DAA UNIT-3 (Updated)

NARASARAOPETA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHMS (III - CSE) – II SEM
UNIT III
Dynamic Programming: The general method, multistage graphs, All pairs-shortest paths, single-
source shortest paths: general weights, optimal Binary search trees, 0/1 knapsack, reliability
Design, The traveling salesperson problem, matrix chain multiplication.
Dynamic Programming:
The General Method:
Dynamic programming, as greedy method, is a powerful algorithm design technique that can be
used when the solution to the problem may be viewed as the result of a sequence of decisions. In
the greedy method we make irrevocable decisions one at a time, using a greedy criterion.
However, in dynamic programming we examine the decision sequence to see whether an optimal
decision sequence contains optimal decision subsequence.
The steps in a dynamic programming solution are:
 Verify that the principle of optimality holds

 Set up the dynamic-programming recurrence equations
 Solve the dynamic-programming recurrence equations for the value of the optimal
solution.
 Perform a trace back step in which the solution itself is constructed.
A multistage graph G = (V, E) is a directed graph in which the vertices are partitioned into
k > 2 disjoint sets Vi, 1 < i < k. In addition, if <u, v> is an edge in E, then u ε Vi and v ε Vi+1 for
some i, 1 < i < k.
Let the vertex “s” is the source, and “t‟ the sink. Let c (i, j) be the cost of edge <i, j>. The
cost of a path from “s‟ to “t‟ is the sum of the costs of the edges on the path. The multistage
graph problem is to find a minimum cost path from “s‟ to “t‟. Each set Vi defines a stage in the
graph. Because of the constraints on E, every path from “s‟ to “t‟ starts in stage 1, goes to stage
2, then to stage 3, then to stage 4, and so on, and eventually terminates in stage k.
Let c (i, j) be the cost of the path from source to destination. Then using the forward
approach, we obtain:
UNIT-3 [1] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

The multistage graph problem can also be solved using the backward approach. Let bp(i, j)
be a minimum cost path from vertex s to j vertex in Vi. Let Bcost (i, j) be the cost of bp(i, j).
From the backward approach we obtain:

Complexity Analysis:
The complexity analysis of the algorithm is fairly straightforward. Here, if G has |E| edges,
then the time for the first for loop is ɸ (|V| +|E|).
EXAMPLE 1:
Find the minimum cost path from s to t in the multistage graph of five stages shown below. Do
this first using forward approach and then using backward approach.
FORWARD APPROACH:
We use the following equation to find the minimum cost path from s to t:


BACKWARD APPROACH:
We use the following equation to find the minimum cost path from t to s:


All pairs shortest paths
In the all pairs shortest path problem, we are to find a shortest path between every pair of
vertices in a directed graph G. That is, for every pair of vertices (i, j), we are to find a shortest
path from i to j as well as one from j to i. These two paths are the same when G is undirected.
When no edge has a negative length, the all-pairs shortest path problem may be solved by
using Dijkstra‟s greedy single source algorithm n times, once with each of the n vertices as the
source vertex.
The all pairs shortest path problem is to determine a matrix A such that A (i, j) is the
length of a shortest path from i to j. The matrix A can be obtained by solving n single-source
problems using the algorithm shortest Paths. Since each application of this procedure requires
O (n2) time, the matrix A can be obtained in O (n3) time.
The dynamic programming solution, called Floyd‟s algorithm, runs in O (n3) time.
Floyd‟s algorithm works even when the graph has negative length edges (provided there are no
negative length cycles).
Complexity Analysis: A Dynamic programming algorithm based on this recurrence involves in

calculating n+1 matrices, each of size n x n. Therefore, the algorithm has a complexity of O (n3).

Example:
Given a weighted digraph G = (V, E) with weight. Determine the length of the shortest path
between all pairs of vertices in G. Here we assume that there are no cycles with zero or negative
cost.
Step 1: Solving the equation for, k = 1;


Single-source shortest paths: general weights

Given a source vertex s from a set of vertices V in a weighted directed graph where its edge
weights w(u, v) can be negative, find the shortest path weights d(s, v) from source s for all
vertices v present in the graph. If the graph contains a negative-weight cycle, report it.
Dijkstra doesn’t work for Graphs with negative weights, Bellman-Ford works for such graphs.
Bellman-Ford is also simpler than Dijkstra and suites well for distributed systems. But time
complexity of Bellman-Ford is O(VE), which is more than Dijkstra.
Bellman Ford Algorithm:
 Bellman ford algorithm provides solution for Single source shortest path problems.
 Bellman ford algorithm is used to indicate whether the graph has negative weight cycles
or not.
 Bellman Ford Algorithm can be applied for directed and weighted graphs.
Why do we need to be careful with negative weights?
Negative weight edges can create negative weight cycles i.e. a cycle that will reduce the total
path distance by coming back to the same point.
These observations result in the following recurrence for dist:

Example:
Edge List:
Initialization:

Order of edge relaxation:

Optimal Binary search trees

Optimal Binary Search Tree extends the concept of Binary searc tree. Binary
Search Tree (BST) is a nonlinear data structure which is used in many scientific applications for
reducing the search time. In BST, left child is smaller than root and right child is greater than
root. This arrangement simplifies the search procedure.

Let P (i) be the probability with which we shall be searching for 'ai'. Let Q (i) be the probability
of an un-successful search. Every internal node represents a point where a successful search may
terminate. Every external node represents a point where an unsuccessful search may terminate.
The expected cost contribution for the internal node for 'ai' is:
Unsuccessful search terminate with I = 0 (i.e at an external node). Hence the cost contribution for
this node is:
The expected cost of binary search tree is:

Example 1: The possible binary search trees for the identifier set (a1, a2, a3) = (do, if, stop) are
as follows. Given the equal probabilities p (i) = Q (i) = 1/7 for all i, we have:

Example 1:
Let n = 4, and (a1, a2, a3, a4) = (do, if, need, while) Let P (1: 4) = (3, 3, 1, 1) and Q (0: 4) = (2,
3, 1, 1, 1)
Solution:
Table for recording W (i, j), C (i, j) and R (i, j):







0/1 knapsack using Dynamic Programming

The 0/1 knapsack problem means that the items are either completely or no items are filled in a
knapsack. For example, we have two items having weights 2kg and 3kg, respectively. If we pick
the 2kg item then we cannot pick 1kg item from the 2kg item (item is not divisible); we have to
pick the 2kg item completely. This is a 0/1 knapsack problem in which either we pick the item
completely or we will pick that item. The 0/1 knapsack problem is solved by the dynamic
programming.
Example 1:
Consider the knapsack instance n = 3, (w1, w2, w3) = (2, 3, 4), (P1, P2, P3) = (1, 2, 5) and M =
6.

Optimal solution:
M=6
 (6,6) is the tuple to meet the maximum capacity of the bag.
 (6,6)  S 2 therefore x3=1
 (6,6) is obtained from (1,2)
 (1,2)  S 1 therefore x2=0
 (1,2)  S 0 therefore x1=1
• The optimal solution is (1, 0, 1) and the profit is 6
Reliability Design
Reliability means the ability of an apparatus, machine, or system to consistently
perform its intended or required function or mission, on demand and without degradation or
failure. Reliability design using dynamic programming is used to solve a problem with a
multiplicative optimization function
. The problem is to design a system which is composed of several devices connected in series
.Let r; be the reliability of device D; (i.e. r; is the probability that device i will function properly).
Multiple copies of the same device type are connected in parallel through the use of switching
circuits.

Example 1:
Design a three stage system with device types D1, D2 and D3. The costs are $30, $15 and $20
respectively. The Cost of the system is to be no more than $105. The reliability of each device is
0.9, 0.8 and 0.5 respectively.
Di Ci Ri Ui
D1 30 0.9 2
D2 15 0.8 3
D3 20 0.5 3



TRAVELLING SALESPERSON PROBLEM
A traveler needs to visit all the cities from a list, where distances between all the cities are known
and each city should be visited just once. What is the shortest possible route that he visits each
city exactly once and returns to the origin city?
Let G = (V, E) be a directed graph with edge costs Cij. The variable cij is defined such that cij > 0
for all I and j and cij = ὰ if < i, j> ε E. Let |V| = n and assume n > 1. A tour of G is a directed
simple cycle that includes every vertex in V. The cost of a tour is the sum of the cost of the edges
on the tour. The traveling sales person problem is to find a tour of minimum cost. The tour is to
be a simple path that starts and ends at vertex 1.
Let g (i, S) be the length of shortest path starting at vertex i, going through all vertices in S, and
terminating at vertex 1. The function g (1, V – {1}) is the length of an optimal salesperson tour.
From the principal of optimality it follows that:
Example :
For the following graph find minimum cost tour for the traveling salesperson problem:


Matrix Chain Multiplication
It is a Method under Dynamic Programming in which previous output is taken as input for next.
Here, Chain means one matrix's column is equal to the second matrix's row [always].
In general:




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NARASARAOPETA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

The General Method:

The steps in a dynamic programming solution are:

 Verify that the principle of optimality holds

UNIT-3 [1] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [2] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [3] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [4] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [5] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [6] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

All pairs shortest paths

Complexity Analysis: A Dynamic programming algorithm based on this recurrence involves in

UNIT-3 [7] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

Step 1: Solving the equation for, k = 1;

UNIT-3 [8] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [9] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

Single-source shortest paths: general weights

Bellman Ford Algorithm:

Why do we need to be careful with negative weights?

These observations result in the following recurrence for dist:

UNIT-3 [10] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [11] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

Order of edge relaxation:

UNIT-3 [12] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

Optimal Binary search trees

UNIT-3 [13] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

The expected cost of binary search tree is:

UNIT-3 [14] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [15] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

Table for recording W (i, j), C (i, j) and R (i, j):

UNIT-3 [16] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [17] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [18] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [19] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [20] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [21] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [22] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

0/1 knapsack using Dynamic Programming

UNIT-3 [23] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

 (6,6) is the tuple to meet the maximum capacity of the bag.

 (6,6)  S 2 therefore x3=1

 (6,6) is obtained from (1,2)

 (1,2)  S 1 therefore x2=0

 (1,2)  S 0 therefore x1=1

• The optimal solution is (1, 0, 1) and the profit is 6

UNIT-3 [24] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [25] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [26] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

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TRAVELLING SALESPERSON PROBLEM

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Matrix Chain Multiplication

UNIT-3 [30] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [31] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [32] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

UNIT-3 [33] Dr.R.Satheeskumar, Professor

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