WHAT IS RESEARCH

Notes prepared by Dr.B.Ravi Babu, India

Research is a pleasing experience and painful activity leading to an

accomplishment that can be cherished for life.

Research is a sign of intelligence

Intelligence can be defined as the adaptation of an environment to suit needs,

which is why humans can be acknowledged as the most 'intelligent' of
species.

Humans observe, identify, plan and then effect change. Humans have social
gain through information as well as resource sharing.

As apart from any other species, humans have complex language structures
and the written word to share information from one person to another. Literate
societies with well structured, permanent means of communicating information
have immense evolutionary advantage.

We research everyday

Humans are 'intuitive' scientists ....always asking questions and testing

theories about themselves, others, events, the environment and the world
around them.

Research is asking a question and finding out the answer…..

It is looking into something.

It is looking for something.
It is comparing and contrasting things.
It is finding out more information…it is counting things …making enquiries…
being curious…finding out what people think…finding out what

What research we do?

We research people and their behaviour, opinions, attitudes, trends and
patterns, also politics, animals, health and illness. Research can be conducted
either informally for our own benefit, through asking questions, watching,
counting or reading and formally, for medical or academic purposes, as a
marketing strategy, to inform and influence politics and policy.
Research may be carried out in our own lives, through the media, in our place
of work, with our friends and family or through reading past research.
Our views – personal, social, community and worldwide and our own identities
are socially constructed through our own theorizing.

What do we do with research?

Have it as interesting fact 2 Use it to make decisions 3 Use it to persuade

influence others 4 Use it to affect change 5Use it to change behaviour 6 Use
it to better use…medical …improve customer care...write better funding
applications....monitor and evaluate our provision....

We research in order to understand society and social processes, as well as to

test and or create theories in order that we are better able to inform about
social action and potentially ‘improve’ social conditions.

Research Methods are the tools and techniques for doing research. Research is
a term used liberally for any kind of investigation that is intended to uncover
interesting or new facts. As with all activities, the rigour with which this
activity is carried out will be reflected in the quality of the results.

Research methods are a range of tools that are used for different types of
enquiry, just as a variety of tools are used for doing different practical jobs, for
example, a pick for breaking up the ground or a rake for clearing leaves. In all
cases, it is necessary to know what the correct tools are for doing the job, and
how to use them to best effect

WHAT YOU CAN DO WITH RESEARCH

So what can we use research to do in order to gain this new knowledge? Some
of the ways it can be used one to:
􀁸 Categorise. This involves forming a typology of objects, events or concepts,
i.e. a set of names or ‘boxes’ into which these can be sorted. This can be useful
in explaining which ‘things’ belong together and how.

􀁸 Describe. Descriptive research relies on observation as a means of collecting

data. It attempts to examine situations in order to establish what is the norm,
i.e. what can be predicted to happen again under the same circumstances.

􀁸 Explain. This is a descriptive type of research specifically designed to deal

with complex issues. It aims to move beyond ‘just getting the facts’ in order to
make sense of the myriad other elements involved, such as human, political,
social, cultural and contextual.
􀁸 Evaluate. This involves making judgements about the quality of objects or
events. Quality can be measured either in an absolute sense or on a
comparative basis. To be useful, the methods of evaluation must be relevant to
the context and intentions of the research.

􀁸 Compare. Two or more contrasting cases can be examined to highlight

differences and similarities between them, leading to a better understanding of
phenomena.

􀁸 Correlate. The relationships between two phenomena are investigated to see

whether and how they influence each other. The relationship might be just a
loose link at one extreme or a direct link when one phenomenon causes
another. These are measured as levels of association.

􀁸 Predict. This can sometimes be done in research areas where correlations

are already known. Predictions of possible future behaviour or events are
made on the basis that if there has been a strong relationship between two or
more characteristics or events in the past, then these should exist in similar
circumstances in the future, leading to predictable outcomes.

􀁸 Control. Once you understand an event or situation, you may be able to find
ways to control it. For this you need to know what the cause and effect
relationships are and that you are capable of exerting control over the vital
ingredients. All of technology relies on this ability to control. You can combine
two or more of these objectives in a research project, with sometimes one
objective needing to be successfully achieved before starting the next, for
example you usually need to be able to explain how something happens before
you can work out how to control it.

Progress in almost every field of science depends on the contributions made by

systematic research; thus research is often viewed as the cornerstone of
scientific progress. Broadly defined, the purpose of research is to answer
questions and acquire new knowledge. Research is the primary tool used in
virtually all areas of science to expand the frontiers of knowledge. For
example, research is used in such diverse scientific fields as psychology,
biology, medicine, physics, and botany, to name just a few of the areas in
which research makes valuable contributions to what we know and how we
think about things. Among other things, by conducting research, researchers
attempt to reduce the complexity of problems, discover the relationship
between seemingly unrelated events, and ultimately improve the way we live.

Research is frequently used for describing a thing or event, discovering the

relationship between phenomena, or making predictions about future events.
In short, research can be used for the purposes of description, explanation,
and prediction, all of which make important and valuable contributions to the
expansion of what we know and how we live our lives. In addition to sharing
similar broad goals, scientific research in virtually all fields of study shares
certain defining characteristics, including testing hypotheses, careful
observation and measurement, systematic evaluation of data, and drawing
valid conclusions.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH IDEAS

Where do research ideas come from? This is one of the keys to the
research imagination!
Curiosity

Social researchers are generally intensely curious people. Often they begin to
investigate some setting or group for little reason other than that they are
intrigued by, or perplexed by, a set of behaviors. What is it like to be a woman
in a motorcycle gang (Hopper and Moore, 1990)? Why can’t “Johnny” read at
the appropriate grade level (Spear-Swerling, 1997)? Why was the 2004 election
so divisive (Sabato, 2006)? These are questions that have inspired social
research. All scientists grapple with mystery. Social scientists, in particular,
are attracted to those whose actions and motives are, at least at first glance,
unclear or puzzling. Once they are attracted to a subject, the logic of science
fuels their curiosity and their imagination. The scientific method disciplines the
raw enthusiasm of the researcher but does not dampen it.

Pure and Applied Research

The investigator’s curiosity is not confined to bizarre settings and to social

problems of an immediate nature. Some science involves basic, or pure
research, that is, finding the solution to questions that are intellectually
challenging but that may not have practical applications in the short
run. Pure research in social science is primarily devoted to expanding
theoretical horizons; thus, the actual setting for data collection may be of
secondary importance. If, for example, we are keenly interested in how people
learn the grammatical structure of language, we might choose to gather data in
an elementary school. There we would find out a great deal about how schools
function, how teachers organize their time, and how young children dress and
play. Any and all of this information might be of use to school administrators,
teachers, and parents, but our concentration in this setting would be on data
about language acquisition. In fact, we could probably discover similar
processes of learning in another setting entirely, say, on a street corner, or in a
home.
Applied research, however, is inspired by the needs of social action. Its
findings and conclusions are applied immediately to solve a problem or
to improve the effectiveness of an existing or proposed social program.
Are the agencies set up to help poor people serving their intended clientele?
How many parking meters should be put on Main Street? How can hospital
emergency rooms be made more efficient? These are examples of questions that
inspire applied research. The answers to these questions may have theoretical
significance, but the investigations were manifestly intended to help people.
The results of basic research may offer practical assistance to the public sooner
than expected, but its primary purpose is the accumulation of knowledge for
its own sake.
EXPERIENCE AND REASONING

However, as a means of achieving a greater comprehension of our world,

research distinguishes itself from the two other basic and more ancient means,
those of experience and reasoning.

Briefly, experience results in knowledge and understanding gained either

individually or as a group or society, or shared by experts or leaders, through
day-to-day living.

Knowledge gained from experience forms an essential aid to our

understanding and activities in everyday life. However, it does have severe
limitations as a means of methodically and reliably extending knowledge and
understanding of the world. This is because learning from experience tends to
be rather haphazard and uncontrolled. Conclusions are often quickly drawn
and not exhaustively tested, ‘common sense’ is invoked as self-evident, and
the advice of experts is frequently misplaced or seen as irrelevant. Despite
these shortcomings, experience can be a valuable starting point for
systematic research, and may provide a wealth of questions to be investigated
and ideas to be tested.

Reasoning is a method of coming to conclusions by the use of logical

argument. There are three basic forms of reasoning: deductive, inductive and a
combination of both called inductive/deductive. An argument based on
deduction begins with general statements and, through logical argument,
comes to a specific conclusion.
All men are mortal
Socrates is a man
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Inductive reasoning works the other way round. It starts from specific
observations and derives general conclusions there from. Its logical form
cannot be so neatly encapsulated in a three-line format, but a simple example
will demonstrate the line of reasoning:

All swans which have been observed are white in colour.

Therefore one can conclude that all swans are white.
But when inductive and deductive reasoning were combined to form
inductive/deductive reasoning, the to-and-fro process of developing
hypotheses (testable theories) inductively from observations, charting their
implications by deduction, and testing them to refine or reject them in the light
of the results, formed a powerful basis for the progress of knowledge, especially
of scientific knowledge.

It is the combination of experience with deductive and inductive reasoning

which is the foundation of modern scientific research. Three characteristics of
research can be seen to distinguish it from gaining knowledge purely by
experience or reasoning:

1 Gaining experience is an uncontrolled and haphazard activity, while research

is systematic and controlled.
2 Reasoning can operate in an abstract world, divorced from reality, while
research is empirical and turns to experience and the world around us for
validation.
3 Unlike experience and reason, research aims to be self-correcting. The
process of research involves rigorously testing the results obtained, and
methods and results are open to public scrutiny and criticism.

In short:
Research is a combination of both experience and reasoning and must be
regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth. (Cohen
and Manion, 1994, p. 5)

SOCIAL SCIENCE

On September 11, 2001, eighteen men boarded airplanes with the intent of
crashing them into the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the White House
or Capitol. They succeeded with three of the planes, causing enormous
destruction. The fourth plane crashed, but thanks to passengers who
discovered the high jackers’ plans and attacked the high jackers, the
destruction of the White House or Capitol was prevented.

What forces drove the high jackers to undertake such action?

What forces led the passengers to organize together to thwart them?

What might have prevented the high jacking ?

Such questions fall under the purview of social science—the scientific study of
social, cultural, psychological, economic, and political forces that guide
individuals in their actions.
Formal social science is relatively new. Nevertheless, a vast amount of
information has been accumulated concerning the social life of human beings.
This information has been used in building a system of knowledge about the
nature, growth, and functioning of human societies. Social science is the
name given to that system of knowledge.

All knowledge is (1) knowledge of human beings, including their culture and
products, and (2) knowledge of natural environment. Human culture has
been changing, and knowledge about it has been gradually accumulating ever
since the far distant time when humans first assumed their distinctively
human character. But until rather recent times, this knowledge was not
scientific in the modern sense. Scientific knowledge is knowledge that has
been systematically gathered, classified, related, and interpreted. It is
concerned with learning the concepts and applying those concepts to
particulars, rather than just learning a vast amount of information.

The importance of social science goes far beyond the specific social sciences. It
is social science thinking that underlies much of the law as well as our
understanding of international relations and government and also natural
and physical science. All these fields are the natural byproducts of social
science inquiry. Thus, a knowledge of social science is necessary for anyone
trying to understand current world events.

No field of study is more important to human beings than the social

sciences. To understand society is to learn not only the conditions that limit
our lives but also the opportunities open to us for improving the human
condition. Increasing our knowledge of human society is as important as
learning more about mathematics, physics, chemistry, or engineering, for
unless we can develop societies in which human beings can live happy,
meaningful, and satisfying lives, we cannot reap the benefits from learning
how to make better automobiles and skyscrapers, traveling in space, or
constructing faster computers. Albert Einstein summed it up: “Politics is
more difficult than physics and the world is more likely to die from bad
politics than from bad physics.”

Because all expressions of human culture are related and interdependent, to

gain a real understanding of human society we must have some knowledge of
all its major aspects. If we concentrate on some phases and neglect others,
we will have a distorted picture. But social science today is such a vast
complex that no one student can hope to master all of it. Thus, social science
itself has been broken up into anthropology, sociology, history, geography,
economics, political science, and psychology.

The study of social science is more than the study of the individual social
sciences. Although it is true that to be a good social scientist you must know
each of those components, you must also know how they interrelate. By
specializing too early, many social scientists can lose sight of the
interrelationships that are so essential to understanding modern problems.
That’s why it’s necessary to have a course covering all the social sciences. In
fact, it wouldn’t surprise me if one day a news story such as the one in the box
on the next page appeared.

The Methods of Social Science

The basic procedures of the scientific method are as important in social science
as in physical science. Social scientists must observe carefully, classify and
analyze their facts, make generalizations, and attempt to develop and test
hypotheses to explain their generalizations. Their problem, however, is often
more difficult than that of physical scientists. The facts gathered by the
social scientist—for example, those concerning the cultures of different peoples
—have similarities, but each fact may also be unique in significant respects.
Facts of this kind are difficult to classify and interpret. Further, as we have
already noted, the generalizations or laws that the social scientist can make are
likely to be less definite and certain than those of the physical scientist.

The difficulty of discovering relatively exact laws that govern social life
results from several circumstances. First, the things of greatest importance in
our social life—satisfactions, social progress, democracy—are not really
measurable. Second, society is extremely complex. It is difficult and usually
impossible to find and evaluate all the many causes of a given situation,
though often we can discover the factors that were most important in bringing
it about. Third, in every social situation there is the human element.
Frequently, the course of social events depends on the reaction of a few
individuals who are leaders, and, except in routine situations, we can seldom
predict individual behavior with complete certainty.

Difficulties

Social scientists also have more difficulty than physical scientists in being
objective. Because they deal with human beings and are human themselves,
social scientists find it hard to put aside their own likes and dislikes, their
sympathies, prejudices, and frustrations. As a result, they sometimes fall into
the trap of trying to justify their own hopes, beliefs, or biases instead of seeking
to discover the truth. We should always be on guard against those who pose as
social scientists but who, in fact, substitute propaganda and charisma for
objectivity and competence.

This does not mean that social science is any less scientific than the natural
sciences, or that it is less objective. It simply means that social scientists
must be continually on guard against such traps and must be as clear and
objective as possible.

The differences between physical science and social science lead to slightly
different structures of research. Although there is no ideal structure, a
reasonable approach to a problem in social science is the following:

1. Observe.
2. Define the problem.
3. Review the literature. (Become familiar with what others have observed.)
4. Observe some more.
5. Develop a theoretical framework and formulate a hypothesis.
6. Choose the research design.
7. Collect the necessary data.
8. Analyze the results.
9. Draw conclusions.

Using this outline as a rough guide, and recognizing that the specific project
and each specific social science determine the exact nature of the methodology
to be used, you have a reasonably good method of attack.

Observing. Notice that social science begins with observation. Social science is
about the real world, and the best way to know about the real world is to
observe it.

Defining the problem. Of the various research steps listed, this one is
probably the most important. If you’ve carefully defined your terms, you can
save an enormous amount of energy. Put simply, if you don’t know what you’re
doing, no matter how well you do it, you’re not going to end up with much. The
topic might be chosen for a variety of reasons, perhaps because it raises issues
of fundamental social science importance, perhaps because it has suddenly
become a focus of controversy, or perhaps because research funds have
become available to investigate it.

Reviewing the literature. Knowledge of the relevant literature is essential

because it provides background, suggests approaches, indicates what has
already been covered and what hasn’t, and saves you from redoing what has
already been done. It is a way of using other people’s observations.

Observing some more. After you have defined your problem and reviewed the
literature, your observation will be sharper. You will know more precisely what
you are looking for and how to look for it.

Developing a theoretical framework and formulating a hypothesis. Make

a statement predicting your results and then clarify what each of the terms in
the statement means within the framework of your research. Suppose your
hypothesis is: “High price increases sales of fashionable magazines.”You should
specify how high is high, and compared to what specific price is the price
stated to be high; how much of an increase is significant over the circulation
the magazine enjoyed at the lower price; what sales are included (newsstand,
subscription, or both); and what is “fashionable.”Different researchers may
define the same term differently, which is one of the reasons why the same
research subject can produce different results.

Choosing a research design. Pick a means of gathering data—a survey, an

experiment, an observational study, use of existing sources, or a combination.
Weigh this choice carefully because your plan is the crux of the research
process.

Collecting the necessary data. Data are what one collects from careful
observation. Your conclusions will be only as good as your data, so take great
care in collecting and, especially, in recording your data. If you can’t document
what you’ve done, you might as well not have done it.

Analyzing the results. When all the data are in, classify facts, identify trends,
recognize relationships, and tabulate the information so that it can be
accurately analyzed and interpreted. A given set of facts may be interpreted two
different ways by two different analysts, so give your analysis careful, objective
attention. After this step has been taken, your hypothesis can then be
confirmed, rejected, or modified.
Drawing conclusions. Now you can prepare a report, summarizing the steps
you’ve followed and discussing what you’ve found. A good report will relate
your conclusions to the existing body of research, suggest where current
assumptions may be modified because of new evidence, and possibly identify
unanswered questions for further study.

These steps differ slightly from those used by a natural scientist, but only
slightly—the primary difference comes in testing a hypothesis. In some natural
sciences, it is possible to conduct controlled experiments in which the same
experiment can be repeated again and again under highly regulated conditions.
In the social sciences, such controlled experiments are more difficult to
construct.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN RESEARCH

Scientific method is the discipline which forms the foundation of modern

scientific enquiry. It is therefore important to mention some of the main
assumptions made in this method of enquiry, and to describe some of its major
characteristics.

According to Cohen and Manion (1994, pp. 12–16) there are five major
assumptions underlying scientific method.
The first major assumption is the belief that there is some kind of order in the
universe, and that it is possible for us to gain some understanding of this
order. This is linked with the idea of determinism, the assumption that events
have causes, and that the links between events and causes can be revealed.
This regularity enables some predictions to be made about future events (e.g. if
gravity causes apples to fall today, it will also cause them to fall tomorrow).
Scientists do admit, however, that owing to imperfect knowledge, predictions of
varying levels of probability often result.

The second assumption is that, in order to enable us to gain this

understanding of the world, there must be an agreement between people that
external reality exists, and that people recognize the same reality, a public or
shared reality. It is hardly necessary to point out that much philosophic debate
has been devoted to the nature of reality. Nevertheless, scientific enquiry relies
on the acceptance of the reliability of knowledge gained by experience to
provide empirical evidence (evidence which is verifiable by observation) to
support or refute its theories.

The third assumption is the reliability of human perception and intellect.

Despite the many ways in which our senses can be tricked, researchers depend
on their senses to record and measure their work reliably. Reasoning is an
important method of organizing data and ideas, and is regarded, if used
correctly, as a dependable tool of research. Human memory also plays a major
role in research. To avoid questioning at every single stage, some credence
must be given to the power of memory to provide reliable knowledge.

The fourth assumption is the principle of parsimony. Phenomena should be

explained in as economic a manner as possible. Needless complexity is
abhorred, and scientists aim to achieve the most elegant and simple theories.

The fifth assumption is that of generality. This is the assumption that there
can be valid relationships between the particular cases investigated by the
researcher and the general situation in the world at large. It is accepted that
these relationships can be relatively un problematical in some sciences (e.g.
chemistry and physics) but that in others, with a larger number of unknown
factors (e.g. sociology), there is a weaker chance of generality.

Characteristics of research which uses scientific method

Accepting these assumptions, research using the scientific method displays six
characteristics which distinguish it from other methods of enquiry:

1 It is generated by a question We are surrounded by unanswered questions,

unresolved problems, with conjecture and unproven beliefs. A questioning
mind is the precondition for research. Why, how, when do things happen?
What do events mean? What caused them? All these are questions which can
generate research activity. Such a question is often referred to as the research
problem.

2 It necessitates clarification of a goal Without a clear statement of the

objectives and what is intended to be done, the research cannot be successful.

3 It entails a specific programme of work Research needs to be carefully

planned in order to achieve its objectives and reach conclusions.

4 It is aimed at increasing understanding by interpreting facts or ideas

and reaching some conclusions about their meaning The significance of
facts or ideas depends on the way in which the intellect can extract meaning
from them.

5 It requires reasoned argument to support conclusions In order to

communicate an ordered sequence of ideas, a clear logical argument is
required.

6 It is reiterative in its activities Advances in knowledge and interpretations

of facts are based on previous knowledge, which, in turn, is expanded by the
advances. Then resolution of research problems often gives rise to further
problems which need resolving.

In addition, research often:

• divides the principal question or problem into more practicable subquestions

or problems. Problems are often too large or abstract to examine as a whole.
Dividing them into component parts (sub-problems) enables them to be
practically investigated.

• is tentatively guided by assertions called hypotheses (informed guesses or

tentative assertions). Testing these hypotheses provides a direction for
exploration.

• requires measurable data in attempting to answer the question which

initiated the research.

THE INTERPRETIVIST ALTERNATIVE

Although scientific method is widely used in many forms of research, it does

not, and never has, enjoyed total hegemony in all subjects. Some of the
world’s greatest thinkers have disagreed with the tenets of positivism
contained in scientific method. Positivism, a theory whose development was
influenced by nineteenth century empiricist thinkers such as Bacon and
Hume, holds that every rationally justifiable assertion can be scientifically
verified or is capable of logical or mathematical proof.

The alternative approach to research is based on the philosophical doctrine of

idealism. It maintains that the view of the world that we see around us is the
creation of the mind. This does not mean that the world is not real, but
rather that we can only experience it personally through our perceptions
which are influenced by our preconceptions and beliefs; we are not neutral,
disembodied observers.

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) even went so far as to

claim that the objects of our experience, those things we see, hear and feel,
are simply manifestations which have no existence of their own apart from in
our thoughts. Although he was at the head of various scientific institutions,
Goethe (1749–1832), the German philosopher and writer, shared with Blake
(1757–1827), the English artist and poet, the belief that the universe was more
like a living organism than a mechanism, and that, however exactly it could
be measured, life could not be fully conceived of without ‘inner experience’.
The Danish philosopher Kierkegaard (1813–1855) rejected the dehumanization
of the individual, which he believed resulted from scientific positivism. He
regarded the capacity for subjectivity to be of greater value than that of
objectivity, and that it could bring an individual nearer to the truth.

Steering a course away from the romanticism of these philosophical idealists,

another German philosopher, Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911), agreed that
although in the physical world we can only study the appearance of a thing
rather than the thing itself, we are, because of our own humanity, in a position
to know about human consciousness and its roles in society. The purpose
here is not to search for causal explanations, but to find understanding. As a
method, this presupposes that to gain understanding there must be at least
some common ground between the researcher and the people who are being
studied.

Max Weber (1864–1920), developing and refining Dilthey’s ideas, believed that
empathy is not necessary or even possible in some cases, and that it was
feasible to understand the intentionality of conduct and to pursue objectivity in
terms of cause and effect. He wished to bridge the divide between the traditions
of positivism and interpretivism by being concerned to investigate both the
meanings and the material conditions of action.

More recently, Thomas Kuhn cast doubt on whether science is capable of living
up to its claims of being a purely rational pursuit of knowledge. In his book The
Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1970) he argued that scientists rarely
attempt to test existing knowledge by seeking alternatives to established
theories, but prefer to find methods of substantiating existing beliefs. The
established customs of science as a profession, he maintained, determine the
acceptance of particular scientific theories rather than promoting the
disinterested rational methods of enquiry. Just as argued by the French
philosopher Foucault, the practice of science is shown to control what is
permitted to count as knowledge. Thus there is no progress in science, only
changing perspectives.

The basic assumptions of scientific method have been questioned by

challenging the nature of facts and their rational foundation. Wittgenstein
maintained that all our attempts to understand facts are fundamentally
affected by the framework of our particular cultural and social background.
Similarly, Quine detected a blurring of the scientific distinction between facts
and ideas. It is worth, at this stage, looking back at the assumptions of
scientific method mentioned earlier in this chapter, to find out which of them
have been challenged. The existence of order, as present in the universe,
which can be revealed by scientific study, is questioned. It is more likely that
we are imposing our ordered understanding of the universe, rather than
discovering an order that is already there. We also have an individual
understanding of external reality, opened to our own interpretation and based
on our view of the world. This reduces the feasibility of attaining reliability, as
personal perceptions cannot be reliably shared. In any intellectual thought,
parsimony is regarded as a virtue. Whilst understanding of a situation can lead
to greater knowledge, it is not always possible or even desirable to ensure
generality.

It hardly needs saying that scientists generally refute this challenge to the impartiality
and rigour of scientific enquiry. Take for example the lively public debate about the
rational foundation of science that was conducted at the annual meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science in September 1994 in Loughborough, UK.
The debate – about the relationship between science and the sociology of science –
was extraordinarily heated.

The question, posed by sociologists, was whether science was a ‘social construct’,
an activity inextricably bound up with human society and therefore subject to the
vagaries of the social system, rather than an activity dedicated entirely to a
dispassionate search for the truth, eliminating as far as possible all disturbing
human influences.

Science is a social construct

The study of the sociology and history of scientific knowledge, which has been
continuing for a quarter of a century, has revealed remarkable ambiguities in
the results of scientific experiments and unexpected flexibilities in theory. It
must be concluded that the progress of science depends on a necessary
consensus in a society of what could be counted as believable. This reliance
on social acceptability depends on the social context. It therefore follows that
science must be seen as ‘a social construct’.

This issue has only recently become an issue with natural scientists, most
have reacted positively to the idea. However, the challenge to the unquestioned
authority of science has increased uncertainty amongst scientists: resulting in
some violent attacks on the findings of the sociology of science. It is
particularly the issue of relativism that provokes lively debate.

In this context, relativism can be explained in the following way. A sociologist

must examine the course of a scientific development from the perspectives of
the scientists involved and not be unduly influenced by the consequences of
the development, e.g. the production of a new scientific proof. For example, the
special theory of relativity was said to have been proved by the Michelson–
Morley experiment of 1887, which showed that light travelled at the same
speed in all directions. This ‘proof’ might deflect the sociologist from the
realization that Michelson was never satisfied with the reliability of his
experiment. Additionally, an attempt to repeat the experiment by Miller in 1924
showed significant variations in the speed of light, a finding which resulted in
Miller being awarded the physics prize of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1925. Despite there being no resolution to the
problem up to the 1950s, the belief that the special theory of relativity had
been proved was not dislodged. The sociologist or historian must therefore
ignore whether the speed of light is constant, and rather find an explanation of
why the result of one experiment was believed rather than another. This is
methodological relativism.

The attacks levelled by some natural scientists on the sociology and history of
scientific knowledge are based, not on a rebuttal of the theories and findings
contained in reports, but on the accusation that studies are not serious and
are a form of pseudoscience. This can be detected in the journal Nature’s
satirical attack on Jacques Benveniste’s study of the homeopathic potency of
water. Similarly, Wolpert, at the Loughborough conference, accused social
scientists of being hostile to science, obscurantist, and considering only fringe
scientific events and presenting no evidence for their views. These accusations
are not justified.

Take, for example, the book The Golem by Collins and Pinch, which shows how
relativism works in practice – a book that Wolpert has read and reviewed. Eight
case studies of outstanding achievements in science are examined, amongst
them experiments to do with special and general relativity, the origins of life,
and the solar neutrino problem – all carried out by foremost scientists. These
were definitely not fringe scientific events. As for obscurantism, the book was
hailed by a reviewer in Nature for its deft and entertaining writing. The tenor of
the book was also sympathetic to scientific endeavour, admiring the expertise
and craftsmanship of the scientists. These facts all refute Wolpert’s attempt to
marginalize the work of writers in the sociology and history of science.

It is in the nature of this sociological and historical approach that the results
cannot be ‘proven’ and are therefore open to dispute. It is right that this
should be so. The methodologies have slowly developed over 25 years, and
case studies have been gradually collected and studied. This is a slow process
as these events cannot be set up in a laboratory like those in natural science,
but must be waited for till they occur naturally.

Researchers in this field nearly all admit to be lovers of science. They are
looking at science in a new way, one that appreciates the valuable work being
done but questions the claims that all uncertainty and doubt are being
dispelled. In fact, scientific enquiry is akin to study in the arts and social
sciences: exciting, down-to-earth and argumentative rather than conforming to
its reputation for being steely, impersonal and machine-like in its precision.

Science is not a social construct

It is the responsibility of science to reveal the truth that lies buried deeply in
nature’s wondrous complexity. The best way to do this is through the use of
scientific method, to inch forward with theoretical development refined and
inspired by experimentation. Scientific method is probably the only reliable
way forward, though other methods are still being undertaken.

One example is religion, definitely conditioned by social forces through its

reliance on meditation, personal revelation and social coercion. The dangers of
‘socially constructed’ methods of discovery are indicated by its enormous
capacity to confuse and total failure to clarify.

The universality of science is one indication of its independence from

society. Its substantiated laws and theories apply and are accepted worldwide,
unaffected by the local historical, religious, political and social circumstances.
There is no evidence that Western science has destroyed alternative
methods of scientific enquiry, and those that dispute this are probably aroused
either by jealousy or by a wish to impede the progress of science. Some reputed
areas of knowledge that conflict with the current paradigms, such as the
paranormal, are all based on evidence that cannot be tested by verifiable
observations. Their theories cannot be meshed into globally coherent
theoretical structures.

A second indication is the fact that science evolves and progresses smoothly,
despite the turmoils and revolutions in society. The so-called scientific
revolutions, such as the development of relativity and quantum mechanics,
can now be seen to be elaborations of classical physics, preserving many of its
concepts and procedures. Although theories are refined or rejected during the
process, science always progresses and expands its power of explanation
through rigorous experimentation and theory building, and not through
politicking and social manipulation. The truth is exposed despite surrounding
social conditions.

A third indication is the compatibility of scientific knowledge gained from

highly disparate sources. Despite the social and intellectual variety of sources,
e.g. the study of particles at the CERN laboratories and the monitoring of sea
slugs in Peru, the implications of the results never conflict as one would expect
them to if science were based on social differences – a social construct.

The fourth indication is science’s reliance on mathematics to explain most of

the fundamental aspects of nature (e.g. elementary particles, motion, space–
time, cosmogenesis), which removes it totally from the social sphere.
Mathematics is a totally logical form of expression with an internal consistency
unaffected by time and surrounding conditions. So how can knowledge gained
in this way be regarded as a social construct?

This independence from social, political, racial and religious influences

indicated by science’s universal character contradicts the belief that it is a
social construct. Any deliberate effort to distort the truth by a powerful social
group would soon be exposed, because scientists depend totally on their efforts
to uncover the truth, both for their livelihood and professional advancement
and perhaps for a share of posterity.

It would be difficult to understand how modern technology, based as it is on

the profound postulates of conventional science, would be able to operate if
science was a social construct. It is ridiculous to maintain that the
development of technology is part of a sinister plot by an exclusive group, even
with regard to the emerging industry based on genetic engineering. Science is
remarkable for its characteristic of uniting minds across the world, rather
than dividing and segregating them as in the social constructs of religion and
politics. There are no social barriers to anyone who wants to take part in
scientific endeavour, as long as they are willing to conform to the high
standards of integrity and the principle of open experimentation that is the
ultimate path to greater knowledge.

It seems clear that, if eminent academics disagree on the most fundamental

aspects of research, there is little scope for you to discuss these issues at great
length in your thesis or research report in order to try to arrive at a definitive
answer. It will be necessary to personally decide (and if relevant, explain)
your position in the debate, and take your argument from there.

One way of broadly distinguishing different approaches to research is by

looking at the way in which the collected information is appraised:
1 by counting and assessing numbers – quantitative research
2 by measuring and evaluating qualities – qualitative research.

Yet another way is to examine what are the general aims of the research. A
popular view is that research is dedicated to increasing knowledge in a
particular subject and to systematizing our knowledge of the world. A more
dynamic view holds that the role of the researcher is to make new discoveries,
to change our perception of the world, and to point to ways of improving life.
These two aims are not mutually exclusive. Medawar (1984, p. 40) quotes
Bacon as urging a combination of both these approaches.

Types of research can be distinguished by the settings in which they take place
– natural or contrived. Natural settings are those where nothing (or as little as
possible) of the subject of study is changed by the researcher, in order to gain
information about things as they are in their undisturbed state. An example of
this is observing the movements of people across an open square. In contrived
settings, the researcher determines the surrounding situation in order to
control conditions: for example, the movement of people in different
arrangements of an exhibition may be studied. There is a range of the extent to
which a natural setting can be controlled to produce a contrived setting.

It should be evident from what you have read so far that in order to carry out
research, you need to start by identifying a question which demands an
answer, or a need which requires a resolution, or a riddle which seeks a
solution, which can be developed into a research problem: the heart of the
research project.

Students starting their research degree course, and practitioners wishing to

become involved in research, tend to come from widely different backgrounds,
and are equipped with varied amounts of knowledge and degrees of
experience in their chosen field of study. While most are fairly sure of the
subject into which they want to research, many are uncertain of the exact
problem they wish to address.

One of the first tasks, therefore, on the way to deciding on the detailed topic of
research is to find a question, an unresolved controversy, a gap in
knowledge or an unrequited need within the chosen subject. This search
requires an awareness of current issues in the subject and an inquisitive and
questioning mind. Although you will find that the world is teeming with
questions and unresolved problems, not every one of these is a suitable subject
for research. So what features should you look for which could lead you to a
suitable research problem? Here is a list of the most important:
1 It should be of great interest to you (PASSION) You will have to spend
many months investigating the problem. A lively interest in the subject will be
an invaluable incentive to persevere.

2 The problem should be significant It is not worth time and effort

investigating a trivial problem or repeating work which has already been done
elsewhere.

3 It should be delineated (Describe precisely) Consider the time you have to

complete the work, and the depth to which the problem will be addressed. You
can cover a wide field only superficially, and the more you restrict the field, the
more detailed the study can be. You should also consider the cost of necessary
travel and other expenses.

4 You should be able to obtain the information required You cannot carry
out research if you fail to collect the relevant information needed to tackle your
problem, either because you lack access to documents or other sources,
and/or because you have not obtained the co-operation of individuals or
organizations essential to your research.

5 You should be able to draw conclusions related to the problem The point
of asking a question is to find an answer. The problem should be one to which
the research can offer some solution, or at least the elimination of some false
‘solutions’.

6 You should be able to state the problem clearly and concisely A precise,
well thought out and fully articulated sentence, understandable by anyone,
should normally clearly be able to explain just what the problem is.

The problem can be generated either by an initiating idea, or by a perceived

problem area. For example, investigation of ‘rhythmic patterns in settlement
planning’ is the product of an idea that there are such things as rhythmic
patterns in settlement plans, even if no-one had detected them before. This
kind of idea will then need to be formulated more precisely in order to develop
it into a researchable problem. We are surrounded by problems connected with
society, the built environment, education etc., many of which can readily be
perceived. Take for example social problems such as poverty, crime, unsuitable
housing and uncomfortable workplaces, technical problems such as design
deficiencies, organizational problems such as business failures and
bureaucratic bungles, and many subjects where there may be a lack of
knowledge which prevents improvements being made, for example, the
influence of parents on a child’s progress at school, the relationship between
designers and clients. Obviously, it is not difficult to find problem areas. The
difficulty lies in choosing an area which contains possible specific research
problems suitable for the subject of a research project or degree.
 AIDS TO LOCATING AND ANALYSING PROBLEMS

Booth et al. (1995, p. 36) suggest that the process for focusing on the
formulation of your research problem looks like this:

1 Find an interest in a broad subject area (problem area).

2 Narrow the interest to a plausible topic.
3 Question the topic from several points of view.
4 Define a rationale for your project.

Initially, it is useful to define no more than a problem area, rather than a

specific research problem, within the general body of knowledge which
interests you, e.g. housing and homelessness, parks in cities, building
regulations and historic conservation. Your aim should be to subsequently
narrow down the scope of the idea or problem until it becomes a highly
specific research problem. This narrowing process will require a lot of
background reading in order to discover what has been written about the
subject already, what research has been carried out, where further work
needs to be done and where controversial issues still remain.

You should keep in mind three questions when engaged in the preliminary
exploratory work. The first is, what is your motivation for doing the
research? A major motivation should be a curiosity about the research
results. Another will undoubtedly be the fulfilment of the requirements of a
research degree. Learning about the process of research – practical knowledge
which can be used in the future – is also likely to be a motivation. The choice of
problem is likely to be influenced by these motivational factors.

The second question is, what relevant interest, experience or expertise do

you bring to bear on the subject? Obviously, interest in a subject is essential
if you are to concentrate happily on it for a year or more. Although experience
or expertise in a subject is not a prerequisite to doing research in that field, it
does have an effect on the preliminary and information gathering stage of the
work, as you will be familiar with the literature and the potential problem
areas. However, a ‘new light’ may be cast on a subject by someone looking at it
with ‘fresh eyes’.

The third question is, what are you going to produce? As a researcher, your
priority will be to produce a defendable thesis or useful research report within
your time limit. If you are a research student, you should check the
requirements of your university or college in the regulations issued about the
nature of suitable research topics.

Research problem definition

From the interest in the wider issues of the chosen subject, and after the
selection of a problem area, the next step is to define the research problem
more closely so that it becomes a specific research problem, with all the
characteristics already discussed. This stage requires an enquiring mind, an
eye for inconsistencies and inadequacies in current theory and a measure of
imagination. It is often useful in identifying a specific problem to pose a simple
question, for example, ‘Does the presence of indoor plants affect people’s frame
of mind?’ or ‘How can prevention measures reduce vandalism?’ or ‘Can
planning and building regulations prevent the destruction of indigenous
architecture?’

Such a question can provide a starting point for the formulation of a specific
research problem, whose conclusion should aim to answer the question. At this
stage, the nature of the question will give some indication of the type of
research approach (or approaches) which could be appropriate. Will it be a
historical study, or a descriptive inquiry, an analysis of correlations or an
experimental exercise, or a combination of more than one of them?

PASSION

We develop an unconditional longing for a concept, object or an

event to understand it, and own it.

It will be seen that passion matters as it affects a number of outcomes such as

cognitions, emotions, psychological well-being, physical health, relationships,
expert performance and creativity, interpersonal relationships, and intergroup
and societal outcomes. In psychology and especially in positive psychology,
such outcomes are highly valued.

For centuries, philosophers, playwrights, film directors, and writers have

examined the role of passion in people’s lives.

First, let us study the lay conceptions of passion that have been used through
the years. Second, the reasons why a scientific study of passion is important.

Of interest is the etymology of the word “passion.” In both Greek (pathos) and
latin (patio), passion refers to suffering. What is implied here is that being
passionate may lead one to suffer and endure one’s emotional state. This
represents the first popular meaning of passion.

Related to this first idea is the notion that one’s suffering may also result from
attempting to surmount obstacles during one’s passionate quest. In fact,
even today, one’s persistence toward a goal in the face of adversity, displaying
grit, is often equated with passion (see Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, &
Kelly, 2007).

Another form of suffering often associated with passion is the one that is
experienced when one is prevented from being united with the object of one’s
passion.

Perhaps a final form of suffering is the one experienced by the person who is
desperately trying not to succumb ( fail to resisit) to his or her inner
inkling to engage in a forbidden, passionate activity. For instance, many
passionate individuals have described in great detail the emotional pain and
anguish they have experienced while trying not to succumb to their passion for
a potentially deleterious activity, such as drinking or gambling.

Passion as Intense Emotion

Another popular meaning of passion is that of a state of intense emotions,

either positive or negative. In that sense, people often say that “passions” are
aroused when engaging in the passionate activity. For example, when engaged
in a discussion related to something they are passionate about, it is not
uncommon to observe people being physiologically aroused, with their eyes
wide open, their body erect, talking a bit faster and louder, and even becoming
more physically animated. In several societies, people may take to the streets
to walk for a cause they are passionate about or to protest one that they are
against—one that runs counter to their own.

The popular view of passion as intense emotion need not be limited to negative
emotions, such as hatred and anger, but may also pertain to positive
emotions, such as faith, hope, and even pride. Of course, people may
experience both positive and negative emotions of some intensity.

Passion as Love for an Activity

A final meaning that has been attached to passion is that of a strong liking
(or even love) for an activity, object, or concept. Thus, a person who has a
passion for playing the piano will say that he “loves” playing the piano, and
the teenager who loves playing soccer will say that she has a passion for it.
Love for an activity thus appears to represent an important meaning of the
term “passion.” This meaning represents a more contemporary perspective and
would appear to be the one most often used today, not only by lay people but
also by psychologists.

Passion refers to more than simply love for an activity; it also includes high
valuation of the activity and an important commitment toward it. This
definition of passion can also be extended beyond activities to objects, causes,
ideals, and even other people.

Passion Permeates (spread throughout ) People’s Lives

Passion is present everywhere—in the press, TV, radio, advertisements,

people’s explanations of others’ behavior—and everybody talks about it. One
reason for the popularity of the word “passion” is that it permeates most
aspects of our lives.

As you can see, passion is said to be important in areas as diverse as work,

relationships, science, politics, arts and entertainment, and sports. And the
people who underscore its importance are some who have made a difference in
their respective fields of endeavor.

However, passion can also bring about some negative outcomes as well. For
instance, the same Tiger Woods whose passion for golf helped him reach
excellence in his sport could also add that his passion for (extramarital) sex
may have led him on a downward path as pertains to his performance in golf
and the quality of his married life, which ended in divorce.

In sum, passion would thus appear to be a crucial variable that is involved in

a number of processes and outcomes—some positive, some negative—
inextricably woven in the fabric of life. By learning about passion, we learn
about such processes and outcomes that take place in people’s lives.

“Nothing is as important as passion. No matter what

you want to do with your life, be passionate.”=-Bon Jovi, Pop singer

“Without passion, you don’t have energy, without

energy, you have nothing.”- Donald Trump

I have no special talents. I am only passionately

curious.”-Einstien
“The future will belong to those who have a passion
and are willing to work hard to make our country
better.”- A politician

People engage in the activity they are passionate about on a regular basis, as
they spend on average over 8 hours per week participating in the activity.

In sum, the study of passion not only can tell us much about people’s passion,
but also can enrich our knowledge of what people do, think, and feel when
they engage in something they deeply care about. Because the study of passion
entails going into people’s lives, we should end up learning about the content
and process of people’s lives as well.
Although philosophers, writers, and people may suggest that passion is
important as it pertains to various outcomes, such as performance and
happiness (as in Table 1.1), only psychological research can determine if this is
indeed the case. Passion research can allow us to go beyond common sense
and clearly identify the role of passion in people’s optimal functioning.

Indeed, having a passion for playing a musical instrument or for promoting a

cause that is dear to one’s heart can lead one to achieve self-realization and
fulfillment. Thus, engaging in an activity that we are passionate about can
make us feel good (i.e., hedonism), can help us achieve self-growth (i.e.,
eudaemonism) as we progress in that activity, and may also contribute to other
dimensions of our life, such as experiencing positive emotions, flow, and
positive relationships, as well as achieving high performance and other
outcomes. In other words, not only is passion important because it provides
meaning and purpose in our lives, but it is also important because it is one of
the ways through which people can have access to the psychological processes
that are known in positive psychology to facilitate well-being.

However, we all know passionate people who are unhappy and who seem to
suffer and to make other people suffer as well. Indeed, we know from
experience that passion can also arouse negative emotions, can lead to
inflexible, rigid persistence, and can interfere with achieving a balanced,
successful life.
CREATIVITY

We often see the capacity for creativity residing in a single person or a select
group of people. But creativity is not limited to only few. Creativity is built on
interconnections of ideas, experiences, and imagination. Whether in the
physics lab, the artist’s studio, the mechanic’s garage, or even in figuring
out how to make a small paycheck last until the end of the month, creativity
is everywhere in the human experience. We are creative every day. But we
do not accomplish this miraculous feat on our own.

Writer Maria Popova tells us that creativity is our “ability to tap into our
mental pool of resources—knowledge, insight, information, inspiration, and
all the fragments populating our minds . . . and to combine them in
extraordinary new ways.” Archeologist Ian Hodder agrees, telling us that
creativity is the space between the material reality and our imagination
where intelligence, adaptability, agency, interpretation, and problem solving all
come together, but he also emphasizes that it is a thoroughly social process.
Anthropologist Ashley Montagu highlights the fundamental human ability to
project our ideas onto the world and transform them into materially
resounding reality.
Countless individuals’ ability to think creatively is what led us to succeed as a
species. At the same time, the initial condition of any creative act is
collaboration.

By delving into our past and drawing on the best and most current scientific
knowledge, we shall see that creativity is at the very root of how we evolved and
why we are the way we are. It’s our ability to move back and forth between the
realms of “ what is” and “ what could be” that has enabled us to reach beyond
being a successful species to become an exceptional one.

This cocktail of creativity and collaboration distinguishes our species—no other

species has ever been able to do it so well—and has propelled the development
of our bodies, minds, and cultures, both for good and for bad. We are neither
the nastiest species nor the nicest species. We are neither entirely untethered(
free from chains) from our biological nature nor slavishly yoked(attached) to
it. It’s not the drive to reproduce, nor competition for mates, resources, or
power, nor our propensity for caring for one another that has separated us
from all other creatures. We are, first and foremost, the species singularly
distinguished and shaped by creativity. This is the new story of human
evolution, of our past and current nature.

IMAGINATION

A thought is a flow whereas an imagination is a creation. This is the most

important difference between the two words. ... On the other hand the word
'imagination' is often followed by the preposition 'about' and 'of'. The verb
forms of both the words are 'think' and 'imagine' respectively.

Thought and Imagination are two words that are often confused due to the appeared
similarity in their meanings. They have to be understood with difference. Thought
refers to mental impression or a mental process that continues to happen unless it
is controlled. On the other hand imagination is a voluntary thought that is made by an
effort. This is the main difference between thought and imagination.

Imagination is always voluntary in sense. You make an effort to imagine things

either wildly or smoothly. Look at the sentence.

1. He imagined he was flying in the sky.

2. She imagined as if she was living in a palace.

In both the sentences given above the use of the word ‘imagine’ is to indicate
the meaning of ‘forceful thinking’. In the first sentence the word ‘imagine’ is
used to indicate the meaning that ‘he forcefully thought he was flying in the
sky.’ In the second sentence the word ‘imagine’ is used to indicate the meaning
that ‘she forcefully thought that she was living in a palace’.
It is important to note that the imagination has to come to an end at some
point of time. On the other hand thoughts continue to occur until they are
totally controlled. Great sages of the past have tried their best to control their
thoughts. A thought is a flow whereas an imagination is a creation. This is the
most important difference between the two words.

It is interesting to note that the word ‘thought’ is often followed by the

preposition ‘of’ and ‘about’. On the other hand the word ‘imagination’ is
often followed by the preposition ‘about’ and ‘of’. The verb forms of both the
words are ‘think’ and ‘imagine’ respectively. These are the differences between
the two words ‘imagination’ and ‘thought.’

Like any toolbox, our minds have an assortment of tools available for us to
utilize whenever we need to.

Included in our mental toolbox are cognitive processes, clusters of which

compose of THREE primary ones involved in ideation: imagination,
creativity, and innovative thinking.

Unless we know the differences between the tools at our disposal, we may
find ourselves attempting to hammer in a nail using a screwdriver. It might get
the job done, but it’s definitely not ideal.

FIRST is Imagination is about seeing the impossible, or unreal. SECOND is

Creativity is using imagination to unleash the potential of existing ideas in
order to create new and valuable ones. THIRD is Innovation is taking
existing, reliable systems and ideas and improving them.

Typically, we often confuse these three for one or the other.

Dreams at night are a type of imaginative thinking; what you see when you
dream isn’t really happening, and in most instances what you dream cannot
physically happen. A great example of this is a recurring dream I have, where a
blue-colored cat teaches me how to fly.

When solving a novel problem at work or school, we rely on creativity to

generate an answer or idea for overcoming the problem. We might know what
the problem entails, but we can only solve it by combining ideas or diverging
from our focus in order to see what we couldn’t see before. Creativity very
much deals with reality, but the solutions we generate as a result of creativity
are difficult to measure.

Lastly, innovation is what takes place when we look at an existing system or

process and find a way to improve it, often utilizing both imagination and
creativity.
The biggest difference between each of these is the frame of focus we have
when attempting to utilize each.

With imagination, our focus can be on things that are impossible. Creativity
requires our focus to be on things that might be possible, but we can’t be sure
until we explore them further. While innovation entails being focused on what
is right in front of us, something that can be measurably improved in the here
and now.

It’s important to know the differences, and to know when you’re using one
mode of thinking as opposed to the other, and what the context is for that
reasoning.

Where imagination simply requires that we have some context from which to

envision an idea, creativity requires that we have knowledge of the idea,
motivation and freedom to explore and tinker, intelligence to see what makes
the convergence of any set of ideas possible, and then the energy to see the
process through.

Innovation takes both creativity and imagination further, focusing on existing

systems or ideas that can be evolved naturally.

Where imagination can tell a remarkable story, creativity can make

imagination possible. Innovation uses imagination and the power of creativity
to measurable improve on what exists today.

If you’re trying to improve a process or idea at work or school, you should focus
on thinking with innovation in mind. Innovation is the way to see how
something might work in the future.

If, alternatively, you’re looking to generate a new way to solve a problem in your
life, utilizing creative thinking is the way to go. Be sure, in those instances,  you
have everything you need to think creatively.

Lastly, if you want to see things from an entirely different

perspective, work to build your imagination.

IMAGINATION

Imagination is quite possibly a uniquely human ability. In essence, it allows

us to explore ideas of things that are not in our present environment, or
perhaps not even real. For example, one can imagine the cup of coffee seen
the day before, or one can imagine an alien spaceship arriving in the earth's
orbit. The key is that what is imagined is generated from within rather than
perceived based on input from without. 
In perception, one takes information from the outside world, such as light, or
sound waves, and finds meaning in it, using memory and perceptual
processes. In imagination, it works in reverse. Imagery is created from the
memory. 

When I think of what may precede a big idea, imagination comes to

mind. Imagination is the fulcrum of big ideation, it’s the creation of worlds,
visions, or ideas beyond the visible. Creative potential beyond the constructs
we often accept in day-to-day life. What is imagination? It’s the architect who
asked, why do buildings have to be square? The poet who asked, why do words
need to line up on a page? The activist who asked, why are we not all free?
The scientist who asked, when was the universe born? 

We know what imagination looks like, but what does it mean? Read on to
explore three different views on the nature and function of imagination. 

1. The act or power of forming a mental image of something not present to the
senses or never before wholly perceived in reality
2. A creative ability or the ability to confront and deal with a problem

Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited,

whereas imagination embraces the entire world, stimulating progress, giving
birth to evolution.” -Albert Einstein

There is a long history linking mythology with imagination, especially

through storytelling. Simply put, humans used their abilities of imagination to
make sense of the senseless, the other, and a changing world. Through
imaginative storytelling, humans shared creation myths and passed on
warnings to future generations through folklore, such as in the stories of
Anansi. Joseph Cambell, a Jungian psychologist, saw mythology and
symbolism as vehicles to activate the imagination and tune into the collective
unconscious. 

“There are mythologies that are scattered, broken up, all around us. We stand
on what I call a terminal moraine of shattered mythic systems that once
structured society. They can be detected all around us. You can select any of
these fragments that activate your imagination for your own use. Let it help
shape your own relationship to the unconscious system out of which these
symbols have come.” – Joseph Campbell

The very serious function of racism … is distraction. It keeps you from doing
your work. It keeps you explaining, over and over again, your reason for being.
Somebody says you have no language and so you spend 20 years proving that
you do. Somebody says your head isn’t shaped properly so you have scientists
working on the fact that it is. Somebody says that you have no art so you
dredge that up. Somebody says that you have no kingdoms and so you dredge
that up. None of that is necessary.” – Toni Morrison

Imagination doesn’t have to be out there or speculative; it can be a

questioning of the status quo or even naming things as they truly are.
Indeed, Morrison levied a much-needed and deep shift in the American white
psyche in her works. Though Morrison’s work is art and not a “token of
progressivism,” Morrison told The New Yorker, “I can accept the labels because
being a black woman writer is not a shallow place but a rich place to write
from. It doesn’t limit my imagination; it expands it. It’s richer than being a
white male writer because I know more and I’ve experienced more.” 

Imagination brought to life requires some degree of freedom from

oppression. 

What beliefs or systems define your understanding of imagination? Do you feel

free to imagine? What distracts you (or others) from exploring your (or their)
imagination?

Imagination is considered "a power of the mind," "a creative faculty of the
mind," "the mind" itself when in use, and a "process" of the mind used for
thinking, scheming, contriving, remembering, creating, fantasizing, and
forming opinion.  The term imagination comes from the latin
verb imaginari meaning "to picture oneself."  This root definition of the term
indicates the self-reflexive property of imagination, emphasizing the
imagination as a private sphere.  As a medium, imagination is a world where
thought and images are nested in the mind to "form a mental concept of
what is not actually present to the senses."  In the sense of the word as a
process, imagination is a form of mediation between what is considered
"externalized" reality, and internalized man (with regard to Manovich and
Lacan).  The term is considered "often with the implication that the (mental)
conception does not correspond to the reality of things."  Finally, imagination is
a term that circulates forms of mass media when the "internalized" private
imagination is presented as public, or expressed in a media form, such as film
or in virtual reality technology.

In Aristotle, the imagination bridges the gap between "images" and "ideas,"
implying that rational thought takes place in the form of images, and are
stored and combined in the imagination.  Thus, imagination is implied as an
actual space or medium in the individual's mind, and in this space it has a
power to combine images and ideas to do the work of reason.

Kant understood imagination as being "reproductive" because of its basis in a

given or experienced knowledge that must be reproduced to 'shortcut' the proof
posited by the senses.  For example, one must use his powers of imagination
to deductively reason that even though he cannot see all sides of a cube he is
looking at there are six sides to the cube. For, based on the viewer's experience,
a cube factually and observably does have six sides.  Were he to pick the cube
up and examine it, he should see and note it as fact observable by his senses.  
However, since the viewer has the faculties of his reproductive imagination, he
need not rely on his senses.  Thus, if reality can be observed by the senses,
imagination addresses a certain no-man's land between what is observably
"true" or "real" and that which is considered totally "fictive" or "false," in a
sense, imagination provides a shortcut.  Imagination in this sense, fills in what
could in all likelihood be observed by the senses, and apprehends a sense of
reality based on the experience of the proof of his senses, without the executed
proof.

The ability to imagine things pervades our entire existence. It influences

everything we do, think about and create. It leads to elaborate theories,
dreams and inventions in any profession from the realms of academia to
engineering and the arts. Ultimately, imagination influences everything we do
regardless of our profession.

Imagination is the key to innovation.

There is nothing childish or shameful about making imagination a vital part of

your leadership competencies. The more you use your imagination, the
stronger your ‘imagination muscle’ will become. You will be pleasantly
surprised as you use this ability and tap into this rich source of infinite
possibilities.

Yesterday’s knowledge alone will not suffice. Imagination is essential for

anyone, especially for leaders, who not only have to lead people into the future
but have to foresee the challenges not yet known that await mankind.

Have you wondered where imagination comes from, what makes us creative,
why we think scientifically or create art, and invent tools? Philosophers have
argued for thousands of years about the essence of imagination. Scientists at
Dartmouth College believe their study brings us closer to the answer.

According to lead researcher, Alex Schlegel, a graduate student in the

Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, the answer lies in the human
brain's "mental workspace", a widespread neural network that coordinates
activity across several regions in the brain and consciously manipulates
symbols, images, ideas and theories.

The study confirmed what most scholars had theorized - that the "mental
workspace" is responsible for most of human conscious experience and the
flexible cognitive abilities we (humans) have evolved.
Imagination affects how we see and hear

How we perceive the world around us is affected by our imagination, to a much

greater degree than we perhaps realize, researchers at the Karolinska Institute
explained in the journal Current Biology.

The thoughts that emerge "in our head" can alter our actual perception.

The real engine of creative writing is the imagination. The ability to create
new people from scratch, to put them into scenarios and to tell stories. If you
cannot imagine, you cannot write. It is the single most important thing for you
to understand about your process.
There are 8 types of imagination. 

The more you understand your thought processes, the more

efficiently you can work.

According to Murray. The Eight subsections of imagination are:

1. Effectuative imagination
2. Intellectual or constructive imagination
3. Imaginative fantasy
4. Empathy
5. Strategic imagination
6. Emotional imagination
7. Dreams
8. Memory Reconstruction.

It’s important to note that there is some overlap between each of these types
of imaginaton. They don’t function entirely independently from each
other and many of them combine during the course of every day.

Effectuative (set of decision-making principles) imagination

This is what allows us to synthesise existing ideas together from existing
information. If I were to offer you a penguin and dog-poop sandwich, you
probably don’t have to try it to know that you won’t like it. You simply took the
existing information (the ingredients) and made a brand new construct (the
sandwich).

As a writer you can think of yourself as a conduit for creating new ideas from
existing information already in the creative sphere. You’re creating something
new from something that already exists across all of human history. You’re
joining a canon of writers who already exist and who have set templates and
genres.

It’s important that you read, the more you read, the more information you have
to draw on for your imagination. When you’re an avid (showing keen
interest) reader, you’re an avid imaginer, when you’re an avid imaginer then
you’re much better prepared to be a true story wrangler. You can take existing
things and you can make them into something new. This is the heart of good
scriptwriting.

Intellectual Imagination

Is when you’re able to work from an existing plan or a definite idea and is
guided towards a distinct purpose. Intellectual imagination is a very conscious
and deliberate process.

For those of us that have a dream about a great piece of work, the one thing
that we’re determined to write over the course of our lives. We want it to be
absolutely right. In order to do this, we have to imagine — we have to research
and we have to create something spectacular consciously and with a lot of
effort and care. We may spend more than a decade or two researching it and
creating something that transcends the financial reward we may get for it.
The book Pillars of the Earth by Ken Follett is a great example of this.

Imaginative Fantasy

This is when you’re able to generate new ideas from scratch and can be
guided or unguided. This is what most writers and artists are good at. We
usually have a moment of inspiration and go off to explore wherever the
fantasy may take us. Lots of my time spent as a writer is done walking.
Walking and thinking and daydreaming. Letting my brain go off in it’s own
direction and return with things that haven’t been thought of yet.

Any time you walk into a library, just take a moment to stand and bathe in the
collected imagination of humanity. Stories have been created in thousands of
genres, millions of characters (some of whom are more famous than any living
person) and billions and billions of words. All simply to take the story from one
person’s head and implant it into someone else’s. Imaginative fantasy is the
soul of creativity.

Empathy

This is a capacity that human beings have to mentally detach from ourselves
and experience what another person is experiencing from their point of view.
It allows us to take an imaginative stroll in someone else’s shoes.
To be a good writer I think you must have a great deal of empathy. I think it’s
important for all the characters you write that you’re able to see the world as
they see it. How else would you be able to create rounded characters otherwise?
There is nothing worse than characters that feel false, particularly characters
who are written as two-dimensionally evil. Even the most evil person thinks
they’re the good guy. To understand that, you’ve got to have empathy.

Without empathetic imagination working at a high level all your characters will
invariably sound like you.

Strategic Imagination

This is primarily concerned with ‘what could be…’. It’s the ability to spot
opportunities and visualise what might happen if you were to take them.
People who have an excellent strategic imagination will have a realistic
understanding of their own skills, and be able to spot opportunities to develop

For us as writers, we need to be able to think about the limits of our abilities
and our development. I would never begin to write a fantasy novel, I don’t have
the staying power. I’ve played out the scenario in my head and can see me
getting paralysed by the different writing requirements. Perhaps as I become
more confident in my writing — but at the moment my strategic imagination is
giving that eventuality a big thumbs down.

If it helps you to give strategic imagination a catchy name, then you can
call it ‘wisdom’.

Emotional Imagination

This is a slightly trickier one to define. It’s concerned with manifesting

emotional dispositions and extending them into scenarios. We need
imagination to fuel our emotional states, we need to imagine the monsters to
feel fear, imagine the scenarios playing out in our lives to make us feel anxious.

As writers, we need to be aware of our emotions and the emotions of human

beings more generally. If we know how we can create fear, how to create
sadness, laughter and we have the ability to play on those emotions — then we
can generate form and structure that plays into this facet of our audience’s
mindsets. Any time you’re starting to feel a lump in your throat whilst watching
fiction, give a round of applause to the writer. They just hacked your brain. ( I
WONDER HOW THESE YOUNG GIRLS AND BOYS WHO CAN COMPETE IN
ANY JOB IN THE MARKET CHOSE TO BE A NURSE? WHO WANTS SPEND ALL
THEIR LIVES IN DEATH,DISEASE,INABILITY)

Dreams
These are an unconscious form of imagination that we do when we’re asleep.
Scientists are still deciding what these crazy little night visions are all about
— but for those of us that dream, it can be a fun and sometimes scary way to
access our imagination.

Dreams are great for writers. And I mean genuinely great. I strongly recommend
keeping a pad and pen by your bed. Some of the best dreams I’ve had make the
short list for pitches to production companies.

As your unconscious mind often deals with conscious problems whilst you
sleep — you may find that the answers to your scripting problems appear fully
formed in the morning (please please please please let that be the case!)

Memory Reconstruction

When we retrieve our memories of people, objects and events we use our
imagination to regenerate the images. Memories are subconscious stored bits
of information dragged into our conscious brain and our imagination often fills
the gaps where memory hasn’t been curated properly.

A large part of my writing is memory reconstruction. I write conversations that

I’ve had, I write people that I’ve met, I write about my relationships with real
people and I give them different names. A lot of who we are and what we do goes
into our writing. Memories made flesh.

Conclusion

Imagination is key to writing. It’s the engine that drives creativity. Imagining
is key to human existence, not just for writers but for all of us. Without an
imagination we cannot function emotionally, our memories wouldn’t work,
and we’d lack the capacity to travel forwards or backwards in time. The
strength of our imagination may be what makes us unique as a species.
For those of us that make a living by monetising our imagination — it’s
important to keep this engine well oiled and functional. This isn’t something
passive that happens. You have to take active steps on how to keep it running.

5 Reasons Imagination Is More Important Than Reality

I’ve been known to be a bit of an airy-fairy, starry-eyed, head in the clouds

kind of gal. A natural-born uplifter, I find it rather easy to focus on the
positive and what I want to create as opposed to feeling stuck in the reality of
‘what is’. And while there have been many people in my life who have so
kindly reminded me of the importance of being responsible and realistic, I
have learned that imagination is far more valuable than reality & here are
a few reasons why.
1. Imagination ignites passion. As adults we have been forced into a world of
responsibility and practicality where money, bills, and jobs (many of which we
hate) dictate how we live, breathe, and experience the world. Dreaming of
what can be allows us to tap into our imaginations again, reminding us
what it feels like to be passionate about something. Somewhere along the
lines we have lost that connection to passion and purpose in life and replaced
it with survival and responsibility. Who says you can’t be passionate and
responsible?

2. Our imagination and thoughts create our future. It’s long been said that
‘thoughts become things’ and our imaginative muscle is the very thing
that helps make that possible. When we stay immersed in what is directly in
front of us at all times (i.e. our current reality), we continually create the same
challenges, problems, and experiences over and over again. But, when we
venture into our imagination to focus on the reality that we want to experience,
the energy is set in motion and magnificent change can occur.

And as Albert Einstein so eloquently stated:

“Imagination is everything. It is the preview for life’s coming attractions.”

3. Imagination stimulates creativity and innovation. Some of the most
influential and innovative creations have come from the simple act of
imagining something bigger, easier, or more beautiful. Scientists and creative
artists have an amazing gift for thinking outside the box and allowing their
imaginations the freedom to grow and evolve their thoughts, many of which
have created products that have changed the way we live entirely. Without this
creative power we may never have had the internet, smartphones, airplanes,
and other amazing technology we rely on every day. Simply put, imagination
is the key ingredient to expansion and the advancement of our world.

4. Imagination is magical. Take a moment to watch a young child play alone

and you will experience first hand the magic that comes from imagination.
Creative thought turns the mundane into a magical experience. It is what
turns a simple box into a powerful rocket, a laundry basket into a pirate
ship, and a simple bathtub into the deep blue sea. Taking a moment to view
the world through a child’s eyes is enough to bring back the joy and wonder
that imagination brings. How amazing would our world be if we all
experienced that same joy and wonder on a day-to-day basis?

5. Sometimes reality just sucks. Watching the news and hearing about the
violence, crime, sickness, and sadness in the world is enough to make anyone
believe that things are falling apart. By falling into the trap of ‘what is’ and
believing that this is just the way the world works, we become a victim and
relinquish our true creative power. Choosing to use our imaginative muscle
as a means of creation provides hope. And where there is hope there is
ultimately an opportunity for transformation and change. Two things that are
necessary for us to create a better world for generations to come.

Reality is merely an outward expression of what we have chosen to accept and

focus on in the world. But when we turn our thoughts to that which we want to
create in our lives, the possibilities are endless. With that kind of imaginative
power, why would we waste it focusing on the mundane only to perpetuate
a reality that is less than optimum? We have the power to create so much more
and it is up to us to use our imaginations to change our lives and our world for
the better.