Exercise 3.1.

1
The number of odd degree vertices must be even. Therefore (2) and (3) cannot be realized.
The following realizes (1) and (4).

In general, the even number of odd numbers in the list is sufficient for the existence of the
graph. Let 2a1 , 2a2 , . . . , 2am , 2b1 + 1, 2b2 + 1, . . . , 2b2n + 1 be such a list. Then we start with
m + 2n vertices V1 , V2 , . . . , Vm , W1 , W2 , . . . , W2n . We draw ai loops at Vi , and bi loops at Wi .
Then we draw one edge between each pair W2i , W2i + 1. The result is a graph with given list
as degrees.
To get a connected graph, besides even number of odd numbers in the list, there is one
more condition: Suppose the list is 1, 1, . . . , 1, a1 , a2 , . . . , an , where the number of 1 is k, and
all ai ≥ 2. Then we need
a1 + a2 + · · · + an ≥ k + 2n − 2.
The key is the following fact: Suppose A is a collection of natural numbers, and a, b ∈ A,
and a ≥ 2. Suppose B is obtained by replacing a and b in A by a − 1 and b + 1. Then A can
be realized by a connected graph if and only if B can be realized by a connected graph.
To prove the fact, let G be a connected graph with degree set A. Let V and W be vertices in
G satisfying degG (V ) = a and degG (W ) = b. Since G is connected, there is a path α connecting
V to W . If α comes back to V before reaching W , then we may discard this part. Then we
may assume that α does not come back to V . Since degG (V ) = a ≥ 2, there is another edge E
connecting V to V ′ that does not belong to α. Then we replace E by an edge E ′ connecting
W to V ′ . The result is a connected graph G′ with degG′ (V ) = degG (V ) − 1 = a − 1 and
degG′ (W ) = degG (W ) + 1 = b + 1, and degrees of all other vertices remain the same.

α α
V W V W
′
E E
V′ V′

By repeatedly using the fact, the original list 1, 1, . . . , 1, a1 , a2 , . . . , an can become 1, 1, . . . , 1, b.

Here the number of 1 is k + n − 1, and

b = (a1 − 1) + (a2 − 1) + · · · + (an−1 − 1) + an = a1 + a2 + · · · + an − n + 1.

The problem becomes constructing a connected graph with the new degree list. Then all degree
1 points must be connected to the degree b point. This means b ≥ k + n − 1, and is the claimed
condition.
Exercise 3.1.2
 In the directed graph, each edge has a beginning vertex and an end vertex. The beginning
vertex means exactly P that the edge leaves from V , and is counted towards the out-degree
+ +
deg (V ). Therefore all vertices V deg (V ) is the number of beginning vertices of all edges.
Since each edge
P has exactly one beginning vertex, this sum is the number of edges. By the
−
same reason, all vertices V deg (V ) is also the number of edges.
Exercise 3.1.3
In the first and second modificaitons, the game may go on forever. Examples are given
below. The red and blue players starts with two •, and add ◦.

1 3 5 7 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4
2 4 6 8 1 2 3 4

The proof of Theorem 3.1.4 does not make use of the surface. Therefore the third modifi-
cation makes no difference.
Exercise 3.1.4
We start with n black dots. The following shows the game continues for 3n − 1 steps.

Exercise 3.1.5 For each n, prove that the game lasts for at least 2n moves.
Exercise 3.2.1
The second picture contains four points of degree 3. Therefore the path cannot be found.
A path can be found for the the other pictures.

56 55 54 53 3
3029 444546474849505152 1 5 20 4 5 4 6
28 43 42 41 40 8 17 9 8 9
7 18 12
27262524 313233343536373839 6 19

11
13
14
10
22 23 30 29 28 27 1 15

1
5
7

8
4
2
212019181716 181920212223242526 11 14
10 15 16 16
13 14 15 17 16 15 14 9 6 7 17
121110 9 8 7 6 5 5 6 7 8 9 10111213 2 12 13 3 2 3 18
1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1 19

Exercise 3.2.2
Let 1, 1, . . . , 1, a1 , a2 , . . . , an be the list of vertex degrees, where the number of 1 is k, and
all ai ≥ 2. For the one-trip criterion, by the connected graph condition, we have

a1 + a2 + · · · + an ≥ k + 2n − 2.

We also require 0 or 2 odd numbers in the list. The requirement implies k ≤ 2. Then the
inequality above is always satisfied. We conclude the following condition: There are at most
two 1 in the list, and the list has either 0 or 2 odd numbers.
Exercise 3.2.3
Let G2 be the graph obtained by replace each edge in G by two edges. Then degG2 (V ) =
2 deg(G). Therefore G2 is a connected graph, such that all vertices have even degree. Therefore
there is a one-trip path in G2 . Translated into G, this is a path of G, such that each edge of G
appears exactly twice.
Similarly, we may construct Gn , by replacing each edge in G by n edges. If n is even, then
all vertices of Gn have even degree, and there is a path in G, such that each edge of G appears
exactly n times. If n is odd, then Gn and G have the same number of odd degree vertices.
Therefore there is a path in G, such that each edge of G appears exactly n times, if and only
if G has one-trip path.
Exercise 3.2.4 For a directed graph (see Exercise 3.1.2), find the necessary and sufficient
condition for the existence a directed path in which each edge appears exactly once, and the
direction of the edge matches the direction of the path.
By argument similar to the non-direct case, if a vertex W is in the middle of the one-trip
−
path, or the beginning and the end of the path, then we have deg+ G (W ) = degG (W ). If the path
−
is not a cycle, and V, V ′ are the beginning and end of the path, then deg+ G (V ) = degG (V ) + 1,
+ ′ − ′
and degG (V ) = degG (V ) − 1.
−
Conversely, assume deg+ G (W ) = degG (W ) for all vertices of G, or for all except two vertices
− −
V, V ′ , where degG (V ) = degG (V ) + 1, and deg+
+ ′ ′
G (V ) = degG (V ) − 1.
???????? sufficient
Exercise 3.2.5
 Suppose G is connected, and has 2n odd degree vertices (by Theorem 3.3, the number even).
Adding one edge to G will decrease the number of odd degree vertices by at most 2. Therefore
we need to add at least n − 1 edges.
On the other hand, we may take 2(n − 1) odd degree vertices and form n − 1 pairs. We
construct G′ by adding one edge to each pair (hence n − 1 edges are added). Then G′ has two
odd degree vertices, and has one-trip path. We conclude the following
• If G has 0 or 2 odd degree vertices, then there is no need to add edges.
• If G has 2n odd degree vertices, with n ≥ 2, then we need to add n − 1 edges.
Now suppose G is not connected. Then G consists of connected graphs G1 , G2 , . . . , Gk . The
graph Gi has 2ni odd degree vertices, and G has 2n odd degree vertices, with n = n1 + n2 +
· · · + nk . Again we need to add at least n − 1 edges. However, it may happen that adding n − 1
edges is not enough to get a connected graph. Therefore more edges may be needed.
If all ni ≥ 1, then adding n − 1 edges is enough. Specifically, let Vi , Vi′ are distinct odd
′
degree vertices in Gi . Then we add an edge connecting Vi to Vi+1 , for i = 1, . . . , k − 1. Then we
′
get a connected graph G , in which there are 2n − 2(k − 1) = 2(n − k + 1) odd degree vertices.
Then as in the connected we may add (n − k + 1) − 1 = n − k edges to get G′′ , which has
one-trip path. From G to G′′ , we have added (k − 1) + (n − k) = n − 1 edges. This is what
happens to the example.

Suppose n1 = · · · = nl = 0, and ni ≥ 1 for i = l + 1, . . . , k. We pick a vertex Vi in Gi , for

i = 1, . . . , l. Then we connect Vi , Vi+1 by an edge, for i = 1, . . . , l − 1. The graph G′ obtained
consists of graphs G[1,l] , Gl+1 , . . . , Gk , where G[1,l] is obtained by connecting G1 , . . . , Gl together,
and has 2 odd degree vertices. Moreover, n is updated to n′ = 1 + nl+1 + · · · + nk = 1 + n.
Then we apply the discussion above, and find that we need to add (1 + n) − 1 = n edges to get
a graph G′′ that has one-trip path. From G to G′′ , we have added (l − 1) + n = n + l − 1 edges.
Exercise 3.2.6
By the necessary part of the argument, to have two trips, the number of odd degree vertices
must be 0, 2, 4. The second and third graphs fail the condition. The fourth graph has 2 odd
degree vertices, and has one-trip path. For the rest, we show the first trip in red. The remaining
black part can be traveled by another trip.
Exercise 3.2.7
We need to delete edges, such that the remaining graph has two odd degree vertices. The
fourth graph already has one-trip path, and there is no need to delete edges. For the other
graphs, we may delete the red edges.
Exercise 3.4.1

Exercise 3.4.2
Each edge E is shared by exactly two faces F, F ′ . Then E contributes 1 to deg(F ) and 1
to deg(F ′ ). Therefore adding all the degrees of faces together is twice the number of edges.
Exercise 3.4.3
We have the Euler formula v−e+f = 2. There is at least one vertex and one face. Therefore
v, f ≥ 1.
Suppose v − e + f = 2 and v, f ≥ 1. Then we have e = v + f − 2 ≥ v − 1. Then we may
connect v vertices by v − 1 edges, like a line. Next we add e − (v − 1) edges just between two
vertices. Then we get a graph in the sphere with v vertices and e edges. Then by the Euler
formula, the the number of faces is f .
Exercise 3.4.4
We have the Euler formula v − e + f = 2. Moreover, since any face has exactly three edges,
by Exercise 3.4.2, we know 3f = 2e. Substituting into the Euler formula, we get v − e + 32 e = 2
and v − 32 f + f = 2. The equalities are exactly e = 3v − 6 and f = 2v − 4.
Exercise 3.4.5
Similar to Exercise 3.4.4, we have v − e + f = 2 and 4f = 2e. Then we get e = 2f , and
f = v − 2 and e = 2v − 4.
For v ≥ 4, we connect two vertices by v − 2 edges, and then add a vertex in the middle of
each edge. This realizes the graph, such that each face has four edges.
The graph has one-trip path.