was president and professor of theology. Fur-
ther, that Finney's views on sanctification strongly influenced Oberlin students — and even after Finney
"retired," continued to do so through The Oberlin Messenger.
46
Barzun and Graff, 185ff.
47
Ibid., 187.
48
Pitt, 58.
28
By inferring from these facts, we now tentatively conclude that D.S. Warner's views on sanctification were
quite possibly drawn more from Finney than from Wesley. This hypothesis may, in the end, prove to be
quite wrong, or at least must be modified. But without the use of inference, one probably would not have
come to such a hypothesis in the first place.
Inference can mislead us, since we cannot infallibly know authors' intentions. The whole intentionalist ar-
gument — or fallacy, according to many scholars — is a particularly vexing argument. Unless an author
specifically states his or her intention or aim in writing, it is best to avoid language such as "The author's
intention (or aim) is . . . "
Nonetheless, inference can be useful, so long as we work in terms of possibility-to-probability. Beyond

this we dare not go without falling into the trap of over-inference.
Fallacious Reasoning
Slippery Slope Arguments
-A causes B, B causes C, and so on to X.

-X is undesirable (or desirable).
-Therefore A is undesirable (or desirable).
Pro Hominem Arguments
-X believes Y
-X is knowledgeable, trustworthy, free of bias (an authority).
-Therefore Y should be accepted.
Ad Hominem Arguments
-X says Y
-X is unreliable
-Therefore we should not accept Y.
Appeals to Ignorance
-We can find no evidence for the truth (or falsity) of X.

-Therefore X is false (or true).
Adapted from Fredrich Little, Leo A. Groarke, and Christopher W. Tindale, Good Reasoning Matters: A
Constructive Approach to Critical Thinking (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Inc., 1989).
29
30
Chapter 4. Writing the Results
And now it is time to give birth. After weeks or months of careful research and critical reflection, you are
ready to bring your thinking to the light of day. The critical moment has come and labor pains are about to
begin. The great ideas you have gestated struggle for life beyond the womb. Whether they live or die will
depend on how skillful a midwife you are.
We are, of course, talking about writing the research paper or thesis. How skillfully or unskillfully you write
the results of your research will either give it life or assure its final resting place in a recycling program. It
is a regrettable fact that many good ideas wander about in confusion or are hopelessly lost in a wilder-
ness of bad writing.
In this chapter, we offer suggestions that will, we hope, help you to produce a healthy and attractive
brainchild. We are under no illusions that rules make good writers. Like many other intellectual pursuits,
good writing is much more an art than it is a science. But "rules" — or more correctly, principles and pro-
cedures — can help us to become better writers, that is, more communicative, more readable. Good writ-
ing can and does happen; but it is seldom by chance that it does so.
The Mechanics of Writing

At a very early stage of the research project, the researcher should begin building structure. Clear, logical
structure greatly facilitates good writing. Develop a preliminary outline, beginning with broad categories
and then refining. At a later stage, a second or third revision of this outline can provide headings and sub-
headings in the written text itself. In an altered form, it may even serve as the table of contents.
It is advisable, generally, to use headings and sub-headings in the body of the paper or thesis. Headings
are usually centered on the page and set off from the text by three blank lines (enter, enter, enter), both
above and below — we are referring here to single, not double, spaces. Sub-headings are similarly set
off, but are placed at the left-hand margin. They may or may not be italicized, as one wishes.
Headings and sub-headings have two basic functions: (1) to make it easier to locate particular subject
matter; and (2) to make the finished page much easier to read. Endless unbroken pages of text can be
both difficult and boring for the reader. Most of us prefer our food in bite-size pieces, not in large masses.
Arguments work the same way.
It is particularly important in building structure to pay careful attention to bridging and flow. Sections and
chapters are not discrete essays, complete in themselves. Sentences and paragraphs that provide
bridges from one section or chapter to the next assure that a smooth and uninterrupted flow is main-
tained. Sometimes these are in the form of summary statements; sometimes, introductory statements.
Quoting and Citing
Most student research papers contain far too much quoted material. Many are "copy-and-paste" jobs. We
have occasionally been handed first-draft thesis chapters in which more than half of the material is bor-
rowed, en bloc — and completely "undigested."
What is the purpose of quoting? According to Barzun and Graff, it is to illustrate, not to prove. Quota-
49
tions, they insist, are convincing "samples" of the evidence on which the arguments of your paper or
thesis are based. Or a quotation may capture a "characteristic or felicitous utterance."
49
Note: "quotations" and NOT "QUOTES"; “quotation” is a noun, “quote” is a verb.
31
Under no circumstance should quotations be used as "fillers" and "extensions" for papers that would oth-
erwise be too short. To begin with, this practice should not be designated as quoting. It is borrowing. This
is not the purpose of quotations.
Barzun and Graff suggest two "rules of thumb" in using quotations: (1) keep them short; and (2) insofar as
50
it is possible, merge them into the text. In other words, use the fewest lengthy block quotations as pos-
sible. Block quotations, i.e., those that are indented and single-spaced, should be infrequent and seldom
longer than a paragraph. Probably the majority of readers simply skip over them anyway, since they tend
to be dense and difficult to read.
Much of the time, it is better to summarize a writer's argument and restate it in your own words than to
quote it at length. Or, to state a scholar's position as you see it and choose a representative quotation as
evidence that you are indeed correctly interpreting the scholar's thought. In either case, you must cite the
author as the source of this idea in a footnote.
The amount of material quoted, however, cannot be absolutely or universally determined by rule. In some
instances, depending on the nature of the thesis or research paper, more frequent and lengthier quota-
tions are not only appropriate, but necessary. Particularly when using documents not generally available
to the reader, is it important on occasion to reproduce the material being analyzed and interpreted. On the
whole, however, quotations should not be a major part of any writing of research. What is wanted is the
researcher's critical analysis, conclusions, and questions. Carefully selected representative quotations are
to facilitate that end.
On the other hand, a research paper or thesis requires documentation. If you use another writer's ideas,
whether or not you actually quote her words, you must give appropriate credit. To present the ideas of
another as your own is dishonest. Actually to "borrow" material, i.e., to reproduce material from another
source without giving credit, or in any way quoting, is plagiarism – whether intentional or accidental. Pla-
giarism is a serious ethical and legal offense. The researcher/writer must be very careful at this point.
To give appropriate credit for the ideas and words of another person or writer is to cite. A citation includes
the name of the person or author and the source from which the ideas or words are drawn. The appropri-
ate way to cite sources for all papers written at Anderson University School of Theology is to create a
footnote.
Writing Style
Formal
The writing of research papers and theses is a formal endeavor. Formal language and expression are
called for. Chatty, folksy language, full of colloquialisms or slang is inappropriate — except when you are
quoting someone else for some special reason. In a paper dealing with a passage from the book of
Amos, a student produced this "gem:" "A lot of people think that Amos was talking about socialism. But I
don't think that's the case at all. I think they're barking up the wrong tree."
In the first place, all contractions are out of place in formal writing. Contractions shouldn't be used; it just
isn't appropriate to do so. Of course we should have used "should not" and "is not." But we have made
our point.
Second, colloquialisms such as "barking up the wrong tree" are equally out of place in formal writing. Col-
loquialisms are not incorrect or sub-standard speech forms, but, as we have indicated above, chatty,
folksy usages that are quite appropriate in informal settings. Research writing, however, is not akin to a
personal chat with someone, or a text message to one's spouse.
Third, the first person pronoun, "I," while certainly not incorrect, should be used sparingly. It is not a "dirty"
word, nor is it always inappropriate, as an earlier scholarly tradition insisted. John Clive, a professor of
50
32
history and literature at Harvard University, defends the use of "that most disgusting of the pronouns," as
Edward Gibbon called it. The reasons for considering it to be that, Clive says, lie partly in [false] modesty,
partly in the naive belief that "objectivity" could be fostered by being impersonal, but mainly in the notion
51
that "good taste dictates distance between author and reader."
Even though this tradition considers the use of "I" to be bad taste, it is to be preferred in most cases to the
vague and occasionally misleading "this writer," or some similar "chaste disguise," as Clive calls it. In ei-
ther case, one is referring to oneself. We refer to the views of others as "his" or "hers." Why should not
my views be designated as "my views?" We say, "he believes this to be true." Surely only a false modesty
then prevents me from saying, "I believe this to be true."
Granted, this is much more appropriate in footnotes. They are generally less formal than the text to which
they are attached in any event. Even so, to insist that we should always avoid the use of a perfectly nor-
mal and good English pronoun in formal writing is to be stuffy and overly-formal.
Note, however, that each professor and each discipline represented in the School of Theology has its
own standards for the use of the first person pronoun. For example, professors of biblical studies have, at
various times, required their students never to write in the first person. Their reasoning is sound, that
scholarly writing about the Bible should focus on the text, not on the person writing about it. In other
words, your opinion about the text is not at issue, what is at issue is the text itself and what scholars have
written about it.
Formal writing should not be stiff, labored, or ostentatious and "learned" sounding. Occasionally, writers
can be excessively formal, making their material something of an intellectual pain to read. We should
avoid this extreme as well.
Technical
A research paper or thesis is not an essay for a class in English Composition. It is "technical" writing as
opposed to "creative" writing. Clever opening sentences or illustrations, dramatic climaxes, florid or "flow-
ery" language, heavy with "embroidery," full of similes and metaphors, is the stuff of undergraduate crea-
tive writing papers. Nor is research writing "journalistic," in the sense that it is aimed at the general public.
52
To be sure, it adopts a "rhetorical stance," to use Jacqueline Berke's felicitous term. That is, it has iden-
tified a specific audience which it addresses. In this case, it is the academic community — and usually a
specialized segment of it — which the research writer has in mind. This is important, Berke says, to pre-
vent the writer from writing in a vacuum, or speaking in an inappropriate voice.
Technical writing, like any good writing, is characterized by simplicity, accuracy, parsimony, and clarity.
But it is truly amazing how seldom technical writing passes these tests. A not unusual example of this is
provided by C. Lawrence Brook:
It is my own personal opinion that the impact of an accident involving an air vehicle journeying
over the over-populated environs of Mexico City would be substantially greater than at the aver-
age Latin American city, although because the size of the facility at the mammoth central Ameri-
can city is greater than average, the possibility of an incident taking place there is approximately
figured to be some-what lower than average. Assuming that planes flown to Mexico City could be
reduced in size, this would lower the casualty rate as well as if a proportion of the population
could be encouraged to move to coastal cities, the effects of an incident thereafter would be bet-
53
ter than average.
51
John Clive, Not By Fact Alone: Essays on the Writing and Reading of History (New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1989), 25.
52
Jacqueline Berke, Twenty Questions for the Writer: A Rhetoric with Readings, Second Edition
(New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, 1976), 9f.
53
C. Lawrence Brooke, "Write What You Mean," Interlit (March 1982): 22.
33
None of the characteristics of good technical writing is to be found in this example. To determine exactly
what it is the writer of the report is trying to say is no mean feat. All of us will agree that Brook's para-
phrase of this "gobbledygook" is much more communicative:
In my opinion an airplane accident over Mexico City would be relatively more destructive than
over most Latin American cities. This is due to Mexico City's dense population. Two things could
be done to reduce casualties: fly smaller airplanes into Mexico City; and encourage Mexico City
residents to move to coastal cities. Fortunately, the chances that an accident might actually occur
54
in Mexico City are less than they are elsewhere because of the size and location of the airport.
Now the technical "report" is simple, accurate and parsimonious in its use of language, and clear enough
for most readers to grasp without difficulty. These are the goals to which writers of research papers and
theses should aspire. For this reason, the characteristics of simplicity, accuracy, parsimony, and clarity
are discussed below under separate headings.
Simplicity
A great deal of writing, including theological writing, is characterized by unnecessary complexity. We

could quote example after example from monographs, textbooks, and articles that virtually defy clear un-
derstanding. The writers appear to be part of that "tradition" which believes that complexity of thought and
language is in direct proportion to the learnedness of the writer.
One of the most notable characteristics of such writing is the length of sentences and paragraphs. Some
sentences we have seen run well over 100 words. You will note in the Mexico Airport example above, the
entire paragraph consists of two very lengthy complex sentences. Such run-on sentences are the bane of
the editor's life — and a great temptation to most writers.
Sentences should seldom be longer than 30 to 40 words. They should vary in length. If all sentences are
long and complex, the effect is that of monotony. If, on the other hand, all of the sentences are short, the
effect is choppiness, producing a kind of literary seasickness.
Good writing is characterized by clear, straightforward sentences. It seeks to avoid the long and exces-
sively complex sentences to which we are so frequently subjected in the technical material we read. Sen-
tences deal with a single thought, but not necessarily all of it. If the thought is complex, it can be "de-
complexified" to some extent by using two or more sentences to express it.
Long paragraphs also contribute to complexity. Paragraphs that are a page or more in length are not un-
common. No paragraph should be that length. As a general "rule of thumb," paragraphs should be no
longer than a half page. But, like sentences again, they should be varied in length to avoid the monoto-
nous or choppy effects that can result otherwise.
Simplicity can be achieved also by the use of simple and direct language. A major offender in technical
writing is the use, not of technical language, which is often necessary and can be explained, but of need-
lessly long words. A sentence like, "Theoretical lucidity is not necessarily enhanced by terminological
ponderosity" (a real sentence, by the way), should be considered unacceptable, even in technical writing.
It is pompous-sounding. "Read" is preferable to "peruse;" "clarity" to "lucidity;" "determine" to "ascertain;"
"happen" to "transpire;" "obtain" to "procure;" and so on. Keep it simple.
William Stunk, Jr. and E.B. White recommend that the language used in writing be positive, definite, spe-
cific, and concrete. A sentence such as, "He was not very often on time" is better, Strunk and White ar-
gue, stated positively: "He usually came late." Or, "He did not think that studying Latin was a sensible way
55
to use one's time" is better stated as, "He thought the study of Latin a waste of time."
54
Brooke, 22.
55
William Strunk, Jr. and E.B. White, The Elements of Style, Third Edition (New York: Macmillan
Publishing Co, 1979), 19.
34
"Prefer the specific to the general, the definite to the vague, the concrete to the abstract," Strunk and
White suggest. "A period of unfavorable weather set in" is much better as, "It rained every day for a
56
week" It is specific, to the point; it defies complexity.
Accuracy
The second characteristic of good technical writing is accuracy. Theoretical and factual accuracy are, of
course, not only desirable but absolutely necessary — insofar as that is possible. But the accuracy we are
discussing here is accuracy in the use of language. In other words, grammatical and semantic accuracy.
It is surprising how frequently grammatical errors occur in student research papers and theses. Among
the common errors we have noted are: double negatives ("cannot hardly," "never gave nobody," and "did
not do nothing); and split infinitives ("to openly and honestly respond" instead of the grammatically cor-
rect, "to respond openly and honestly”). Other common errors are: "that" for "who" ("The person that did
this . . ."); "less" for "fewer" ("Less than ten people . . ."); and "none are" for "none is" ("none are wise"
instead of the grammatically correct "none is wise").
Pronouns also appear to be a rather vexing problem. "He sings better than me" is incorrect; one should
say, "He sings better than I (sing)." "I run faster than she (runs)," not " . . . faster than her." "Who" and
57
"whom" give trouble as well, as do the subjective and objective forms of pronouns: I/me; we/us; he/him;
she/her; and they/them. Most of us shudder a bit at deviant forms such as, "Me and her saw him do it."
But too few of us recognize the error of "This is a problem for you and I." When pronouns are objects of
verbs or prepositions, the objective form is called for. Thus, ". . . for you and me" — and perhaps ". . . you
and her."
Semantic accuracy is also a concern. It is, for example, simply incorrect to use "parameters" as a syno-
nym for "boundaries." A parameter is any constant, with variable values, used as a referent for determin-
ing other variables. A boundary is something that marks limits. It is a semantic error to use these two
words interchangeably.
A sentence such as, "This is the antipathy of love," is nonsensical. The correct word here is probably "an-
tithesis." "We are trying to solve a basic human need," is equally in error. We solve problems, but meet
needs. Or, a sentence such as, "We have had to evolve our own methods." "Evolve" is an intransitive
verb. Things evolve; they cannot be evolved by anyone or anything. Or the all-too-common, “I teach his-
tory,” as if history were a student and had something to learn (better to say, “I teach students; my subject
is history”).
Examples such as these are not unusual or uncommon. One rather constantly finds them in all kinds of
writing, including technical writing. Aim, then, for accuracy.
Parsimony
The third characteristic of good writing is parsimony. A great deal of writing of all kinds is characterized by
obesity, that is, bloated, excessive use of adverbs, adjectives — especially superlatives — and needless
repetition, redundancy, replication, and reiteration (get it?).
Redundancy is the use of unnecessary words. Such phrases as, "the last and final call," "totally sur-
rounded," "completely destroyed," "most unique," "serious crisis," "true facts," "factual numbers," and
58
"equally as costly," are redundant. The adjective or other modifier, in each case, is unwanted.
Strunk and White assert, "Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words,
a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary
56
Strunk and White, 21.
57
Ibid., 11f.
58
See Edwin Newman, Strictly Speaking: Will America be the Death of English? (New York:
Warner Books, 1974), 21.
35
59
lines and a machine no unnecessary parts." Many commonplace usages violate this principle, Strunk
and White say. For example, "he is a man who" should simply be "he;" "in a hasty manner" is simply
"hastily;" or "the reason why is that," simply "because."
Berke, also, advises us to achieve parsimony by eliminating unnecessary words and long sentence ele-
ments. Here is one of her examples: "The agnostic is one who holds that he has no knowledge of God,
indeed that the human mind is incapable of knowing whether there is or is not a God." Berke rewrites the
60
sentence: "An agnostic maintains that the human mind cannot know whether or not God exists." The
first sentence contains 30 words; the second, 14.
Berke suggests that complex sentences can often be easily converted to simple sentences, thus remov-
ing unnecessary words. Predications can be reduced, independent clauses can be made subordinate,
61
clauses can be reduced to phrases or adjectives, and phrases can be reduced to adjectives.
One of the chief enemies of economy in almost all writing is the repetitious use of "there is/there are." The
following two sentences were taken from a thesis: "There were two more historical events during this time
which strongly affected how both groups viewed one another. There was the Taiping Rebellion starting in
1850 and then there was a second war between China and Britain and France." This can easily be re-
written, eliminating "there is/there are:" "Two other events during this time strongly affected how each
group viewed the other: the Taiping Rebellion, beginning in 1850; and a war between China and Britain
and France." By dealing with "there was/there were," we have removed 10 unnecessary words.
Clarity
And finally, good technical writing is characterized by clarity. The major problem with the language of the
Mexico City airport example above is that it is so opaque and garbled that it almost defies understanding.
If it met the tests of simplicity, accuracy, and parsimony, it would almost certainly be clear and precise.
But it is none of these.
Much technical writing is overly-general and imprecise in its use of language. It is, in other words, "fuzzy."
A good deal of that fuzziness comes from ambiguity, i.e., unclear, uncertain, indefinite, vague. An am-
biguous sentence can be understood in more than one way. A sentence such as, "She loves cake more
than me," can be understood either to be saying, "She loves cake more than [she loves] me," or "She
loves cake more than [I do]."
Out-of-place or dangling phrases can create ambiguity. We are not referring to the many humorous ones
that occur, such as, "A widow with a distinct twinkle in her eye named Elizabeth" (One wonders what the
name of her other eye was!). We have in mind those that can actually be misread, such as, "He arrived
just as I started out in his truck to feed the cows." Where does "in his truck" belong in the sentence? After
"arrived?" After "I started out?" After "feed the cows?" It could be any one of these three.
A television commercial advertises a product that has been "helping families to grow for more than a cen-
tury." The same family? The mother would long since have been dead from child-bearing. Did the writer
of the commercial mean to say, "For more than a century, helping families to grow?" Where prepositional
phrases are placed in sentences can change the meaning of the sentences.
"Only" represents another class of word which, if misplaced, can create ambiguity. For example, "He only
ordered six copies," can be understood to mean: (1) he only ordered six (but did not pay for them); or (2)
he ordered only six (and refuses to pay for the additional copies).
But most confusing of all is the jargon or "gobbledygook" so loved by pseudo-intellectuals and bureau-
crats. A corporate executive, when asked if his firm planned to buy out a local firm, replied, "I would say
59
Strunk and White, 23.
60
Berke, 440.
61
Ibid., 442ff.
36
that we are definitely in an acquisition mode." (What does he mean, "would say?" He did say it!). All he
really needed to say was "yes."
GOBBLEDYGOOK
"Gobbledygook" is inflated and pretentious language which uses 11 words where one will do, or multi-
syllabic words where words of one or two syllables will suffice. Wordy, but indecipherable; windy, but
meaningless. Keep the "gobble" out of your writing.
College officials used to talk to one another. No longer. Today, they articulate with one another.
Gym classes once were in the physical education department. No longer. They are in the department of
kinesiology. In many schools, what was the library is now a learning resource center.
Those are just a few examples of a language disorder known as "education-ese," variants of which afflict
business, science, and medicine. Its governmental form is gobbledygook, a term coined in the late 1930s
by a Texas congressman (Maury Maverick) after he spent months reading official reports larded with
bloated, empty words.
A more serious ailment is new-speak, euphemism gone bonkers to the point of standing truth on its head,
such as the Ministry of Truth, which in the George Orwell novel 1984 propagated lies.
Plain-English advocates despair over such linguistic maladies. "They debase the language and obscure
thought," charges Lt. Col. Robert Murawski, associate professor of English at the Air Force Academy.
Murawski, who advised the White House on clear writing, contends that "the real danger is not grammati-
62
cal flubs but clotted expression that makes ideas needlessly complex."
62
U.S. News & World Report (Feb 18, 1985).
37
Chapter 5. The Practice of Inclusive Language
In 1986, the Faculty of Anderson University School of Theology formulated and adopted by consensus a
"Covenant to Use Inclusive Language." Subsequently, this Covenant was included in both the Faculty
Handbook and the Student Handbook. The Covenant and its statement of implementation are as follows:
Covenant
We covenant to use, in nongender related statements, inclusive or non-sexist language in all seminary
communications, publications, and literature.
Implementation
Members of this community are invited to enter into a covenant among themselves to strongly encourage,
to lovingly monitor, and to creatively enable each other to implement this policy at every level of our life
together: our publications, literature and communications; our classroom work; our chapel and convoca-
tion announcements, talks, prayers; and our writing endeavors whether by students, staff, administrators
or faculty. The intention is not to be legalistic but rather to establish a covenant for growth in sensitivity to
the inappropriateness of gender language when human inclusiveness is intended.
This covenant is intended to guide current usage and not to judge spoken or written materials from the
past.
Inclusiveness
One could, of course, criticize this statement for its narrow focus. Most certainly the issue of inclusiveness
is much broader than the use or non-use of "gender language." School of Theology faculty today would
speak of the language of racism, ageism, and classism as morally and theologically objectionable as well.
A new "covenant" statement would undoubtedly include such broadened concerns.
It is our observation, however, that students and faculty alike appear to have the most difficulty with gen-
der specific language. Many students, both men and women, desire to be sensitive and inclusive in their
use of language, but find long-standing conventional linguistic practices very difficult to overcome. This
linguistic sexism is so much a part of modern English that it is constantly sneaking up on our blind side, in
spite of our good intentions.
Further, the force of conventional language use often blinds us to the fact that English is a wonderfully
creative language. We need not be bound by time-honored conventional linguistic practices that treat
non-white, non-male, non-youthful people as inferior, inconsequential — or worse, invisible. By learning to
use language with creative intentionality, we can both overcome the linguistic conventions of exclusive-
ness and create new conventions which include all people.
Pseudo-Generics
One of the common arguments is that lexical items such as man, mankind, and he are generic words.
That is, general terms which include people of both sexes. As Francine W. Frank and Paula A. Treichler
63
argue, the use of these false linguistic generics "is not free from social and political influences." These
"generic definitions," they go on to say, are "socially constructed and sometimes socially manipulated."
63
Francine Wattman Frank and Paula A. Treichler, Language, Gender, and Professional
Writing: Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Use (New York: The Modern Language
Association of America, 1989), 4.
38
Casey Miller and Kate Swift point out that the definitive grammars of modern English were written in the
16th and 17th centuries. They conclude:
The male authors of these earliest English grammars wrote for male readers in an age when few
women were literate. The masculine-gender pronouns they used in grammatical examples and
generalizations did not reflect a belief that masculine pronouns could refer to both sexes. They re-
flected the reality of male cultural dominance and the male-centered world view that resulted.
Males were perceived as the standard representatives of the human species, females as some-
64
thing else.
Miller and Swift note that in the 18th century a grammatical "rule" mandated that masculine pronouns
were to be considered gender-inclusive. This "rule" was widely taught in the 19th century. The conven-
tional notion of the generic third person singular masculine pronoun was thus "invented and prescribed by
the grammarians themselves." In 1850, in England, an Act of Parliament "gave official sanction to the re-
65
cently invented concept of the 'generic' he."
Sociolinguist R.A. Hudson argues that "people use language in order to locate themselves in multi-
66
dimensional social space." Those who insist that words such as man, mankind, he, his, and himself are
ideologically neutral and inclusive assume, apparently, that language is a neutral vehicle. To the contrary,
as numerous sociolinguistic studies indicate, it comes to us with human and social assumptions.
This is, to be sure, a highly controversial subject, even in linguistics. Nonetheless, we here in Anderson
University School of Theology assume generally that sensitivity to and concern for all people, including
non-males and non-whites, is morally and theologically appropriate. We are therefore eager to listen to
those who may feel excluded by our language conventions and seek to change those conventions in lin-
guistically appropriate ways.
Suggested Guidelines
The question remains, how do we go about eliminating non-inclusive language from our speaking and
writing? We believe that can be done by drawing artistically upon the great range of creativity built into
modern English. But we also recognize that this calls for sustained and determined effort, both as indi-
viduals and as a community. We also assume that most of us desire to avoid language that discriminates
and offends, but find such linguistic self-consciousness difficult to achieve and maintain.
The following guidelines are drawn largely from the work of the Commission on the Status of Women in
the Profession of the Modern Language Association and contained in the work of Frank and Treichler.
Examples and suggestions are drawn also from the work of Miller and Swift.
Alternatives to the "Generic" He
1. Recast the sentence in the plural, using "they, their, them." "A student will be given access only to his
own file, no matter who he is" thus becomes "Students will be given access only to their own files, no mat-
ter who they are."
NOTE: A second way to recast the sentence in the plural is to use "they, their, them" even when the re-
sulting sentence seems to mix singular with plural. "The average person will do what he can to help if he
recognizes than an emergency exists" thus becomes "The average person will do what they can to help if
they recognize that an emergency exists." Prestigious usage authorities accept they as a singular, gen-
der-indefinite referent.
64
Casey Miller and Kate Swift, The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing, Second Edition (New
York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1988), 44.
65
Ibid., 44f.
66
R.A. Hudson, Sociolinguistics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 195.
39
2. Substitute the first person pronoun (I or we) or the second person (you) for the pseudogeneric "he."
Instead of the indirect, "A student will be given access only to his own file, no matter who he is" try the
more direct "you." Thus, "You will be given access only to your own file, no matter who you are."
3. Occasionally use the combined forms "he and (or) she" or "she and (or) he." Thus, "A student must
work hard if he or she wants to succeed." It is best, however, to avoid frequent use of this option.
4. Use the gender-neutral "one." In some contexts, "one" is quite appropriate. Over-use, however, can
make one sound affected and pedantic. Instead of, "A student must work hard if he wants to succeed," we
can say, "As a student, one must work hard in order to succeed."
5. Alternate masculine and feminine pronouns in some examples. The following sentence is typical: "We
sometimes criticize others, saying, "he is too aggressive," or "he is too easily intimidated." This can easily
be changed to read: "We sometimes criticize others, saying, "she is too aggressive," or "he is too easily
intimidated."
6. Rewrite the sentence. Thus, "The typical American drinks his coffee black" becomes "The typical
American drinks black coffee." Or, "A man gets ahead only by limiting his expenditures" can be rewritten
as, "A person gets ahead only by limiting expenditures." Or, Frank and Treichler's example: "The assis-
tant professor will be ahead of the game if he learns about the tenure process before he goes through
with it." Suggested rewritings are: "The assistant professor who learns about the tenure process in ad-
vance will be ahead of the game;" or, "Whoever seeks tenure should learn about the process before go-
ing through with it;" or, "An assistant professor should learn about the tenure process before going
67
through with it."
Using True Generics
Frank and Treichler suggest that one way to help achieve non-sexist language use is to use gender-
neutral terms. A gender-neutral term is a term unmarked for gender. Thus, police officer for policeman;
letter carrier for mailman; server for waitress, and so on. The word, chairman, becomes chairperson, pre-
siding officer, moderator, or just plain chair; salesman becomes sales agent or sales associate; foreman
becomes supervisor; and cameraman becomes camera operator.
Other true generic substitutions for pseudo-generic terms include person or human for man, humankind
or humanity for mankind, ancestors for forefathers, and personnel for manpower. Nor do we need to man
equipment; we can operate it.
Parallel Treatment
The use of language which trivializes women, ethnic groups, and the elderly is common in our society.
This is often done through the use of non-parallel language. For example, we often hear young single
women referred to as girls, but young single men are not described as boys. Miller and Swift's example
illustrates this: "Three Stanford University students — two girls and a man — were abducted from a re-
search station in Africa." The implication, according to Miller and Swift, is that the "girls" are less mature
or less significant than the "man." The newscaster could easily have remedied these sexist implications
68
by using parallel language. Thus, "two girls and one boy."
A classical example of non-parallel language is found in a traditional Christian wedding service: "I now
pronounce you man and wife.” What they are being recognized as is husband and wife, and you have
never heard a pastor say, “I now pronounce you woman and husband”!
67
Frank and Treichler, 166f.
68
Miller and Swift, 101.
40
Conclusion
What we are talking about here is sensitivity. Our linguistic practices can suggest to others that they are
invisible, unimportant, or inferior in some way. White males need to become aware of the fact that they
are only a part of humanity and modify their language to evidence that awareness.
It is not a question of changing our language so that our attitudes will change, or changing our attitudes
so that our language will change. We must do both. Language, attitudes, and values are so interwoven
that language and attitudinal changes mutually generate and reinforce each other. Unless, of course, we
are merely playing political games.
41
42
Chapter 6. Form and Style
The faculty of the School of Theology voted on November 6, 2002 to adopt Turabian as the standard for
all written work submitted. To help students understand and use Turabian, the faculty then developed and
adopted the following guide:
Guide to Turabian
October 26, 2007

(Amended November 5, 2008)
1. Make sure you have the 7th Edition (2007) of Turabian.
2. Read all of Part I (chapters 1 through 14).
3. In Part II read chapters 15 and 16. Pay close attention to chapter 16, because it is the style of source
citation we use.
4. Scan chapter 17. Become familiar with this chapter, and know how to find any specific type of source
you might cite in any writing you do for any seminary class.
5. Do not read chapters 18 and 19; they are irrelevant, because the School of Theology does not use that
style of citing sources.
6. Scan Part III, chapters 20-26, and make sure you know these rules of style and can follow them. You
will be responsible for all of these rules of style in any writing you do for any seminary class.
7. Use Microsoft Word to write your papers. To make a footnote, click the [References] tab and [Insert
Footnote]. Word will immediately take you to the footnote, and you will key in the information. If you
prefer to use keyboard shortcuts, press [Ctrl-Alt-F] to insert a footnote.
8. Turabian allows either footnotes or endnotes. Anderson University School of Theology requires foot-
notes only. Do not use endnotes.
9. Turabian 16.3.4 requires you to “begin each footnote on its own line, with a blank line before it.” How-
ever, the School of Theology Faculty voted on November 5, 2008, to over-ride this with our own “local
guideline” (which Turabian allows): do not insert a blank line between footnotes (those blank lines
simply waste paper and are not to be used).
10. Turabian requires that the first line of each footnote be indented ½ inch. Word does not do this auto-
matically. You will have to change it manually. There are two ways you can change it:
a. In the ruler at the top of the page, click and drag the “First Line Indent” icon to the ½ inch mark.
b. In the footnote itself, click immediately to the left of the superscript and press the [Tab] key.
11. A complete footnote will look like this:
1
Barry Bandstra, Reading the Old Testa-
ment (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing, 1995), 12.
43
12. In this example, note the following details. Your footnotes must conform exactly; if they do not, your
professor will return your paper to you so you can bring it into conformity.
a. The first line of the footnote is indented ½ inch from the left margin.
b. The second line of the footnote is flush left.
c. There is one blank space after the superscript “1” and the author’s name.
d. The author’s name is given in the usual order (first name, last name).
e. There is a comma after his name.
f. There is a blank space after the comma.
g. The title of the book is in italics.
h. There is a blank space after the title of the book.
i. There is an open parenthesis.
j. The city of publication appears next.
k. There is a colon following the city.
l. There is a blank space following the colon.
m. The name of the publisher appears next.
n. There is a comma after the name of the publisher.
o. There is a blank space following the comma.
p. The year of publication appears next.
q. There is a close parenthesis next.
r. There is a comma after the close parenthesis.
s. There is a blank space following the comma.
t. The page number appears next.
u. There is a period following the page number.
13. For each source you reference in your paper, you must create a Bibliography entry. Follow all of the
instructions and examples given in chapters 16 and 17 when you write your Bibliography. The Bibliog-
raphy entry for the example given above would be:
Bandstra, Barry. Reading the Old Testament.

Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing, 1995.
14. In this example, note the following details. Your entire Bibliography must conform exactly; if it does
not, your professor will return your paper to you so you can bring it into conformity.
a. The first line of the Bibliography entry is flush left.

b. The second line of the Bibliography entry in indented ½ inch.
c. The author’s last name appears first.
d. There is a comma after the author’s last name.
e. The author’s first name appears next.
f. There is a period after the author’s first name.
g. There is a blank space after the period.
h. The title of the book appears in italics.
i. There is a period after the title of the book.
j. There is a blank space after the title of the book.
k. The city of publication appears next.
l. There is a colon after the city.
m. There is a blank space after the city.
n. The name of the publishing company appears next.
o. There is a comma after the name of the publishing company.
p. There is a blank space after the comma.
44
q. The year of publication appears next.
r. There is a period after the year of publication.
15. Follow the instructions given in Turabian’s Appendix when preparing your manuscript.
16. If you cannot find what you need in Turabian, search for it in the Contents and in the Index. If you
cannot find it in either of those places, ask your professor for guidance.
17. Here are examples of how to do footnotes and Bibliography entries for different types of sources.
These examples are given for illustrative purposes only, and should not replace a close study of
Turabian.
In these examples, F = Footnote sample, B = Bibliography sample.
Book by two or three authors or editors:

1
F Joe Weixlmann and Houston A. Baker, Jr., eds., Black Feminist Criticism and
Critical Theory (Greenwood, FL: Penkeville Publishing Company, 1988), 56.
B Weixlmann, Joe and Houston A. Baker, Jr.. eds. Black Feminist Criticism and Critical Theory.
Greenwood, FL: Penkeville Publishing Company, 1988.
Book by four or more authors or editors:

2
F Kimberle Crenshaw and others, eds., Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings that
Formed the Movement (New York: New Press, 1995), 50.
B Crenshaw, Kimberle, Neil Gotanda, Gary Peller, and Kendall Thomas, eds. Critical Race Theory:
The Key Writings that Formed the Movement. New York: New Press, 1995.
Book with no author given:

3
F The Lottery (London: J. Watts, [1732]), 20-25.
B The Lottery. London: J. Watts, [1732].
Note: The date enclosed in square brackets indicates that it was not found in the book itself.
If no date can be ascertained, the abbreviation "n.d." standing for "no date," replaces the date.
Editor or compiler as "author":

4
F Robert I. Rotberg, ed., Burma: Prospects for a Democratic Future (Cambridge, MA:
The World Peace Foundation, 1998), 225.
B Rotberg, Robert I., ed. Burma: Prospects for a Democratic Future. Cambridge, MA: The World
Peace Foundation, 1998.
Author's work contained in author's own collected works:

5
F The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, ed.
James Strachey, vol. 6, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (London: Hogarth Press and the
Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1953), 45.
B Freud, Sigmund. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud.
Edited by James Strachey. Vol. 6, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life. London: Ho
45
garth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1953.
Essay or chapter by one author in a work edited by another:

7
F Adrienne Rich, “Jane Eyre: The Temptations of a Motherless Woman,” in
Jane Eyre: An Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism, ed. Richard J. Dunn (New York:
Norton, 2001), 469.
B Rich, Adrienne. “Jane Eyre: The Temptations of a Motherless Woman.” In Jane Eyre: An
Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism, ed. Richard J. Dunn, 469-483. New York: Norton,
2001.
Article in The Interpreter’s Bible:

8
F Floyd V. Filson, “II Corinthians Introduction,” in The Interpreter’s Bible, vol. X, ed.
George Arthur Buttrick (New York: Abingdon Press, 1953), 271.
B Filson, Floyd V. “II Corinthians Introduction.” In The Interpreter’s Bible, vol. X, ed. George Arthur
Buttrick, 265-276. New York: Abingdon Press, 1953.
Multi-volume work with volume number given in the source:

6
F Simon J. DeVries, 1 Kings, vol. 12 of Word Biblical Commentary, ed. John D. W. Watts
(Waco, TX: Word Books, Publishers, 1985), 98.
B DeVries, Simon J. 1 Kings. Vol. 12 of Word Biblical Commentary. Edited by John D. W. Watts.
Waco, TX: Word Books, Publishers, 1985.
Multi-volume work without volume number given in the source:

7
F John N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40–66, part of The New International
Commentary on the Old Testament, ed. R. K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. (Grand Rap-
ids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998), 311.
B Oswalt, John N. The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40–66.Part of The New International Commentary
on the Old Testament. Edited by R. K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. Grand Rapids, MI:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998.
Magazine article:
8
F Alexandra Hall, “Girls with Guns,” Boston Magazine, January 2003, 7.
B Hall, Alexandra. “Girls with Guns.” Boston Magazine, January 2003, 6-10.
Journal article:
9
F Andrew Feffer, “Pragmatism, Feminism, and Democracy: Rethinking the Politics
of American History,” Journal of American History 89 (March 2003): 1612.
B Feffer, Andrew. “Pragmatism, Feminism, and Democracy: Rethinking the Politics of American
History,” Journal of American History 89 (March 2003): 1612-1615.
World Wide Web sites in general:

10
F Anderson University School of Theology Faculty, “Guide to Turabian,” Anderson Uni
46
versity School of Theology, http://www.anderson.edu/sot/resources/GuidetoTurabian.pdf (ac
cessed December 9, 2008).
B Anderson University School of Theology Faculty. “Guide to Turabian.” Anderson University

School of Theology. http://www.anderson.edu/sot/resources/GuidetoTurabian.pdf (ac
cessed December 9, 2008).
Online periodical from commercial database with print counterpart:

11
F Maura I. Strassberg, "Distinctions of Form or Substance: Monogamy, Polygamy and
Same-Sex Marriage," 75 N.C. L. Rev. 1501, 1507 (1997) [journal online]; available from Lexis-
Nexis Academic Universe, Law Reviews, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe (accessed February
4, 2005) (part 1 of 2).
B Strassberg, Maura I. "Distinctions of Form or Substance: Monogamy, Polygamy and Same-Sex

Marriage." 75 N.C. L. Rev. 1501 (1997) [journal online]; available from Lexis-Nexis
Academic Universe, Law Reviews, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe (accessed Febru-
ary 4, 2005).
Electronic journal (E-Journal):

12
F Tessa Bartholomeusz, "In Defense of Dharma: Just-War Ideology in Buddhist Sri
Lanka,"Journal of Buddhist Ethics 6 (1999), [e-journal] http://jbe.la.psu.edu/6/bartho991.htm
(accessed June 22, 2005).
B Bartholomeusz, Tessa. "In Defense of Dharma: Just-War Ideology in Buddhist Sri Lanka,”
Journal of Buddhist Ethics 6 (1999). [e-journal] http://jbe.la.psu.edu/6/bartho991.html (ac
cessed June 22, 2005).
E-mail:
69
Turabian offers no guidance for citing e-mail. One approach would be to treat it like personal
correspondence, identifying the author and the correspondent, title (if any), subject description, and date,
much like you would other unpublished material. Whether an e-mail communication should be noted in a
Bibliography is an open question. If you decide to do so, adapt the following consistent with conventions
cited herein.
13
F R.W. Wilson to J.T. Berry,* March 24, 1999, "Child Maltreatment Research," personal
70
e-mail.
CD-ROM:
14
F Jeffrey Michael Jones, "A Survey of the Use of Household Appliances in Middle-
Class American Homes, 1925-1960" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1995), abstract in
Dissertation Abstracts International 55 (1995): 3578A, Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc [CDROM],
November 1995.
B Jones, Jeffrey Michael. "A Survey of the Use of Household Appliances in Middle-Class
American Homes, 1925-1960." Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1995. Abstract in
Dissertation Abstracts International 55 (1995): 3578A, Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc
[CD-ROM], November 1995.
69
Note: The correct spelling of e-mail is with a hyphen, viz. “e-mail.”
70
Note: You may give the author's e-mail address at the * in angle brackets. If the date of access
is different from the date of publication, put it in parentheses at the end of the note.
47
Chapter 7. Master’s Thesis
A Thesis is an extended written study of a stated subject, based on original research and independent
inquiry. It is the written report and analysis of data collected through careful and thorough research of all
available sources relevant to the chosen topic. It embodies the results of critical reflection and question-
ing. It is both investigative and evaluative. An acceptable Thesis at Anderson University School of Theol-
ogy will be 25,000 to 30,000 words in length, with the exception of multimedia projects, which will be ne-
gotiated on an individual basis.
A Thesis is not a propagandistic or hortatory attempt to "prove" what one has concluded on ideological or
other grounds to be "true." The concern is a quest for truth and understanding, rather than a partisan de-
fense of a pre-determined point of view.
Theses vary in their data collection procedures. Some involve document research and critical evaluation.
These are primarily library-based. Others involve the use of questionnaires, interviews, and observation.
These are primarily field-based. Many studies use a combination of both approaches.
A Master's Thesis may only be written in Biblical Studies (BIST), Historical and Intercultural Studies
(HCUS), or Theological Studies (THST). The student who wishes to write a Thesis will first decide on one
of these three fields of study, and will then register for BIST 7900 (or HCUS 7900, or THST 7900), which
is offered every year during the Summer term. Upon successful completion of 7900, the student will then
register for BIST 7950 (or HCUS 7950, or THST 7950); at that time a Thesis Fee of $85 will be charged to
the student's account in the Business Office.
The Proposal
Before undertaking a Thesis, the student must submit to the Academic Cabinet of the School of Theology
both a Thesis Proposal and "An Application for Approval of Thesis," obtainable from the Office of Student
Services.
The Proposal is essentially a formal document. It should, therefore be double-spaced, and professional
looking. Careless typing and inexact, opaque, or incorrect use of language will certainly not convince the
Academic Cabinet that the applicant is capable of doing a Thesis. The appropriate style and format of the
Proposal are those of any other formal writing, as defined by this Guide.
The Proposal should make it clear both to the student's academic advisor and the Academic Cabinet of
the School of Theology exactly what it is the student proposes to do. In other words, it should answer the
following questions: what is the issue to be studied? why is it important to do so? how will it be studied?
and what contribution will such a study make to our knowledge and understanding of the field?
The Proposal should generally be structured as follows:
1. Introduction: description of the problem, issue, or research question to be dealt with, why the student
considers it important, and how the student proposes to contribute to the solution or answer.
2. Theoretical Orientation: overview of major theoretical approaches to the field of inquiry, a brief cri-
tique of them, a description of the student's own theoretical approach, and where and how the student
differs from others.
3. Research Question: a carefully crafted question that the Thesis proposes to answer.
4. Methodology: whether the Thesis will be library-based or field-based, how the student proposes to
48
collect and analyze data, and what the relevant sources of information are.
5. Chapter Outline: tentative chapter titles and summaries of the contents of each chapter.
6. Annotated Bibliography: a preliminary listing in correct bibliographic form, as defined by this Guide, of
books and articles relevant to the chosen topic and a two or three sentence annotation of each entry,
demonstrating its relevance to the study in question.
A great deal of thinking, planning, and writing are advisable in the presentation of the Thesis Pro-
posal. The finished product may well be twelve to fifteen pages in length. A well-written proposal
may, with some modification, serve as the introduction to the Thesis. Further, automatic approval
of a Thesis Proposal by the Academic Cabinet of the School of Theology should not be assumed.
But a clear, well-written proposal will much more likely be approved and thus save the student a
great deal of time in the long run.
The student should work closely with her or his Thesis director in the preparation of the Proposal. Never
should a first-draft of the Proposal be submitted to the Academic Cabinet. Rather, it should be submitted
to the Thesis director for discussion and revision of content, form, and writing style. Thus, only a first —
and perhaps a second — revision should be submitted to the Academic Cabinet.
Procedures
Following are several steps to be taken in the planning and writing of a Thesis. These are advisable pro-
cedures rather than regulations. Their purpose is to help standardize the Thesis process. Individual needs
and programs may necessitate some changes in procedures. Such changes should not, however, be ar-
bitrary and random, but based on mutual agreement by all concerned.
1. Selection of a topic or field problem.
2. Writing the Proposal.
3. Selection of a Reading Committee
The Thesis Reading Committee consists of three members, all of whom are selected by the student, in
consultation with the student's Academic Advisor. The people thus selected should generally be from the
faculty of Anderson University School of Theology.
Occasionally, however, the nature of the Thesis makes it advisable that one or more people from outside
the School of Theology — and even from outside Anderson University — be selected. But they must, in
the judgment of the Academic Cabinet, be suitably qualified professionally and academically to judge the
adequacy of the Thesis.
Before the Application for Approval of Thesis is submitted, the signatures of the proposed Committee
members must be obtained by the student. This indicates only their willingness to serve if approved
by the Academic Cabinet.
If for any reason during the Thesis process a Committee member is unable to continue to serve, the stu-
dent must submit a written request to the Dean of the School of Theology asking that the member be re-
placed. After consultation with the Thesis director, the student should suggest to the Dean a likely candi-
date.
Normally, the student's Academic Advisor will serve as Chair of the Reading Committee and as Director
of the Thesis. In a few cases, however, the Academic Advisor may be unfamiliar with the subject area
involved, or for other valid personal or professional reasons, may wish to defer to a colleague. Thus, by
mutual agreement between the Academic Advisor and the student, another person may assume this role.
49
4. Submission of Application for Approval of Thesis.
This must be accompanied by the Thesis Proposal. As we have noted, Academic Cabinet approval of the
Proposal is not automatic. Modifications in title, content, or methodology may be recommended. Stu-
dents who proceed, therefore, with the writing of the Thesis before Academic Cabinet approval is
received do so at their own risk.
5. Writing of the first draft.
It is advisable that first draft writing be submitted chapter by chapter to the Thesis Director. Changes or
additions needed in a chapter very often affect the writing of later chapters. Early changes or re-directions
often help prevent massive re-writing of a manuscript at some later point when time is at a premium.
No such thing as good writing exists, only good re-writing.
6. Preparation of the second draft
The second draft is the end result of all the editorial work and re-writing of the first draft. The second draft
should be a complete Thesis, including Title Page, Abstract, Table of Contents, Appendices, if any, and
Bibliography.
Each member of the Reading Committee should be supplied with a copy of the second draft at least
three weeks before the date of the oral defense. This draft is the basis of the oral defense.
7. Abstract
As a final step in the second draft process, the student must prepare an Abstract. An Abstract is a brief
summary of the contents of the Thesis. That is, a summary of hypotheses, questions, or problems; meth-
odological approach; findings; and conclusions. The Abstract should generally be no longer than two
pages.
8. Oral Defense
The student, in consultation with the Thesis director and other members of the Committee, is responsible
to schedule an oral defense of the Thesis. During this time, the student will answer questions raised by
Committee members, offer explanations and elaborations, and generally "defend" the accuracy of the
information collected and the validity of the conclusions drawn from it. Generally, not less than one and a
half hours should be allowed for the defense. In some cases, two hours may be more appropriate.
It is necessary that the student and the Committee have sufficient time together to resolve any outstand-
ing problems and to answer important questions that may not have been answered. It is difficult to do this
by telephone.
9. Final Draft
The final draft of the Thesis is the result of the oral defense. Committee recommendations for corrections,
deletions, or additions are the basis of this final revision. It is the responsibility of the Thesis director to
see to it that all Committee demands are fully carried out.
10. Copies for binding/microfilming
When all final draft requirements have been completely met and are approved by the Thesis director, the
student may proceed to the final typing of the manuscript in preparation for microfilming and binding. The
final typescript must conform to all form and style requirements as laid down in this Guide, and to all re-
quirements set forth in Turabian (including sequencing, pagination, margins, indentations, and title page).
Final Copies: the final two copies of the Thesis must be printed on 100% rag bond watermarked paper.
The final copies must be clean, professional-looking, and typographically error-free; and they must meet
50
all standards detailed in Turabian.
Signing: upon completion of the final copies, the student is to obtain original signatures (not photocopies)
of the Committee members on the two copies before submitting them to Nicholson Library.
Final Approval: upon receipt by Nicholson Library, the Thesis becomes the property of Anderson Univer-
sity School of Theology. The Thesis Fee covers the cost of binding and microfilming of the copies submit-
ted to the Library, but students themselves are responsible for paying for the binding of personal copies.
Completion of Thesis form: when the Thesis is submitted to the Library, it must be accompanied by a
"Completion of Thesis Form," to be obtained from the School of Theology Faculty Secretary. It is to be
signed by a Librarian and returned by the student personally to the Faculty Secretary.
Microfilming Agreement: at the time the student submits the required copies of the Thesis to Library, the
student must sign a "Masters Thesis Agreement Form" (University Microfilms), to be provided by the
School of Theology Faculty Secretary.
Completion Date
The two copies of the Thesis must be submitted by the student personally to the Librarian at Nicholson
Library on or before April 15 of the year in which the student proposes to graduate. Theses submitted
after that date will delay the candidate’s graduation until the following year.
In the event of special or extenuating circumstances which make it impossible for the student to meet this
deadline, the Academic Cabinet of the School of Theology may extend it upon formal, written request
by the student and with full approval and support of the Thesis Committee. This support should be indi-
cated by the signatures of the Committee members on the student's written request to the Cabinet. But,
in no case will the deadline be extended beyond the actual date of the final graduation listing by
the Registrar of Anderson University.
51
52
Appendix A: Theological Library Resources at Ander-
son University
This Appendix provides an overview of the resources and services available within the Nicholson Library,
the Center for Educational Technology, and the Anderson University and Church of God Archives.
Library Basics
The Library Homepage
The Nicholson Library homepage is http://library.anderson.edu. It provides access to the Library’s online
catalog, WebCat, which indexes and gives location information for books, A-V materials, master’s theses,
U.S. government publications, cataloged microforms, maps, music CD’s, etc. owned by Anderson Univer-
sity. No password or identification number is necessary. In addition over 50 general and subject specific
databases can be found through the homepage. Ask a reference librarian for details on off-campus use of
these databases. As well, other library catalogs and web-based resources can be found through the Li-
brary’s web site.
Library Hours
Nicholson Library hours for the regular school year are as follows:
Monday through Thursday: 7:45 am –12:00 midnight

Friday: 7:45 am – 5:00 pm
Saturday: 11:00 am – 5:00 pm
Sunday: 1:30 pm – 12:00 midnight
The annual academic year schedule, including abbreviated summer and holiday hours, is found on the
Library's home page.
Library Resources
The Print Collection
The School of Theology book collection is integrated into the Nicholson Library undergraduate circulating
and reference collections. Subject specialties include church history (particularly, Church of God history),
Christian education, ethics, missions, theology, psychology, worship, and women’s issues within the
Church.
Indexes and Abstracts

The Nicholson Library subscribes to several religion-specific databases -- ATLA Religion Database with
ATLASerials, Cambridge Collections Online, Oxford Scholarship Online, and Religious & Theological Ab-
stracts – and other databases that cover multiple subjects including religion such as JSTOR. Brief de-
scriptions of each:
• ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials combines the premier index to journal articles, book
reviews, and collections of essays in all fields of religion with ATLA's online collection of major re-
ligion and theology journals. The ATLA Religion Database includes more than 575,000 article ci-
tations from more than 1,679 journals (506 currently indexed), more than 239,000 essay citations
from over 16,800 multi-author works, and more than 530,000 book review citations. Full text is
provided for more than 294,000 electronic articles and book reviews. This database is produced
by the American Theological Library Association.
• Cambridge Collections Online -- The Complete Cambridge Companions includes two sub-
collections, Cambridge Companions in Literature and Classics and the Cambridge Companions
in Philosophy, Religion and Culture. Each collection is updated with new Companions on publi-
53
cation.
• Oxford Scholarship Online -- Oxford University Press publishes original scholarship in all areas of
religion and theology. The books included in Oxford Scholarship Online represent the diversity of
the list, and the subjects covered are of interest to both scholars and students alike. In addition to
major recent titles, the list also includes classic works of enduring influence
• Religious & Theological Abstracts provides objective summaries of articles appearing in scholarly
journals in the fields of Religion and Theology; lists a wide variety of periodical literature, including
Christian, Jewish, and other World religions; and provides English language abstracts of articles
in English, Hebrew, Afrikaans, and major European languages.
• JSTOR is a digital archive of over 1,000 academic journals and other scholarly content, of which
56 are specific to religion.
Other subject-specific databases such as PsycINFO, PsycArticles, and Soc Index with Full Text can be
invaluable to students from the School of Theology. Access to these databases is available worldwide by
AU students (when off-campus you will be prompted to provide your student ID number).
Periodical Holdings
Periodical holdings are reflected in the online catalog, WebCat. Searching by periodical title will give the
record for each journal held by Nicholson Library as well as listing the most current issues received.
There are many additional full-text periodicals available through the various databases.
Microforms
Most Nicholson Library microform holdings are in one of two formats: roll microfilm or 4 X 6 inch sheets
called microfiche. The library has machines to read, print or scan to e-mail from both formats. Included in
the microforms collection are backfiles of periodicals and newspapers. Titles are filed alphabetically in
cabinets in the microforms area.
The library has microfiche materials relating to American church history and a series of theological and
th th
religious microfiche materials from the late 19 and early 20 century. The library also owns in microfilm a
University Microfilms International Series, Religion in America.
Gospel Trumpet Digital Collection

Thanks to a federal grant awarded under the Library Services and Technology Act, the Anderson Univer-
sity and Church of God Archives and the University's Nicholson Library were able to partner with Bracken
Library at Ball State University to convert a portion of The Gospel Trumpet into a searchable online data-
base. Not only can users view the first 24 years (1881-1905) of the Gospel Trumpet on the Web, but they
can use the browse feature to search for a particular name, term or phrase. The library is working to con-
vert additional years. In the meantime, additional years of The Gospel Trumpet are available in print.
The Anderson University and Church of God Archives

The Archives is located on the ground floor of the School of Theology building, east of the entrance to
Nicholson Library.
The Church of God collection includes books, magazines, curriculum materials, pamphlets, and tracts
published by the Gospel Trumpet Company/Warner Press. Also included in the collection are reports,
minutes, and documents from Church of God general agencies, newsletters, limited congregational histo-
ries, photographs, and other materials from state organizations and local congregations.
54
The Archivist is available during the days and at the hours posted on the signboard outside the Archives
door. It is wise to call ahead (765-641-4285) or send an e-mail request for assistance, stating the specific
nature of the research and the materials needed (archives@anderson.edu).
If the need is urgent and the Archivist is not available, a librarian in Nicholson Library may be able to as-
sist. Materials may not be removed from the Archives and all use of them must be supervised by the Ar-
chivist or a librarian.
Staff
A reference librarian is on duty in the Nicholson Library during most hours the library is open. University
librarians assist patrons with one-on-one and classroom instruction, research questions, and Interlibrary
Loan. Our web site offers e-mail addresses for all Library faculty and staff. An icon on the Library’s
Homepage, ASK A LIBRARIAN, offers e-mail reference assistance to all Anderson University faculty, stu-
dents, and staff. Please allow 24 hours for a response. As well, you may chat with a librarian via the “per-
son” icon next to the Ask a Librarian link.
The circulation and periodicals service desks will be staffed at all times, and persons on duty at these
points will be able to offer assistance with charging materials, placing holds, obtaining reserve materials,
and locating periodicals.
Library Services
“Hold” Requests
When a user needs an item that is currently checked out, they may place a hold on the item, so that when
the item is returned the user will be notified. An item may also be recalled if it is needed sooner than the
due date.
Holds may be placed by users in the online catalog, using the “request” button.
Storage Lockers
A limited number of lockers, for the storage of personal belongings and checked out library materials, are
distributed throughout the Ground Floor stacks. School of Theology students and Adult Education stu-
dents are given first choice on these lockers.
For a locker assignment and key, see the Circulation Department Supervisor. Assignments are renewable
each semester.
Interlibrary Loan
Materials not owned by Nicholson Library may often be borrowed from other institutions. The user is
asked to pay postage costs to return the borrowed item to the lending library, and also to pay any loan
fees charged by the lender. Photocopies, which become the property of the requesting user, may also
have a fee, but often are free.
Interlibrary loan channels have traditionally been used for book and periodical materials. Interlibrary loan
has not as yet become an effective channel for obtaining audio-visual materials.
Interlibrary loans are requested using the ILLiad system from the Library’s web site. Many of the data-
bases allow for seamless requests with a click of the mouse. However, when this is not the case, the
user should be able to provide a complete citation, both of the work to be located and of the source
through which it was identified (bibliography, a citation from a printed index, or an online search).
Materials are received by U.S. mail, a parcel delivery service or electronically. A request may be filled in
as little as 1 day, but it is preferable to allow at least 2 weeks lead time in requesting materials through
interlibrary loan.
Visits to Other Libraries

The Academic Libraries of Indiana (ALI) have agreed to extend in-person borrowing privileges to faculty,
55
staff, and students of member institutions. For a list of ALI Members see --
http://ali.bsu.edu/members.html. To participate, the borrower needs a signed ALI Borrowers Card from
the home institution library, campus identification, and a photo ID with a current address, such as a
driver’s license. Please ask at the Nicholson Library Circulation Desk for details.
56
57
Appendix B: Library Databases
The Nicholson Library subscribes to databases in several subject areas essential to those engaged in the
study of theology and religion. These databases are available to students, faculty, and staff through the
library website at http://library.anderson.edu. Click on the link to Databases or Find Articles from the Li-
brary’s homepage and select the appropriate database from either the Alphabetical, Subject, or Provider
lists. Although anyone can use these databases on campus, you must have a valid Anderson University
identification number to access them off campus.
School of Theology students will find the ATLA Religion Database, sponsored by the American Theologi-
cal Library Association, a most valuable research tool. Books, dissertations, essays, and journal articles
(hundreds of which are full-text) dating back to 1949 (although indexing for some journal titles extends
back into the nineteenth century and presenting information on all major religious denominations) are in-
dexed here.
Other databases important to SOT students include PsycInfo, the Sociological Collection, Academic
Search, and ERIC. These databases contain thousands of full-text articles that can be viewed on screen,
printed on paper, or e-mailed to anyone in the world. Dissertation Abstracts is an indexing and abstracting
service of dissertations and theses from North America and Europe.
If you have questions about using these databases, please e-mail reference librarian Barbara Hoover, or
click on ASK A LIBRARIAN from our homepage. If you have technical problems connecting to these da-
tabases, please e-mail systems librarian Nathan Schwartz.
58
59
Appendix C. The Case Study Approach
William James, in his book, The Varieties of Religious Experience, gives an example of the use of the
case study approach. His book may have become a classic because he used the case study approach to
make evident to his readers the points he was making. “The New Testament scholar, Krister Stendahl, of
71
Harvard says that ‘the Bible is actually a case book’” Much of what we study from a religious or theo-
logical perspective does not lend itself well to experimentation and pure forms of scientific research.
However, nearly everything that we study can be demonstrated in a case as an example of what we are
stating. The case study helps to make the particular point more vivid by providing an actual example of
such a phenomenon. It is a helpful teaching device and a means of sharing information with one another.
The primary limitation of the case study is that one example of a particular phenomenon should not be
assumed to be generalizable to the whole population. It only demonstrates that a particular phenomenon
occurs in this particular case. An argument gains more validity when one can state several cases where
the item being studied is demonstrated.
Since the case study approach involves live examples of people and their life settings, it lends itself well
to discussions. Each case allows for several alternative ways of viewing what is taking place. The best
case studies are those which are left open for discussion. The discussing of the case helps those in-
volved in the discussion to learn from each other. When a case is presented in a paper the author can
offer a particular explanation or observation concerning the case. This observation or interpretation of the
data is subject to debate.
A case study is valuable to the degree that the person who presents it provides the reader or listener with
adequate information and descriptions to obtain a clear viewpoint of the situation. Thus, it is important for
the presenter of a case to provide objective and clear details. The interpretation of the case material
should be left for a separate section in which the presenter offers their opinion of what the case means.
The primary function of a case study is to show a particular example of the point that the author is mak-
ing. It is successful to the degree that the case actually fits the point that the author says is being demon-
strated. Writing which does not include case examples is far less interesting and the reader is likely to
miss some of the points that the author is making.
— Theodore A. Stoneberg
71
Robert A. Evans and others, Casebook for Christian Living: Value Formation for Families and
Congregations (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1977), 28.
60
Appendix D. Historical Studies – A Valuable Tool
of Enrichment
The study of history grows naturally out of our condition as humans; we are finite yet capable of becoming
enriched by the knowledge of ideas, people, and events in our past. Even though we cannot experience
directly the realities of the ages before we were born, we can mentally live in those days by reading about
them. This makes writings about earlier times extremely valuable.
Historical writing, therefore, is quite different from other genres of literature. Historical writing is not a re-
port of personal experiences nor an account of creative imagination but a description of the past based on
historical records. Records of the past — usually written documents — are studied to learn about their
content and then are analyzed and interpreted to provide comprehension. Initially the investigation is
usually objective and scientific, but soon it becomes subjective and artistic. Not only content but also
method is of crucial importance in the process. The end product of writing what happened in the past,
why and how it happened, and what results it had — all of this is historical writing.
Any past phenomenon can be the subject matter of historical writing. The history of Christianity has at-
tracted the attention of people, especially of those who were its supporters. Any Christian who wants to
understand Christianity better will soon be drawn into the study of its past.
Keeping in mind the unique enrichment possibilities provided by historical writing, anyone desiring to add
to this genre of composition might benefit from a few basic and general guidelines. These are certainly
not exhaustive.
First, in the investigation, primary sources are more valuable than secondary sources. A primary source is
a document or witness which reflects as closely as possible the original happening. A secondary source is
a product that has emerged from the primary source, such as another investigator's exposition of the sub-
ject matter. Every historian generally produces such secondary material. Even a translation of an original
document into another language is already necessarily an interpretation and thus moves the document
towards being a secondary source. No single record of the past can provide a complete and full picture.
Consequently, the greater the number of sources from as many different vantage points as possible, the
better the understanding about the past can become. However, a primary source should be the basis of
all later historical investigation.
Second, in historical writings, interpretation is more important than the enumeration of facts. Even though
any study of history is based on the facts of past events, ideas, and people, such an investigation soon
becomes confusing unless an overriding order or explanation emerges. The multiplicity of so-called his-
torical facts demands that they be viewed in relationship to each other. Such a perceived relationship of
the many historical facts has to be as self-evident and natural as possible. This is the interpretation that
allows any student of the past to evaluate the significance or lack of importance of any historical facts. In
good historical writing the interpretation of the facts stands out more prominently than the many individual
facts themselves. The interpretation in historical writing is like the overall impression of an involved dis-
cussion or like the general climate of a large family. It is the theme that provides the meaning to the
reader and allows him or her to relate the past to be an enriching element for his or her current life.
Third, in writings about the past the order of proceeding from generalization to details enables the reader
to comprehend the subject matter more easily. Any historical writing is only valuable if its information is
communicated clearly. Consequently, the material should be well organized, with major points, sub
points, and details appearing in proper sequence. Generalizations are not convincing when they lack
supporting evidence. The depth of detail often depends upon the availability of source materials. Good
61
historical writing never overwhelms the reader by unsupported generalizations nor does it confuse the
reader by unorganized details.
All of these basic guidelines should help in making writings about history into an important tool for our
enrichment. Since we are finite beings capable of benefiting from influences that existed before our life
time, the better the historical writing the greater the possible enrichment will be.
— Walter Froese
62
63
Bibliography
American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.

Third Edition. Washington: American Psychological Association, 1983.
Baron, Dennis. Grammar and Gender. New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1986.
Barr, James. Holy Scripture: Canon, Authority, Criticism. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1983.
Barzun, Jacques and Henry F. Graff. The Modern Researcher, Fourth Edition. New York: Harcourt Brace
Janovich, Publishers, 1985.
Berke, Jacqueline. Twenty Questions for the Writer: A Rhetoric with Readings, Second Edition. New York:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, 1976.
Brooke, C. Lawrence. "Write What You Mean." Interlit. March, 1982.
Caldie, Roberta W. Dominance and Language: A New Perspective on Sexism. Washington D.C.: Univer-
sity Press of America, 1981.
Clive, John. Not By Fact Alone: Essays on the Writing and Reading of History. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf., 1989.
Cross, Donna Woolfolk. Word Abuse: How the Words We Use Use Us. New York: Coward, McCann and
Geoghegan, Inc., 1979.
Davidson, James West and Mark Hamilton Lytle. After the Fact: the Art of HistoricalDetection. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1982.
Engel, James. How Can I Get Them to Listen? A Handbook on Communication Strategy and Research.
Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1977.
Evans, Robert A., Alice F. Evans, Louis Weeks and Carolyn Weeks. Casebook for Christian Living: Value
Formation for Families and Congregations. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1977.
Firestone, William A. "Meaning in Method: The Rhetoric of Quantitative and Qualitative Research." Edu-
cational Researcher. Oct. 1978, 16-21, 1987.
Frank, Francine Wattman and Paula A. Treichler. Language, Gender, and Professional Writing: Theoreti-
cal Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Use. New York: The Modern Language Association
of America, 1989.
Gibaldi, Joseph and Walter S. Achtert. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. Third Edition.
New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 1988.
Hardesty, Mamcy A. Inclusive Language in the Church. Atlanta: John Knox Press,1987.
Howe, Kenneth R. "Two Dogmas of Educational Research." Educational Researcher. Oct. 1985, 10-18,
1985.
Hudson, R.A. Sociolinguistics. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
64
Kahn, Robert Louis and Charles F. Cannell. The Dynamics of Interviewing: Theory, Technique, and Case
Studies. New York: Wiley, 1957.
Kimel, Alvin F. Jr., Editor. Speaking the Christian God: The Holy Trinity and the Challenge of Feminism.
Grand Rapids MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1992.
Krathwohl, David R. Social and Behavioral Science Research: A New Framework for Conceptualizing,
Implementing, and Evaluating Research Studies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1985.
Linclon, Yvonna S. and Egon G. Gubba. Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills CA: Sage Publications, 1985.
Ludden, La Verne. "What They Never Told You in Quantitative Research Class." (Unpublished manu-
script, John H. Aukerman's possession, Anderson IN), 1984.
Madge, John. The Tools of Social Science. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, Anchor
Books, 1965.
May, Henry F. The Enlightenment in America. New York: The Oxford University Press, 1976.
Marty, Martin. "Things Fall Apart." Christian Century. November 10-17, 1980.
Mazrui, Ali A. The African Condition: a Political Diagnosis. The Reith Lectures. London: Heinemann,
1980.
McElhinny, James H. "Research 101." Paper presented at the Midwest Research to Practice Conference,
Oct 12-13, 1989. St. Louis MO. (John H. Aukerman's possession, Anderson IN.), 1989.
Merriam, Sharon B. "The Use of Ethnography, Case Study, and Grounded Theory in Adult Education Re-
search." (Unpublished Report, John H. Aukerman's possession, Anderson IN.), n.d.
Miller, Casey and Kate Swift. The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing. Second Edition. New York: Harper and
Row, Publishers, 1988.
Myers, David G. The Inflated Self: Human Illusions and the Biblical Call to Hope. New York: the Seabury
Press, 1980.
Newman, Edwin. Strictly Speaking: Will America be the Death of English? New York: Warner Books,
1974.
Outler, Albert C. "Toward a Postliberal Hermeneutics." Theology Today. Vol. 42. October, 1985.
Pelikan, Jaroslav. "The Vocation of Scholarship in the Church." LCA Partners. February- March, 12-14,
1984.
Pitt, David C. Using Historical Sources in Anthropology and Sociology. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston, 1972.
Sawicki, Marianne. Faith and Sexism: Guidelines for Religious Education. New York: The Seabury Press,
1979.
Straker, David. “False Analogy.” ChangingMinds.org.

http://changingminds.org/disciplines/argument/fallacies/false_analogy.htm (accessed August 20,
2010).
Strunk, William Jr. and E.B. White. The Elements of Style. Third Edition. With Revisions and Additions.
New York: Macmillan Publishing Co, 1979.
Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. Seventh Edition. Chi-
65
cago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.
Vetterling-Braggin, Mary, Editor. Sexist Language: A Modern Philosophical Analysis. Littlefield, Adams,
and Company, 1981.
Wren, Brain A. What Language Shall I Borrow? God-Talk in Worship: A Male Response to Feminist The-
ology. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company, 1989.
Yankelovich, Daniel. New Rules: Searching for Fulfillment in a World Turned Upside Down. New York:
Random House, 1981.
66
67
General Works for Further Study
Following is a list of general works for further study. They are not cited or quoted in this book,
therefore they do not appear in the Bibliography. They are listed here only for information pur-
poses; students who are interested in further study on these topics may want to read the follow-
ing works:
Allen, George R. The Graduate Students' Guide to Theses and Dissertations: A Practical Manual for Writ-
ing and Research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1974.
Ballian, Edward S. How to Design, Analyze and Write Doctoral Research: The Practical Guidebook. Uni-
versity Press of America, 1983.
Belsey, Catherine. Critical Practice. Methuen Inc., 1980.
Beveridge, W.I.B. The Art of Scientific Investigation. Third Edition. New York: Random House, Vintage
Books, 1957.
Blommers, Paul J. and Robert A. Forsyth. Elementary Statistical Methods in Psychology and Education.
University Press of America, 1977.
Borg, Walter and Meredith D. Gall. Educational Research: An Introduction. Second Edition. New York:
David McKay Company, 1974.
Brooks, Philip C. Research in Archives: The Use of Unpublished Primary Sources. University of Chicago
Press, 1969.
Bruce, Francis J., Christopher E. Bork and Steven P. Carstens. The Proposal Cookbook: A Step by Step
Guide to Dissertation and Thesis Proposal Writing. Third Edition. Action Research Assoc., 1979.
Cheney, Teodore A. Rees. Getting the Words Right: How to Revise, Edit and Rewrite. Cincinnati: Writer's
Digest Books, 1983.
Glass, Gene V. and Julian C. Stanley. Statistical Methods in Education and Psychology. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1970.
Gover, Harvey R. Keys to Library Research on the Graduate Level: A Guide to Guides. University Press
of America, 1981.
Horowitz, Lois. Knowing Where to Look: The Ultimate Guide to Research. Cincinnati: Writer's Digest
Books, 1984.
Horton, Susan R. Thinking Through Writing. John Hopkins University Press, 1973.
Kennedy, James R. JR. Library Research Guide to Religion and Theology, 1970.
Lederer, Richard. The Miracle of Language. New York: Pocket Books, 1991.
Little, Fredrich, Leo A. Groarke, and Christopher W. Tindale. Good Reasoning Matters: A Constructive
Approach to Critical Thinking. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Inc., 1989.
Locke, Lawrence F. and Waneen Wyrick Spirduso. Proposals That Work: A Guide for Planning Research.
68
New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1976.
Lutz, William. Doublespeak. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1989.
Madsen, David. Successful Dissertations and Theses: A Guide to Graduate Student Research. Jossey-
Bass Publishers, 1983.
McMillian, Patricia and James R. Kennedy. Library Research Guide to Sociology. Pierian Press, 1981.
Sayre, John L. and Roberta Hamburger. Tools for Theological Research. Revised Edition, 1980.
Sperber, Dan and Deirdre Wilson. Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Cambridge Massachusetts:
Havard University Press, 1988.
Sullivan, Kathleen E. Paragraph Practice: Writing the Paragraph and Short Composition. MacMillan,
1980.
Todd, Alden. Finding Facts Fast. Second Edition. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1979.
Verma, G. K. What Is Educational Research: Perspectives on Techniques of Research. Gower Publishing

Co., 1981.
Weisberg, Herbert F., Jon A. Krasnick, and Bruce D. Bowen. An Introduction to Survey Research and
Data Analysis. Second Edition. Boston: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1989.
Wilson, John F. Research Guide to Religious Studies. American Library Association, 1980.
Zinsser, William. On Writing Well: An Informal Guide to Writing Non-Fiction. Third Edition. New York:
Harper and Row, Publishers, 1985.
69

Sot Writing Guide

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sot Writing Guide

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Guide to Graduate Theological Research and Writing

by Douglas E. Welch, Merle D. Strege, and John H. Aukerman

Anderson University School of Theology Writing Guide

Chapter 1: Philosophy of Research

Chapter 2: Gathering the Data

Chapter 3: Interpreting the Data

Chapter 4: Writing the Results

Chapter 5: The Practice of Inclusive Language

Chapter 6: Form and Style

Chapter 7: Master’s Thesis

Appendix A: Theological Library Resources at Anderson University

Appendix B: Electronic Databases

Appendix C: The Case Study Approach

Appendix D: Historical Studies—A Valuable Tool of Enrichment

General Works for Further Study

Editors and Compilers, Douglas E. Welch and Merle D. Strege, 1991

Virtues of a Graduate Student

Characteristics of Graduate Study

Quantitative Research Methods

Qualitative research has the following advantages:

1. It allows the researcher to describe existing phenomena and current situations.

1. The phenomenological, post-positivistic paradigm of qualitative research is more congruent with

Books and Articles

To be maximally effective, however, observation as a general research methodology must, of necessity,

The Confusion of Facts and Ideas

The Use of Statistics

Nonetheless, inference can be useful, so long as we work in terms of possibility-to-probability. Beyond

-A causes B, B causes C, and so on to X.

Pro Hominem Arguments

-We can find no evidence for the truth (or falsity) of X.

The Mechanics of Writing

Quoting and Citing

A great deal of writing, including theological writing, is characterized by unnecessary complexity. We

Alternatives to the "Generic" He

Using True Generics

October 26, 2007

1. Make sure you have the 7th Edition (2007) of Turabian.

2. Read all of Part I (chapters 1 through 14).

11. A complete footnote will look like this:

Bandstra, Barry. Reading the Old Testament.

a. The first line of the Bibliography entry is flush left.

In these examples, F = Footnote sample, B = Bibliography sample.

Book by two or three authors or editors:

Book by four or more authors or editors:

Book with no author given:

B The Lottery. London: J. Watts, [1732].

Editor or compiler as "author":

Author's work contained in author's own collected works:

Essay or chapter by one author in a work edited by another:

Article in The Interpreter’s Bible:

Multi-volume work with volume number given in the source:

Multi-volume work without volume number given in the source:

World Wide Web sites in general:

B Anderson University School of Theology Faculty. “Guide to Turabian.” Anderson University

Online periodical from commercial database with print counterpart:

B Strassberg, Maura I. "Distinctions of Form or Substance: Monogamy, Polygamy and Same-Sex

Electronic journal (E-Journal):

The Proposal should generally be structured as follows:

1. Selection of a topic or field problem.

2. Writing the Proposal.

3. Selection of a Reading Committee

5. Writing of the first draft.

No such thing as good writing exists, only good re-writing.