Introduction to Power Electonics (Module 1) Introduction Power electronics. Write a short note on linear electronics versus Ques 1) Give a brief introduction to Power electronics. Or What is the difference between li ‘Ans: Introduction to Power Electronics Power Electronics is a field which comt Module 1 to Power Electronics ‘ar electronics and power electronics? nes Power (electric power), Electronics and Control systems. Application of solid-state devices such as diode, Silicon-Controlied Rectifier (SCR), thyristors, gate tum off thyristors, TRIAC, Bipolar Junction Transistor (BIT), electric power is called as power electronics. Power Electronics is the study of switchin, Power MOSFET and so on for control and conversion of ig electronic circuits in order to control the flow of electrical energy. Power Blectronics is the technology behind switching power supplies, power converters, power inverters, motor Grives, and motor soft starters Power engineering deals with the static and rotating power equipment for the generation, transmission and distribution of electric power. Electronics deals with the study of solid state semiconductor circuits for power conversion to meet the desired control obj power). Linear Electronics versus Power Electronics ‘A comparison of both power and linear electronic devices is given below: ‘Power Electronics power devices and jectives (to control the output voltage and output Linear Electronics Tn Power Electronics all devices are operated in the switching modes ie. either fully-on’ or fully-off states. In Tinear electronics, transistors are operated in the (quasi)-linear region, _| high power The power electronic devices handle very high voltages and current, i., their power handling capability is very high. ‘These devices are low power devices, will damage these devices. In these devices there is no concept of quiescent point. Tn these devices the wansistor is biased to operate around quiescent point. "To meet high power requirement, most of the power semiconductor devices differ in structure with their low power devices. An example is addition of n* region called drift region in power diode. The width of this region determines the breakdown voltage of the device. This makes the construction of power semiconductor devices become complex. The construction of these devices is relatively simple, usually consists of one or two p-n junctions and drift region is not available in normal signal level semiconductor devices or in normal linear devices, Initially Power diodes were made by Silicon material only. Now Silicon Carbide (SiC) based power diodes had entered in the market. SiC based power diodes are having Linear devices are made up of Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) as well very low reverse recovery time (t,) in terms of nano seconds.Power El 4 losrumentation (TP Solved Series) Ky, ywer Electronics. 6 conduct ification of power semi or ‘ 2 Discuss a brief class Ques 2) What are power semiconductor switches? switches. Ans: Power Semiconductor Switches semiconductor switches. The pover switches power semiconductor devices ae called power ber at Tia ee temicondutr soe ea eta nods tbe ale to sch a high frequency, BOC VOlage ot either polarity or conduct current in both directions. fch mode power suppli A {EY applications of power semiconductors switches include lamp dimmers, wites nods power SUPP induction cookers, automotive ignition systems, and AC and DC electric motor drives Classification of Power Semiconductor Switches switches, Power semiconductor switches on the basis of power semiconductor devices, used to make the s1 are ‘divided into three broad categories, these ar: i vices, the power 1) Classification Based on Number of Terminals: In terms of the number of terminals of devices, th semiconductor switches can be classified as: le i) The Two-Terminal Switches: These are the switches based on devices, whose state is completely dependent on the external power circuit they are connected to. For example, Power diodes. it) ‘The Three-Terminal Switches: These are the switches based on devices, whose state is not only ‘dependent on their external power circuit, but also on the signal on their driving terminal (gate or base). For example, Power BIT. 2) Classification Based on Type of Charge Carriers: A second classification is based on the type of charge carriers, responsible for current generation ina device, thus the switches are classified as: ') Switches Based on Unipolar Devices: Some power devices are majority carrier devices (Schottky diode, MOSFET, JFET) use only one type of charge carriers (ie., either electrons or holes), ‘The switches based on these devices are called unipolar power switches. % ii) Switches Based on Bipolar Devices: Others power devices are minority carrier devices (p-n diod& Thyristor, BIT, IGBT) that uses both charge carriers (i.e. electrons and holes). The switches based on these devices are called bipolar power switches. 3) Classification Based on Degree of Controllability: controllability of the switches: i) Uncontrollable Switches: These switches are not controllable switches, ie., control is not available in forward or reverse conduction ofthe switching device or the switch, For example, Power Diodes. fi) Semi-Controllable Switches: These switches are partially controllable, thus they are also known as semi-controllable switches, For example, Thyristor. iif) Fully-Controllable Switches: These switches are fully controllable, Some examples of these devices are, BIT (Bipolar Junction Transistor), MOSFET (Metal - Oxide — Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor), JFET (unetion gate Field-Effect Transistor, IGBT (insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor) GTO Gate Turn-off Thyristor), and MCT (MOS-Controlled Thyristor, A third classification is based on the degree of ‘Ques 3) Discuss power diodes and its types in brief. Or What is a power diode? Enlist its important types. ‘Ans: Power Diodes Power diode i te two terminals (namely anode and eahode. Its a two layer (P-N) device which ie ued in tos of power electronics circuits, Power diodes provide unconoledretieation of poor ng ee applications such as eleewopaing, anodiig, battery charging, welding, power supniss (ar wer en variable frequency drives. They ae also used in feedback and the freewheeling functions of co ee ‘A ypical power diode has P-I-N structure, that i, it is a P-N junction with a near iu ‘layer in the middle to sustain reverse voltage, ar intrinsic semiconductor layer 2 3) 4) < nerIntroduction to Power Electronics (Module 1) ‘Types of Power Diodes Depending on the switching recovery time and on state drop, the important types of power diode are as follows: 1) General Purpose Diode: The characteristic features of general purpose diode are: i) High Reverse recovery time (25s) Used in low speed application for example in converters and rectifiers. iii) It is available for current application ranging from 1A to 1000 and voltages from SOV toSkV. 2) Fast Recovery Diode: The characteristic features of fast recovery diode are: i) Low Recovery Time (0.5us) ii) Used in DC-DC,DC-AC converters iii) These diodes are epitaxial diodes thus have a narrow base width, resulting in fast recovery time of as, low as 50ns. 3) Schottky Diodes: The characteristic features of Schottky diode are: i) Charge storage at PN junction can be eliminated in this type of diode. ii) Accomplished by setting a “barrier potential’ with a contact between a metal and semiconductor. iii) Here, there is no recovery time at all, if exists it is as low as 10ps. 4) Silicon Carbide(Sic) Diodes: The characteristic features of Silicon Carbide(SiC) diodes are: i) No Reverse Recovery Time. ii) Ultra Fast Switching ‘No Temperature Influence on Switching. Ques 4) Discuss the structure of power diodes. Also discuss the static and dynamic characteristics of power diodes. Or Write a short note on conductivity modulation of drift region in power diodes. : ose on) Ans: Structure of Power Diode ‘The structure of the power diode is little different than the small signal diodes. Figure 1.1 shows the structure of power diode, There is heavily doped n* substrate with doping level of 10"/em’, this substrate forms a cathode of the diode. On n* substrate, lightly doped n° epitaxial layer is grown, this layer is also called drift region. The doping level of n" Iyer is cane 09) about 10'/em’. Figure 1.1: Structure of Power Diode Then the p-n junction is formed by diffusing a heavily doped p* region. This p' region forms anode of the diode. Tho doping level of p* region is 10'/cm’. The thickness of p* region is 10m. The thickness of n* substrate is 250m. The thickness of n” drift layer depends upon the breakdown voltage of the diode. For higher breakdown voltages, the drift region is wide. The n’ drift region is absent in low power signal diodes. The drift region absorbs depletion layer of the reverse biased pn” junction. Conductivity Modulation of Drift Region ‘When the power diode is forward biased, the holes are injected from the p* region into the drift region. Some of the holes combine with the electrons in the drift region. Since injected holes are large, they attract electrons from n* layer. Thus holes and electrons are injected in the drift region simultaneously. Hence resistance of the drift region reduces significantly. Thus diode current goes on increasing, but drift region resistance remains almost constant. Hence on-state losses in the diode are reduced. This phenomenon is called ‘conductivity modulation of drift region’. This phenomenon is present in almost all the power devices. 1-V Characteristics of Power Diode ‘The I-V characteristics of power diode can be classified as: 1) Static I-V Characteristics: I-V characteristics of power diode are shown in figure 1.2, In the forward biased condition, anode current increases linearly with voltage. In lower power diodes, current increases exponentially. The linear rise takes place because of ohmic resistance in n” layer.8 ‘The 1” daft region is lightly doped. Hence, it appears as low ta inet value internal resistance of the diode. Therefore current is with voltage linearly proportional to voltage. A forward bias of 1V is nena nie sufficient to trigger diode into conduction, ; ee When the diode is reversed biased very small anode current flows. This current is called leakage current. If the reverse bias voltage becomes greater than reverse breakdown Voltage, the anode current starts rises rapidly. Hence, large Figure Power dissipation takes place in the diode and itis damaged. 2) Dynamic or Switching I-V Characteristics: Power diodes Dose i 7 are mainly used in commutation and freewheeling circuits." . " The i The {through the diode is controlled by these circults. The Dinte Voltage across the diode changes according to current" o| Ft 7 through it, Figure 1.3 shows the current and voltage through | y the diode during switching periods. ‘These waveforms are also called switching characteristics As shown in the figure 1.3, the diode is reverse biased (Vg) intially. Hence space charge is stored in the depletion region. If diode current starts increasing during period t, the voltage also increases. At the end of ti, the voltage across diode becomes at peak. This, voltage overshoot occurs, because there is no Conductivity modulation during t). Hence, ohmic resistance of the drift region and inductance offered by Silicon wafer is high. oyun, igure Switching Characters of Power Diode ‘Therefore there is large voltage drop in the diode. There is large amount of carrier injection in the drift region. Hence, space charge in the drift region is discharged to its thermal equilibrium. By this time diode current reaches to its steady state value. Then during time t;, conductivity modulation begins and resistance of drift region starts reducing. Hence voltage across diode reduces and comes down reduces, As shown in figure 1.3, the voltage also reduces by small value. During ts and ts, diode current is reducing, But voltage drops by a small value. During this period there are excess carriers in the drift region. Hence, even if diode current is negative in ts, the voltage drops by a small value, At the end of ty all the excess carriers in drift region are removed. Hence, the junctions p*n” and n° n” are reverse biased. The negative current continues to flow in ts. Hence, depletion regions are created in drift layer. Therefore diode voltage becomes negative. The negative diode current goes to zero at the end of ts since there are no carriers. Hence, the diode voltage falls to negative voltage Vx. as shown in figure 1.3. During ty and ts, excess carriers are removed from the diode and reverse voltage is build-up. This period is called reverse recovery period of the diode. And the portion of characteristics (figure 1.3) from ty to ts is called reverse recovery characteristic. Ques 5) What are power transistors? Discuss some important power transistors in brief. Or Write a short note on the following: 1) Power BJT 2) Power MOSFET 3) GTO and 4) IGBT, ‘Ans: Power Transistors smurtheanes trons rosovesScc) ry Inte So n 2 3 4) Qa tr Ar cc Power transistors are transistors that are used in high-power amplifiers and power supplies. Power transistors ; are suited for applications where a lot of power is being used. The devices are used to amplify and switeh signals with high voltage and current,Introduction to Power Electronics (Module 1) Some important power transistor devices are: 1) Power BJT: cura ‘Typical power ratings range from around 10 to The With Arequency ratings from about | io Lon a base that acts as a heat sink re ee ag Stn dissipate excess power. me “ome 2) Power MOSFET: It is a specific t e is a specific type of Metal Oxide Semiconductor Ficld-Effect Transistor (MOSFET). It is a voltage controlled device, designed to handle Transistor ise Figure 18: N-channel M NOSFET (Metal Onde Ftd ‘Effect Transistor) and is Val Characteritiee, 3) Figure 1.6: GTO (Gate-urs-off Thyistrs) and its V-1 Characteristics 4) AGB: IGBT an acronym for Insulated Gate Bipolar Co ‘Transistor, isa thee terminal device, that takes the best parts 7 : of BIT and MOSFET devices, ic. the high input impedance and high switching speeds of a MOSFET, with the low te eins Saturation voltage of a bipolar transistor, and combines them Bol Ma together to produce another type of tra nsistor, a switching device that is capable of handling large collector-emitter Suction Trani al eg GATE Bipaar Currents with virtually zero gate current drive. IGBT is switched ON or OFF based on whether its gate terminal has been activated or deactivated. A Wainy Positive potential difference across the gate and the emitter maintains the IGBT in the ON state When the input signal is removed, the IGBT is tumed OFF. Ques 6) Insulated Gate Bipolar TransistorGive a comparison between Power MOSFET and 1GBT power transistor. Ans: Comparison between Power MOSFET and IGBT Power Transistor Comparison between power MOSFET and IGBT power transistor is given below: ‘Table 1.1: Power MOSFET vs. IGBT. ‘Power MOSFET GBT 1) Power MOSFET is a voltage controlled device. 1) IGBTs voltage controlled device. 2) Power MOSFET has three terminals namely gate | 2) (G), drain (D) and source(S). '3)_Input impedance of power MOSFET is very high. | 3) 4) Power MOSFET has positive temperature | 4) i Coefficient. With inerease in temperature, on-state | increase in temperate, on-state resistance increases but ‘resistance increases compared to IBGT. rate of increment is less than increase in MOSFET. i vei state voltage drop due to 5) The on-state voltage drop of MOSFET is large | 5) IGBT has a very low on-state vo t 4 compared to ona vllnge drop of IGBT. ‘conductivity modulation. So, smaller chip size is __possible and the cost can be reduced. IGBT has three terminals namely gate (G), drain (D) or emitter (E) and source (S) or collector (C). Input impedance of IBGT is very high IGBT has positive temperature coefficient. Withion (TP Solved Series) kT Instrumentation lectronis & Power! 10 f 1G Fement of ON-state voltage drop of The inc ses |) © he ON ste vokage drop of MOSFET increases | 6) The inert by 3 times for temperature rise form room femperature to 200°C. allel connected IGBTS jy pat Current sharing betweet ~ lel cor -d | 7) FET. osren tatne ei al see IGBTS wel led [8 At high ate ‘maximum curent | 8) Athigh ambient tempe fitting reduces, that of a ‘of power MOSFET is superior to | 9) Switching speed IGBT is inferior to that of power reed Mi is to | 9) Switching speed 1 IGBT. ; e Bias Safe ‘and RBSOA (Revers 10) Wide FBSOA (Forward Bias Safe Operating Area). | 10) bod sine ave) It also has excellent forward and Levers Mocking eps al pa [ 1) Te power MOST tar + pass RIP ww 11) The IGBT has a parasitic thyrst {integral par ofits structure. of ts structure Ques 7) Discuss steady state and Switching characteristics of power BJT. ‘Ans: Steady State Characteristics of Power BIT Power transistor has steady state character Signal level transistors except that the V-l character of quasi saturation as shown in igure 1.8 almost similar to istics has a region ‘Three region of operation for a BIT can be recognised: 1 Cutoft Region: When the base current (1) is Zero, the collector cutoff rogpo* significant and the wansistor is driven into the Culoff region. The transistor is now in the ORE state. ‘The CoMector-base and base-emiter junctions are reverse binnny in the Sitoft region or OFF state, and the transistor behaves soo open Switch, In this region, [c= 0 and the collector-emie, voltage Vee 4s equal to the supply voltage Voc. en the base current is sufficient to drive the transistor into saturation, During ised and the transistor acts like a closed switch, In the quasi 3) Active Regioti: In the active region, the collector-base junction is reversed-bi Junction is forward-biased. The active region of the tances is mainly used for amplifier applications and should be avoided for switching operation. ‘The power BIT is never operated in the active region (i and saturation. ~ &S an amplifier) itis always operated between cut-off Switching Characteristics of Power BYT Switching characteristics are important to define the device ebsity in changing trom conduction (on) to blocking (off states. Such transition velocity is of parmaues importance also because most of the toa a the agiittsteauency switching. Figure 19 shows ypica manor for a resistive-load, Index "y" she the rising time (from 10 to 90% of maximum value) fae he pare the Curent rise time which depene eae te cue The fling tines indexed by “Ps eae ‘nis the current falling time, the transistor is blocking such time corresponds vx ‘rossing from the saturation to the eut otf state, | discharge the capacitance of base-emitter junction, whi ¥ Slope. Storage time (t) is a very important paramere for BIT transistor, itis the carriers stored in the collector and base, SS eeIntroduction to Power Electronics (Module 1) A typical inductive load transition is indicated in i figure 1.11. The figure indicates a turn-off transition. Current and voltage are interchanged at turn-on and an approximation based upon on straight line switching intervals (resistive load) gives the switching losses by equation (1). Vs P “Mea, wee ‘Where, «is the period of the twitching interval, and V, and I, are the maximum voltage and current levels. Most advantageous operation is achieved when fast transitions are optimized. Such requirement minimizes ‘switching losses. Therefore, a good bipolar drive circuit highly influences the transistor performance. A base drive circuit should provide a high forward base drive current (Ip:) as indicated in figure 1.12 to ensure the power semiconductor turn on quickly. Votage Votage| - 4 Caren Curent wy je ya = 7 Figure 111: Turwalf voltage nd cure siching transition ndtv Lond ened Redve Load igure 1.12: Recommended base Current » for BJT Driving Base drive current should keep the BJT fully saturated to minimize forward conduction losses, but a level Ty: Would maintain the transistor in quasi saturation avoiding excess of charges in base. Controllable slope and reverse current Ip sweeps out stored charges in the transistor base, speeding up the device turn-off.ics & Instrumentation (TP Solved Series) | tronics 1c supply across a relay coil, which has a pq i series base resistor Ry at 1 ied throug form with Feference {9 th Power Ble 2 i 1a 24V Di Ques 8) A simple transistor switch is used to connect resistance of 2000), An input pulse of 0 to SV amplitude is appl en ee base so as to turn on the transistor switch. Sketch the input pulse. Calculate: 1) Ics 2) Value of resist 3) Total power dis i i if two. required to obtain over drive factor o seo nui. pationin the transistor that occurs during the saturation Ans: D gy Nee Ves 24-02 gig, Ro 200 2) Value of Ry, Igy = Aes = -I9 _ grea 7 5-01 _ . eR, = Ne 7 Von _ 5-07 _ ysqq 1B SODFXIp5=2%4.76=9.52mA Ry Ts 9.52 3) Pr = Vania XI + Vo tsa) XIes = 0.79.52 +0.20.119 [tVoe= 24V te lafesade rem a B=25 10100 y ” Veu202¥ é Vatns= 0-70 : \ Figure 113 Figure 114 | Ques 9) Discuss steady state and switching characteristics of power MOSFET. | Ans: Steady State Characteristics of Power MOSFET ‘The steady-state transfer characteristics of power MOSFETs te —_ ww, are shown in figure 1.15 for different types of MOSFETs. This is a graph of Ip versus the control input Vos. A. quantity called transconductance, for a power MOSFET is defined as changeinI, Vv, 0 > Vas changein Vo, | Yao 8, = transconduc tan ce =- ‘) nctannel D-MOSFET __) p-channel D-MOSFET v This is a very important parameter for a power MOSFET. b .—va ‘The current gain which is defined as the ratio of output drain Current to input gate current is typically of the order of 10° because the current drawn by the MOSFET is very small of ——| Y te the order of few nano-amperes, From the transfer ovr Ne characteristics, it is clear that when V, called the threshold voltage, the MOS state. fos < Vr Where Vp ig channel E MOsmET 4) pchannel EMOSFET: SFET is in the OFF Figure 118: Transfer Characteristics of MOSEET of power MOSFET is generally less than 0.1ns, by parasitic capacitances in device st ime-limited switching speed structure and ii Switching in power MOSEETT is limited wire-bond and external circuit,Introduction to Power Electronics (Module 1) B ‘The switching speed is also determined by the gate driver capability in supplying current to charge the device ‘input capacitance. The input capacitance is the sum of gate-to-source capacitance Cog and gate-to-drain capacitance Cop. The capacitance Cop is sometimes called the Miller feedback capacitance Cxss due to the Miller effect when drain voltage varies. Besides the input capacitance, the MOSFET also contains the output capacitance Coss which comprises of the drain-to-gate capacitance Cpo and the drain-to-source capacitance Cos- ‘The switching characteristics js analysed by turn-on and turn-off transient as explained below: 1) Turn-on Transient: To switch on a power MOSFET, a step voltage Vp from a voltage-driver or a constant current Ig from a current-driver is applied through the gate resistance Rg to charge the gate-to-source capacitance Cos and the gate-to-drain capacitance Cop, Figure 1.16 shows the waveforms by the current drive. Inductive loud As long as the gate voltage is below the threshold voltage Vr, no visible drain current will flow in the channel. A delay time T., is defined as the period taken for the gate voltage to reach the threshold level. During the period, the input capacitance is the sum of Cgs and Cop capacitance without Miller effect. And if for the current-driver, the gate voltage changes Figure 1.16; Turn-on Waveforms ofthe Circuit according to Vos = I, om Gt) Cos #Can * For the voltage-driver, the delay time ean be calculated as T,=Ro(Cos Cart Xe ) @) and Vr(Cas + Cor Ig ~~ @) ‘And, the variation of drain voltage can be calculated as, Vp SmelgRi 4) dt Cop (1+ BR) +Cos 2) ‘Turn-Off Transient: The MOSFET can be switched off by removing. the applied gate voltage (connected to ground potential) or by applying a small negative voltage through the gate resistance. The turn-off process, as shown in figure 1.17 is essentially an opposite process as that of turn-on. The gate-to-source voltage decreases exponentially with time as a result of the discharging of its gate-to-source capacitance Cos through Rc. Thus, ‘Figure 1.17: Turn-off waveforms of a MOSFET Ves = Vye "oo + (5) Vr lite When it reaches the value of Vr+l/2q, the drain voltage starts to rise. The period T, can be calculated as, T, =RoCos 1 = fn] —8— ©waa, fi 'IGBT. B ‘Ques 10) Discuss steady state and switching characteristics of ‘AnsiSteady State (V1) Characteristics of GBT ‘Figure 1.18 shows the V-I characteristics of n-channel IGBT. The chi Power Electronics & Instrument 4 ‘acteristics are plotted for drain current in. with Z ‘spect to drain source voltage Vps, for different values of 3 ale fo Source (Ves) voltages, 4 When the gate to source voltage is greater than the threshold 4 } Yliage Vesan then IGBT tums-on, The IGBT is off when 2 ' raja les than Vos. Figure 118 shows ‘on’ and "off Vau sreions ofthe n-channel IGBT. The BVsay isthe breakdown drain to source voltage when IGBT is the popular ive circuit and it has low on-state los tes of Channel GBT YS. IGBT has simplest Firwre 118; Vl Characters of 805, Switching Characteristics of IGBT Figure 1.19 shows the switching characteristics of IGBT. The gate to source voltage is normally negative, This yoptaee is made positive to turn-on the IGBT Whe ‘Vos>Voscn, the collector current starts increasing. Turn-on delay, tao is the delay when gate drive ie applied and j,, starts increasing. When ie increases to its full value, tome clot emitter voltage stats falling, “is the rise ting of eaten and ty, is the fall time of voltage. Thus, tum-on time of IGBT is: tom = batons + + py “a Cotesae Vex op" The turn-off the IGBT is initiated by reducing the gate volta Vost, Ver starts rising. Vos, is the voltage delay time when gate voltage is reduced and Vc tarts increasing, When Vex reaches to supply voltage, i. starts reducing, i reduces rapidly till Vas raches to Vosay. This fast fecay in is basically duc to internal MOSFET. Then Vos goes e aon and negative, Buti keeps on eins for sometime. This is intemal BIT curent This eutent flove {fue to stored carriers in the drift region Hence, turn-off time of IGBT is higher than IGBT. The a where, ty is voltage rise time is MOSFET current fall time to tais BT current fall time BeeBock, Roost and Buck-Boost DC-DC Converts (Maule 2) Module 2 Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost DC-pc Converters SWITCHED MODE icy Ques 1) What are switched mode regulators? Or Discuss switched mode regulators with the help of a block diagram, Ans: Switched Mode Regulators ‘The DC output rectifier mode regulecors ae Mie OF batery is not regulated. I varies according to the load variations. Switching ae ed t© convert unregulated DC to regulated DC output. The pulse width modulation is the basic principle of the switching regulators ‘The average value of repetitive pulse waveform ‘waveform is proportional to the area under the waveform. There are {wo basic types of pulse-width modulated (PWM) switching power supplies, forward-mode and boost. so DC chopper takes the input V, from some unregulated supply. > The chopper may use Transistor, MISFET, IGBT, SCR or Fa erat ontehog GTO for switching. ‘The comparator compares the reference voltage with output voltage. The reference voltage is set for the particular output voltage. The comparator generates the error signal. This error signal acts as the control ‘The DC output of the rectifier or battery is not regulated. It Ff ve Fig fl voltage. ‘The control block uses the control voltage v. to generate the drives of the chopper. Figure 2.2 shows the control waveforms. The control voltage ve is compared with the sawtooth waveform. The result of comparison is the drive of costed the chopper as shown in figure 2.2 (b). This drive is given to ic the switch in the chopper. It Drive athe Sawtooth Control waveform voltage ¥. 4 switch, app ‘The sawtooth waveform is generated by an oscillator in the control circuit. The frequency of the sawtooth waveform ® decides the switching frequency of the chopper. Normally the iar 22 Court Wana Oe switching period is 100 times longer than the switching time of Swit egulators the switch. Excessive switching frequencies may increase losses in the chopper.Power Blesronies & tors is shown below: ‘etl atin snd der Taolaied couvertes Switched Mage Regulators Non iolated converte fy Bock regulator by Boos regulator 5) Back boos regulator fs) Cuk regulator Tnidirectional Bidirectional I) Fiyback convener] [Push-pull convener b) Forward converter] b) Half bridge converter full bridge converse output waveforms of Ques 2) Write a short note on DC-DC converters. Draw power topology and the output Buck converter. or i on tage. Draw the current and voltage waveform of Buck converter and write expression for its output voltag ‘Ans: DC-DC Converters urce of direct current A DC-DC converter is an electronic circuit or electromechanical device that converts a 50 (DO) from one voltage level to another, Its a type of electric power converter. Power levels range from Very low (small batteries) to very high (high-voltage power transmission). ‘There ate many types of DC-DC converters including Buck of step-down, boost or step-up. Buck-boost (ea, {up or down), flyback, resonant types, and inverter-driven types (push-pull, half-bridge, and full-bridge). Buck Converter (Step-Down Chopper) ‘The buck converter consists of a power switch, a diode, and an inductor, and is often accompanied by an output filter capacitor and input filter. ‘The Buck converter is a kind of DC-DC converter, the power topology and the waveforms of these converters are shown in figure 2.3: Al AV During the “on” interval or ty the power switch is fully on. ing This charges the inductor field, with current flowing through the inductor to the output filter capacitor and load. During the “off” interval, or tax, the power switch is fully off. The diode freewheels, allowing the current to continue to flow through the inductor into the output filter capacitor and load as the inductor field collapses. The power switch voltage requirement in the Buck is equal to the ‘maximum potential across it or Vina. The diode maximum reverse vollage withstand rating is als Vins. The average inductor current is approximately the average load current, less the ripple current in the capacitor. Neglecting parasites and losses, the current ratio in the Buck is, given by: Il 1, D Figure 23: Buck Converter Power Topology katte ge /— set fenducion it = SS a Yo ae Duty Cycle = Ty Figure 2.4: Buck Converter Waveforms Bo w The average input current is always less than or equal to the average ‘Output current. The buck converter ce waveforms are shown in figure 2.4,‘Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost DC-DC Convers (Module 2) ” ‘Where, Vi, is the converter input voltage, Vs i i 5 oltage, Vo is the converter output voltage, AT isthe peak to peak variation in ae rncipt Curent, L is inductance, and tn isthe time duration the porte ane see on ina switching Temes Buck the rate of rise ofthe inductor current, and the mapnitade of at ie we inductor, depends on the voltage across the inductor or V, — V, in the buck. The ripple current variation the inductor, AI, such that, in iis converter during continuous current mode operation ata steady operating point, the switch turns on each How in pens stl assumes operation atthe same level of cure i sarted in the peseus ce e nt then rises as the inductor charges to a current, I, at which time the switch is is turned off, the diode assumes the I; current level and decreases with the inductee ached, at which time a new cycle begins. erepte continuous current operation, a minimum average current level requirement for the converter output is chosen. This corresponds to the inductor minimum. average current, Ing mia- AS shown in figure 2.4, at the boundary of continuous conduction Iyyj aia = 0.5AL field until the I, level is re During the “on” interval or to, we get, L4ly_y, on Substituting for Al, the value of L can be calculated as: L-t (V.-v,) T ve nin The critical inductance is the minishum inductance required to cause continuous conduction with a load such that the current in the inductor is greater than or equal to Iygnie- Where, D is defined a tT, and Tis the switching period. Expression for Output Voltage ‘The expression for output voltage, V, is given by: Vo= Vi (D) ‘Where Vi is the converter input voltage, and D is the ratio of ON time (toa) to switching time (Ty). Ques 3) In a buck converter, consider all components to be ideal; the output voltage is kept constant at SV by controlling the duty cycle. The input voltage varies between 10V to 40V, the output power is greater than SW, and the switching frequency is 50 kHz. Calculate the minimum inductance value required to keep the converter operation in the continuous conduction mode. ‘Ans: Minimum inductance value, Lmis is given by, L. -Mill=D)tew me OT The duty ratio (D) is lowest at the highest input voltage. Therefore, using V; = 40V, to calculate the minimum inductance (as the converter tends to go to the discontinuous conduction mode at lower duty cycle), the value of duty cycle (D), current (I,) and tris given by: 40x (1-0.125)x2.5x10 sn = 20% =0.125)x2.5x10* =43.75pH 2x| | | | ® Power Electonics & Instrumentation (TPSO}vEU Sete, | 1g waveforms. Ques 4) Discuss Boost converter, its power topology and swit« Ans: Boost Con, Werter (Step Up Chopper) itis The boost is capable of providing a velage increase from input o output without a transformer. Thus its caligg shown in muceet The boost converter and associated waveforms and equations are shown in igure 2.5, 4, 'n Ggure 25, during the “on” interval, of ty the power switch is fully on. in carges She inductor field, with current flowing through the inductor and the switch. Dating the Switeh is fulty weet filter capacitor supplies current to the load. During the “off” interval, oF ta the poe, i 3S fully off and the induetor field collapses. The diode provides a path for the inductor current t0 flow © output filter capacitor and load. The power switch voltage requirement in the boost is equal to Vesn, eae asim reverse voltage withstand rating is Vomax. Other considerations in using the boost are tha Vj as in a boost operation. The current ratio in the Buck-boost is given by, ‘Thus the input current may be larger or smaller than the output current. The power switch voltage requirement in the Buck-boost is equal to the maximum potential across it when it is off, of Vimuc + Vamae- The diode maximum reverse voltage withstand rating is Vimx + Vea» Which is required when the switeh is on. In the Buck-boost the rate of rise of the inductor current, and the magnitude of AI in the inductor, depends on the voltage V;. The ripple current variation in the inductor AT is such that, AI varies depending on the circuit inductance, the voltage across the inductor, and the duty cycle of switching. During continuous current mode operation at a steady operating point, the switch tums on each cycle and immediately assumes operation at the same level of current it started at in the previous cycle, I), as shown in figure 2.6. The current then rises as the inductor charges to a current, I, at which time the switch is tuned off. Once the switch is turned off, the diode assumes the I, current level and decreases with the inductor field until the Ij, level is reached, at which time a new cycle begins. To ensure continuous current operation, a minimum average current level requirement for the converter output is chosen. This corresponds to the inductor minimum average current, Irygmia. AS shown in figure 2.6 at the boundary of continuous conduction Inspaia = 0.5 AL. During the “on” interval or itis seen that: L a v,Electronics & Instrumentation (TP Solved Seria) wl Power letoni inimum inductance requireg the minimum in itor is greater than of equal 9 Tans ‘and Tww is the switching period. : 4 ical inductance i {alte Buck-boost, this isthe eritieal inductance. Th xia ines cause Continuous conduction with a load such that the iG dence as tall. The Ve/Vi ratio of the Buck-boost -D/(I ~ D), where D is TAPTession for Output Voltage v, Pression for output voltage is given by, Y= Mic DI0-D», ‘hing time (Tre). Where Vis the Converter input voltage, and D is the ratio of ON time (toa) to switching A is 50uH, the input voltage j Ques 6) In a Duek-boost converter operating at 20 KHz, the inductor value is 50) z the mode of operation g * the output voltage is 10V, and the output power is 18W, Comment upon le converter, Ans: Ve __D_ 04x(1~0.4)x5.56_ 15 tS 50 ‘o 220x107 “jg = SHH "© the converter is operating a the boundary condition. Ques 7) For a Buck converter, R = 19, Vi=40V, V,=5 V, £, kHz. Find the duty ratio and “on” time of the switch, i s+ Low-tass Ans: : Filer . D=VJV; 5/40 = 0.125 = 12.5% "f Ee Tow = Mf = 1/4000 = 0.25 ms = 250 ps ‘ Ee R Ta=Diy=3125:0 _ ev Foy Tost = Taw ~ toa =218.75 15, . a When the switch is “on”, V,.can be calculated as, Vo=35V When the switch is “off”, V, can be calculated as, Vi=-V,=-5V VOR = 5A, I= DI, = 0.6254 Figure 27 leeded is 450V. Given, that Ques 8) A step up chopper has an input Voltage of 150V. The voltage output n the Thyristor has a conducting time of 150s. Calculate the chopping frequency SOV, Tey = 150 ps Since, the chopping frequency fis given by, fap ‘Where, T = Chopping time period = 450=150. T= 225s T-150 Therefore, f = =4.44 | 2asxig 1 4KHz aAto Eoin, eis ror EE Beck, Boos and Buck-Boost DC-DC Converters (Module 2) a Ques 9) Write converters, P*=*ions for voltage and current ripple under continuous conduction mode for pe-pc voltage ‘Ques 10) Discuss isolated converters with the help of block diagram. Or ‘Write a short note on isolated converters and discuss its block diagram. Ans: Isolated Converters Isolated converters are special type of converters, in which the input is isolated from the output ice., there is an existence of an electrical barrier between the input and output of the DC-DC converter. An isolated DC-DC converter will have a high frequency transformer providing that barrier. This barrier can withstand anything from a few hundred Volts to several thousand Volts, as is required for medical application. An advantage of an isolated converter is that the output can be configured to be either positive or negative. Where many users get confused concerns how to connect the input up, particularly with the differences between a datacom system (input negative connected to chassis) and a telecom system (input Positive connected to chassis). The block diagram in figure 2.8 shows the Basic construction of isolated converters. The various blocks in the block diagram are explained below: 1) Electromagnetic Interference Filter: It is an electronic passive device which is used in order to suppress conducted interference generated by the device or by any other equipment, that is present on a signal or power line, These filters make a device immune to electromagnetic interference.~ Power Blecwonic & Insrumenation (TP Solved Sey, itier circu full wave by > ‘Rectification and Fler Celt: Tis cit consist of rectifier cuit usually Va¥6 brid vreuiet and filter circuit tofilter out desired frequency signals. / vs 3) PCC Conversion with Isolation: A switching regulator is used along with a high frequency transform, for isolation purpose. ° fenuback Cireuitry: The feedback circuitry consists of error amplifier, pulse width modulation controle, ugl or amplifi ‘output Voltage ‘dency signal transformer and a switch gate drive circuit, which fe sean ooeoig '© switching regulator circuit ‘The Various types of isolated Converters are flyback, forward, push pull, half bridge and full bridge converters, Ques 11) What are flyback converters? Draw its waveforms and governing equations. Ans: Flyback Converters power ack converter is the most common! i se sac ae outer poorer ack ly used switched mode regu pee ications where the output voltage nende vo ae isolated from the input main supply. The output power of fly. back type switched Mode regulator circuits may vary from few watts to less than 100 Watts. Flyback ‘Converter is an isolated converter whose topology figure 2.9, The minimum inductor CCM (Current Control Figure29 * In the flyback converter, the secondary inductance isin series with the output diode when current is delivered to load. Hence, each output requires only one diode and output filter capacitor. Flyback i te Heal choice for generating low cost, multiple output supplies. Flyback is also ideal for generating. hig voltage out However, there is a voltage spike at turn-off due to the stored energy in the transformer leakage inductance, vy vi d 7 ‘ Stal a | ie 4 Pape Q selon of ndtr and Did gue 2: Waveforms of adc nd Dlde Ercan Conins Condactn Mode arent in Dscontngoas Conduction Moge «ccm ‘cM i i ly voltage plus the leakage spike. i le of blocking approximately twice the supply volta i Fobenk cones sens pave inberealy much higher output ripples than other topologies. This, together " ih oe Tropes peak caren, large capacitors, and transformer, limits the flyback to lower output power applica higher peak currents, ed to 200 W range.‘Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost DC-DC Converters (Module 2) 7 ‘Ques 12) What are forward converters? Draw its waveforms and governing equations. ‘Ans: Forward Converters Dik A forward converter is a power electronics circuit which is used to step up or step down DC voltage at the output by controlling the duty cycle of semiconductor switches. These are the special kinds of switched mode DC-DC converter circuit that uses a transformer to increase or decrease the output voltage (depending on the transformer ratio) and provide galvanic isolation for the load. With multiple output windings, itis possible tie to provide both higher and lower voltage outputs Figure 212: Forward Converter simultaneously. The topology of a forward converter is presented in figure 2.12. ‘The waveforms for the forward converter in CCM are shown in figure 2.13. w The voltage ratio is, ) ° ‘The minimum inductor L,, and capacitor for flyback in CCM are | -~_U_ decided by the following equations: vy, —Zivor N, °_-D)R o 2fV, af ~ 1- : cm cB) h f Figure 213: Cirle Waveforms in CCM ‘The forward converter is also a single-switch isolated topology. This is based on the Buck converter. In contrast to the flyback, the forward converter has a true transformer action, where energy is transferred directly to the output through the inductor during the transistor on time, When the transistor turns off, the secondary voltage reverses, D, goes from conducting to blocking mode, and the freewheel diode D; then becomes forward biased and provides a path for the inductor current to continue to flow, This allows the energy stored in L to be released into the load during the transistor off time. The forward converter is always operated in continuous mode, because this produces very low peak input and output currents and small ripple components. Since the transformer in this topology transfers energy directly, there is negligible stored energy in the core compared to the flyback. However, there is a small magnetization energy required to excite the core, allowing it to become an energy transfer medium. This energy is very small and only a very small primary magnetization current is needed. This means that a high primary inductance is usually suitable, with no need for the core air gap required in the flyback. Standard iungapped ferrite cores with high permeability are ideal for providing the high inductance required. Negligible energy storage means that the forward converter transformer is considerably smaller than the flyback, and core loss is also much smaller for the same throughput power. However, the transformer is still operated asymmetrically, which means that power is only transferred during the switch on time, and this poor utilization ‘means the transformer is still far bigger than in the symmetrical types. In addition, a major problem is how to remove the core magnetization energy by the end of each switching cycle. This path is provided by adding an additional reset winding of opposite polarity to the primary. If this did not happen, there would be a net DC flux build-up, leading to core saturation and possible transistor destruction.EEE . Power Electror i Jcto-peak ripple curent in the onput inductors peak-t0- «a Instrumentation (TP Solved Series al nics Following a similar analysis asin the Buck converter, the Alga, = DVN. /N =D) fla @) The output ripple voltage of the forward converter is Av, = YiQNs/Np)DA-D) 6) Bf L,C, is A wveforms of push-pul] Ques 13) What are the push-pull converters? Discuss governing equations and wa converters, ‘ Ans: Push-Pull Converters a] ing in anti-phase. As such, the push-pull ‘The push-pull converter is derived from two forward converters working in antiphase Siete, i cross jeuverter topology has the advantage, over the forward converter in that the vole eit a hence, the peak collector volta, is limited to twice i s ige of the switching transistor is limitec ince the power the symmetrical centre-tapped transformer with equal number of turns in the primary ie and Supplied to the load is never stored in the transformer, more power can be handled at a gre With a better ‘Tegulation than the forward converter. Governing Equations ‘The governing equations of push-pull converter are given below: Voltage stress of power switches = 2Vig Primary-to-secondary-winding-tums ratio = 2K, Current stress of power switches = I/(2K,) ‘Number of power switches Total power handling capacity of power switches = 2Vih/Ky , Ripple frequency of secondary rectified voltage = 2f, Maximum duty cycle of secondary rectified voltage = ‘Waveforms of Push-Pull Converter ‘The waveforms of push-pull converters are shown figure 2.14: PWM) ve 1 ” ‘ato 1 Py i tip ia ‘ : 1 cl . v0 ra Figure 2.4: Waveforms of the Push-Pull Converter Where, Vezi and Vea are the collector emitter voltage of input transistors and igy and igg are respective collect currents of a push-pull converter. Np is the primary winding and Nmis the (tapped) secondary windings.Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost DC-DC ‘Converters (Module 2) % es 14) What. brie 2 Gus A) What is Half-bridge converter? Discuss governing equations and waveforms of half br! ge ‘Ans: Halt Bridge Converters or Rectifiers ri. cimplest half bridge converters or half wave rectifier is single-phase half-wave rectifier. A single-phase half-wave rectifier with resistive load it consi ct resis is shown in figure 2.15. The circuit consists of onl ic i usually fed with a secondary transformer as shown, Oe EN EA ome Se Tis During the positive half-cycle of the transformer seco i 8 ndary voltage, diode D conducts. During the negative balfeyee, diode D stops Conducting. Assuming that the transformer has zero internal impedance and provides perfect sinusoidal voltage on its secondary winding, the voltage and current waveforms of resistive load R and“ the voltage waveform of diode D are shown in figure 2.16. ‘Figure 216: Voltage and Current Waveforms of ‘the Hall-Wave Rectifier, ‘The peak inverse voltage (P1V) of diode D is equal to Vq during the negative half-cycle of the transformer secondary voltage, as can be observed form figure 2.16. Hence the peak repetitive reverse voltage (Vaaw) rating of diode D must be chosen to be higher than Vz, to avoid reverse breakdown. The average value of the load voltage vz is Vg. and it is defined as gt Veo ph vce (1) In the case of a half-wave converter, figure 2.16 indicates that load voltage v(t) = 0 for the negative half-cycle, The angular frequency of the source « = 2n-='T, and equation (1) can be re-written as, Vc = 3 [Vu sinaxd(on) seve) Therefore, Half-wave Vac is given by, Vg =—= = 0318, @ ‘The root-mean-square (rms) value of load voltage V; is vi, which is defined as, lpr 1? vy “i vot] son (4) In the case of a half-wave converter vi(t) = 0 for the negative half-cycle, therefore equation (4) can be te written as ayaa) vu (5) son ©)ion Ived Series Electronics & Instrumentation (TP Sol — Power Blect 26 In the case of a half-wave rectifier, from equation (3) osi8y, 14, = 2318V,, | “a fectiveness of rectification, ‘The rectification ratio, which isa figure of merit for comparing thee Vale sen (8) is defined as, is tions (3), (7) : by substituting equat The case of a half bridge converter, the rectification ratio can be determined by (6) and (8) into equation (0), Half-wave g = O318Va)* _ 49 5, tt a into equation (11), Ta the case ofa hal-wave rectifier, the FF can be found by substituting equation (6) and (3) into eq Hal-wave FR=05Ve _) 5, aa) O318v,, ‘The form factor , tage or (oF) is defined asthe rato ofthe root mean square value (heating component) of a voltage Current to its average value Fre Th or he ay ie Ty Ques 15) What is full bridge converter? Discuss governing equations and waveforms of full bridge converters, Ans: Full Bridge Converters or Rectifiers Full bridge converters are special converters that convert ac voltage into de Voltage. These converters rectify the” full cycle of input waveforms, ic. both the Positive and negative cycles, sin ot Figure 217: Bridge Rectifier‘Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost DC-DC Converters (Module 2) 2" an provide full-wave rectification without current flows to te teaewsformer. During the positive half-cycle of the transformer secondary voltage, the current flows to the load through diodes D; and Dy Doris the negative half-cycle, Dy and Dy conduct. The voltage and current waveforms of the bridge rectifier are Shown in figure 2.18. Full wave rectifier with centre-apped transformer, the Ine rating of the employed diodes ‘ust be chosen to be higher than the peak load current, However, the PIV of the diedes reduced from 2Vq to Va during their blocking state, In the case of a full-wave converter, vi(t) = Vm. | sin ot | for the both the positive and negative half-cycles, thus, £ V,, Sin td (cot) se) +42) QB) In the case of a full-wave converter, v, (t)= ‘V,,{sinoxt| for both the positive and negative half-cycles, thus, La sin ary? dco oA) or v.=¥a-0 T0TV vonS) In the case of a full-wave converter, the rectification ratio, can be obtained as, Full-wave, o= (oss6v,,)* al =81% (0.707V,, 6) From equation 3, the Form Factor (FF) of full wave converter can be obtained as: Since, FF Tog /Igyy = (Ip,/V2)2Iq /) 0-707, Thus, “"~ 0.636, 11 sD)Power Electrons & Instn 28 hree Phase Inverters Single Phase & T : ST ee : Ques 1) Give an overview of Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS). Or Write a short note on Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS). Enlist its advantages- Ans: Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS} it A switched mode power’ supply Mwtiny-mode power supply, switch-mode power supply, switched power supply, SMPS, or switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently. Like other power supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a source, like mains power, to a load, such as a personal computer, while converting voltage and current characteristics. Ideally, a switched-mode power supply dissipates no power. Voltage regulation is achieved by varying the ratio of on-to-off time, In contrast, a linear power supply regulates the output voltage by continually dissipating power in the pass transistor. Switched-mode power supplies may also be substantially smaller and lighter than a linear supply due to the smaller transformer size and weight. RAC Switched Mode Block Diagram . Figure 3.1 shows a block diagram of a typical Bal | EO SMPS with an AC Mains (line) input and a °” regulated DC output. ACIopat N Sample The output rectification and filter are isolated from the high frequency switching section by a high frequency transformer, and voltage control feedback is via an opto-isolator. The control circuit block is typical of specialist ICs containing the high frequency oscillator, pulse width > Acroner modulation, voltage and current control and output} pe Power shut down sections. —> coma ‘Control Ciexit lee width De Modulator, Output Over Voltage & Shut Down Switching regulators are used.as replacements for linear regulators when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight is required. They are, however, more complicated as their switching currents can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and simple designs may have a poor power factor. ‘Figure 3.1: Typical SMPS Block Diagram Advantages of SMPS Some of the advantages of Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS) are: High Efficiency: The switching action means the series regulator element is either on or off and therefore Dy little energy is dissipated as heat and very high efficiency levels can be achieved. 2) Compact: As a result of the high efficiency and low levels of heat dissipation, the switch-mode power supplies can be made more compact. Flexible Technology: Switch-mode power supply technology can be sued to provide high efficiency voltage conversions in voltage step up or “Boost” applications or step down “Buck” applications, 3)~~ sverers Modale 3) Ques 2) Give an introduction to switehed ‘mode inverters, mo switching device conducts such that re; ia an third () quadant, then it ats ge eran i st the mode is called inverter mode, ener reat and 0 Assuming v be sinusoidal, i, wi drive an indictive toad such as 4 moter ve ag ete wil Therefore during intervals, 1 and 3, Power will flow from the de to 2c mode of operation, fine basic block diagram of a switched mode inverter ig i Fgere 32 (a). The waveform in figure 32 By ches ae ge Between oulput current, i, and voltage, v». and he four markers operation of 2 switched mode device is shown in figure 3.2 (¢) During the intervals 2 and 4, v, and iy will be opposite sign, and power will flow from the ac side (0 the de side which if the rectifier mode of operation. Thus, switch-mode inverters we capable of operating in all four quadrants. The figure 3.3 shows the (one leg) switched mode inverter circuit « N Classification of Inverters The basic inverters can be classified on different basis as shown below: 1) Classification According to the Nature of Input Source: According to nature of input source, inverters ccan be classified as: 1) Voltage Source Inverter (VSD: The voltage source inverter has stiff DC source voltage that isthe DC voltage has limited or zero impedance at the inverter input terminals. ii) Current Source Inverter (CSI): A current source inverter is supplied with a variable current from a DC source that has high impedance. The resulting current waves are not influenced by the load. Classification According to the Waveshape of the Output Voltage: The inverters can be classified according to the nature of output voltage waveform as follows: i) Square Wave: The square wave is the simplest and cheapest type, but nowadays it is practically not used commercially because of low power quality (THD~45%). ii) Modified Sine Wave: The modified sine wave topologies (which are actually modified squares) provide rectangular pulses with some dead spots between positive and negative half-cycles. They are suitable for most electronic loads, although their THD is almost 24%. itt ir i ith the lowest total harmonic distortion iii) Pure Sine Wave: A pure sine wave inverter produces output wit " (normally below 3%). It is the most expensive type of AC source, which is used when there are a need for a sinusoidal output for certain devices, such as medical equipment, laser printers, stereos, etc. This 2) type is also used in grid-connected applications.mentation (TP Solved Series i Power Electronics & Instr Ty 0 jing schemes. "ss the principles of PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) switching Or 1 a2 short note on the following: jection Modulation 4) Sinsle Patce Width Modulates 3) Shecoidal Pulse Width Medulation *) Space Vector Pulse Wide Modulation 4) Sinus« Pie tineiples of PWM (Pu ‘Width Modulation) Switching Schemes justed in both negative ang PWM is a technique of medhlainn in which the width of carrier pulse can be adjusted in intaining the gain of inverts alt A vsablevliage can bolle by i a serene cua wage can ebines’s by wae COMstant. On the other hand es Jnput voltage ie fixed then variable cules by varying the gain of the inverter, This can be achieved by PWM. The main objective of the PWM is to control the inverter ine Teduce the harmonic content in the output voltage. The PWM techniques are mainly used for . "s© techniques are most efficient and they control the drives of the switching devices. Principles of PWM switchin, PWM techniques are. 1) Single Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM): The main principle behind this technique is that it Produces the Schemes can be classified on the basis of switching schemes, some common 2) Multiple Pulse Width Modulation: Multiple pulses are used to reduce the harmonic content. The width of all the pulses is same. In the multi Ple pulse width modulation, the harmonies eng be reduced by using Several pulses in each half cycle of Sutput voltage. This type of modulation is also knowa ne uniform pulse- width modulation, 3) Phase Displacement Control: The two 4) Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation: It is one of the most widely used meth Finders In this method a triangular (cartier) wave 5) Harmonic Injection Modulation: Iti This modulation solution is quite common reasonably good performance obtained. Mi the maximum achievable output voltage. ©) Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM):ingle Phase & Three Sing Phase Inverters (Module 3) 3 The mentio: a vepecate mentee of the sinusoidal PWM are reduced using this technique. Instead of using @ whole. Therefore, thence nc eo tee Phases, the complex reference voltage vectors processed as @ : "e, the interaction between the three motor phases is considered. - Ine major benefit is i : i inherent to this PWM * oi of total harmonic distortion (THD) created by the rapid switching 7) Hysteresis | _ Toke —_— Pulse Width Modulation: In this modulation scheme, the output signal is compared reaches one of the eo Pond 10 reference signal offset by a constant. Every time the output signal ne of the limits, the PWM signal changes state - Ques.) Discuss single phase half bridge inverter with the help of circuit diagram and relevant Ans: Single Phase Half Bridge Inverter Single phase half bridge inverter uses two transistors. These are used as switching devices. They can be MOSFETs, GTOs, SCRS, IGBTS etc. The load may be either purely resistive ot inductive, The inverter cireuit consists of two choppers as shown in figure 3.4. ‘When only 7; is turned “on’ for a time Z, the instantaneous voltage y, across the load Vs is —*. If transistor Ts is only tumed “on” for a ame 7. Ya time —, >> appears across the load. The logic circuit is designed such that T; and T; are not turned on at the same time. This inverter requires a three wire DC source and when a transistor is “off”, its reverse voltage is Vz instead of vy, a Such an inverter is known as half-bridge inverter. For an inductive load current cannot change immediately with the output voltage. If T, is tumed “off” att = « the load current would continue to flow 2 through Dz, load and lower half of DC source, until the current flows to zero, When Ty is tumed “off” at t= the load current "Sfp ye TT flows through diode D;, when diodes D, and Dz Basétive — cc conducts energy is fed back to the DC source and fT" these diodes are known as feedback diodes. ae ro evomgene 0 ‘The gating sequence for the circuit plays an important “yf T role in circuit's operation, the steps to generate 2 gating sequence are: ome 24 « 1) Generate a square-wave gating signal Vjy at an curemi g* | aq output frequency f, and a 50% duty cycle, The ae gating signal Vz2 should be a logic invert of V,1. oy 2) Signal V,1 will drive switch T, through a gate drougr', 2 Lf « isolating circuit, and Vy_ can drive T; without any ™ ~~ T isolating circuit. umen ¥ soap, Me 1 Et ‘The waveforms of different currents and voltages are as shown in the figure 3.5. Figure 35: Waveforns of Half Bridge laverter‘ Power Electronics & Instrumentation (TP Solved Series) KTU ve and negative terminals of the DC edback diodes are required 10 voltage does not depend on An AC output voltage can be obtained by alternatively connecting the positi Source, across the load by turning on and off the switching devices accordingly. Fes transfer the energy stored in the load inductance back to the DC source. The output ‘he nature of load. By Fourier series the ouput voltage can be writen as: S 2V, Vo= DY) + sin noe an3s OT And the frequency of output is given by, ete Ques 5) Discuss single phase full bridge inverter with the help of circuit diagram and relevant waveforms. , ‘Ans: Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter cross Half bridge inverter can be used only when three-wired DC supply is available. Moreover, ene on the off-state power semiconductor device is V which is double the load voltage. These drawbacks are in full-bridge inverters as shown in figure 3.6: Figure 36: CireultConfguraton of Singe-PhaseFul-rige Inverter ‘The inverter uses two pairs of controlled switches (S,S2 and $;S:) and two pairs of diodes (D,D2 and D:D,). The devices of one pair operate simultaneously. The gating signals of the switch-pairs SS, and S3S, are shown in figure 3.7 (a) and (b) respectively. ae A ee T2 T 3m! a TR T 3m. () Gating signal for switch S, Ss (©) Gating signal for switeh Ss, Sx y a 4 VES f . 7 t [vm | tok T2|___2) 37a |_ v “SiS SS Su ES Dur SiS: DiDi $5.8; Didi SS (©) Voltage and current waveforms for Resistive loads (@) Voluge and current waveforms for RL loads Figure 37: Gating Signals and Waveforms ofa Full-Brldge Voltage Source Inverter For a resistive load, the switch pair $,Sz closes for the time interval 0 pair is again closed to make v, = V and the cycle repeats. B; sratis . desired frequency, a square-wave ac voltage is obtained at the output. The lod te Switch pairs at the suace wave with magnitude VIR, as shown in the figure 3.7 (0), Foran RL lod, eee Aveo i alo a and load curent are shown in igure 3.7 (@), The effect of adding an inductive satay on™ OF load voltage the output waveforms. ‘can be clearly seen from‘Ans: Single Phase Push Pull Inverter Figure 3.8 shows a push-pull inverter circuit, It requires a transformer with @ centre tapped primary. Initially assuming that the output current i, flows continuously. With this assumption, when the switch Ty is on (and T; is off), Ty would conduct for a positive value of ig, and Dy would conduct for a negative value of ig. Therefore, regardless of the direction of io, vo = Ve/n, where n is the transformer turns ratio between the primary half and the secondary windings, as shown in figure 3.8. Similarly, when T, is on (and T is off), v= —Vs/n A push-pull inverter can be operated in a PWM or a square-wave mode and the waveforms are identical to those of half-bridge and full- bridge inverters. The output voltage of figure 3.8 is shown in figure 3.9: ‘The output voltage equals: lie Vs em, s10) o tA so spe ver Sutin ( 4Ma Ya sob (em, 21.0) so (2) Where, m, is the amplitude modulation index. Ina push-pull inverter, the peak switch voltage and current ratings Vp =2Vi sly ingen! = (3) ‘The main advantage of the push-pull circuit is that no more than one switch in series conducts at any instant of time. This is important ifthe | dc input to the converter is from a low-voltage source, such as a () PWM Bip Voge Seiching battery, where the voltage drop across more than one switch in series, Figure 39: Ripple in the Inverter Output would result in a significant reduction in energy efficiency. Also, the control drives for the two switches have a common ground. It is, however, difficult to avoid the de saturation of the transformer in a pus pull inverter. ‘The output current, which is the secondary current of the transformer, is a slowly varying current at the fundamental output frequency. It can be assumed to be a constant during a switching interval. During switching occurs, current shifts from one half to the other half of the primary winding. This requires very good magnetic coupling between these two half-windings in order to reduce the energy associated with the leakage inductance of the two primary windings. This energy will be dissipated in the switches or in snubber circuits used to protect the switches. This is a ‘general phenomenon associated with all converters (or inverters) with isolation where the current in one of the windings is forced to go to zero with every switching, This phenomenon is very important in the design of such converters. In a pulse-width-modulated push-pull inverter for producing sinusoidal output (unlike those used in switch- mode de power supplies), the transformer must be designed for the fundamental output frequency. The number of tums will therefore be high compared to a transformer designed to operate at the switching frequency in a switch-mode de power supply. This will result in a high transformer leakage inductance, which is proportional to the square of the number of turns, provided all other dimensions are kept constant. This makes it difficult to operate a sine-wave-modulated PWM push - pull inverter at switching frequencies higher than approximately 1 kHz.wer Supply (UPS) with the hep ted Po Ques 7) What is UPS? Diseuss online and offiine Uninterrup Proper block diagram. sy power to a load when g, ides emergency PO’ : Is that Py an auxiliary oF emergency POWSE Syste, fers from put power interruptions, Ans: Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) ection from int Uninterrupted power supply (UPS) is an electrical apparatu Pur power source, typically mains power, fails. A UPS differs oF standby generator in that it will provide near-instantancous Pr Supplying energy stored in batteries, super capacitors, or fly wheels. ; yy short (only few minutes) by ipment. A UPS is typically ipment or other electric disruption or data loss, sources is relativel jut down the protected equi ‘The on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible power telecommunication equi Sufficient to start a standby power source or properly sh uused {0 protect hardware such as computers, data centers, telec ion ea Where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business voteampe : tect a single computer without a vi sng to large uns powering ene data cme or oulings. The won’ BES ‘ka powers the entire city and nearby rural volt-ampere rating) to large units powering entire data centers or bui megawalt Battery Electric Storage System (BESS), in Fairbanks. Alas| ‘communities during outages. ideo monitor (around 20) UPS, the 46. A UPS generally protects a computer against four different power problems: 1) Voltage Surges and Spikes: Times when the voltage on the line is greater than it should be. 2) Voltage Sags: Times when the voltage on the line is less than it should be. 3) Total Power Failure: Times when a line goes down or a fuse blows somewhere on the grid or in the building. 4) Frequency Differences: Times when the power is oscillating at something other than 60 Hertz. ‘Types of UPS The two important types of UPS are: 1) Offline UPS: These UPS passes the AC Mains ¢ find Supply directly to the output load if the AC Mains sans] Sek Supply is present. Only in the case of power failure, a it switches to inverter within few milliseconds to give Giee [7] Bates foe] tener Te power (o load until mains supply returns. The block Figre3:10: Block Diagram of Oi UPS diagram of offline UPS system is given figure 3.10: 2) Online UPS: The incoming AC is first converted into DC by a transformer to charge the battery as well as to give power to the inverter transformer. The inverter transformer converts the DC to AC continuously to power the load. If power fails, the battery backup circuit switches on and takes the load i.e., even if the mains supply fails, there is no interruption to the output load at all. Online UPS is more efficient than the Offline UPS and uses a constant output inverter. It also has a static bypass system that transfers the load to the AC power if the inverter system fails. The ac_[ Baney out mains] Charger {| Baterr foe} Invener ote advantage of the online UPS is that, it clean up the AC waveform by converting it into DC then reconverting this DC to fresh AC. The block diagram of online igure 3.11; Block Diagram of Online UPS UPS system is given figure 3.11: ‘The block diagram above shows that, online units take th ming voltas ify i it 7 ¥ a ige, rectify it and down-convertit to the battery voltage of the UPS, filter it, re-invert it and up-convert it to the arrirciane out voltage for the unit. The output voltage is always steady and the sine wave is relatively pure, PSingle Fe & te Phase Ives (Module) 35 IREE PHASE INVERTERS (Ques 8) Write a short Ques ote on three phase inverters and discuss its operation in 180 degree conduction ‘Ans: Three Phase Inverters ‘Three-phase inverters inverers-can be connecen lysed for high-power applications. Three single-phase half (or full-bridge iver The gang signs Bw] town nfigre 312 fom he conan of te pas Single-phase inverters should be advanced or delayed by 120° with ex cach other obtain three-phase balanced (fundamental) voltages syed by pect to 4 tere! ne 3 | Ur] WS Figure 3.12: Schematic o Three-Phase Inverter Formed by Three Single-Phase Inverters The transformer primary windings must be isolated from each other, whereas the secondary windings may be Coanccted in Y of delta. The transformer secondary is normally connected in delta to eliminate triple harmonies (2=3, 6, 9, ..) appearing on the output voltages and the circuit arrangement is shown in figure 3.13: renee ELELB ii] enn igure 3.13: Creat Diagram of Three-Phase Inverter Formed by Three SIngle-Phase Inverters This arrangement requires three single-phase transformers, 12 transistors, and 12 diodes. If the output voltages of single-phase inverters are not perfectly balanced in magnitudes and phases, the three-phase output voltages are unbalanced. ‘A three-phase output can be obtained from a configuration of six transistors and six diodes as shown in figure 3.14: ‘Figure 3.14: Sx Transistors and Six Diodes configuration of Three-Phase Inverteran stvtsnny ics & Instrumer Ry opie 441g the transistors: 180° conde ion or 120° conduction. du Th t jistors: ‘TWo types of control signals ean be appli ‘Pes of control signals can b ae AG and isthe preferre conduction has better alization ofthe site 180-Degree (1 js time, When transistor Q, Each recone ss thre transistors emai “on” ot any SHOU OO TE ac sransistor Qj switched on terminal a is connected to the positive terminal of the de iMPUY TT ix modes of operation switched “on”, terminal a is brought tothe negative terminal ofthe de SOUS in eyele and the duration ofeach mode is 60°. ‘The Wansistors are numbered in the sequence of gating the transistors (e.g., 123, 234, 345, 456, 561, and 612). The ‘sating signals shown in figure 3.15 are shifted from each other by 60° to obtain three-phase balanced (fundamental) voltages. ‘The load may be connected in Y or delta. The switches of any leg of the inverter cannot be switched on simul- taneously as this would result in a short cireuit across the de link voltage supply. cS 2 0 B 9 5 ao o| s 2 Similarly, to avoid undefined states and thus undefined ac output line voltages, the switches of any leg of the inverter cannot be switched off simultaneously; this can result in voltages that depend on the respective line current polarity. There are eight valid switch states. If two switches one V, ‘upper and one lower conduct at the same time such that the o| output voltage is +V,, the switch state is 1, whereas if these ‘switches are off at the same time, the switch state is 0. The line currents freewheel through either the upper or the lower ieea A reeren ne 19" Contac freewheeling diodes. To generate a given voltage waveform, the inverter moves from one state to another. Thus, the resulting ac ‘output line voltages are built up of discrete values of voltages of V,, 0, and -V,. To generate the given waveform, the selection of the states is usually dope by a modulating technique that should assure the use of only the valid states. For a delta-connected load, the phase currents can be obtained directly from the line-to-line voltages. Once the phase currents are known, the line currents can be determined. For a Y-connected load, the line-to-neutral voltages must be determined to find the line (or phase) currents, Ques 9) Discuss the operation of three phase converter in 120 degree conduction mode. Ans: Three Phase Converter in 120 Degree Conduction Mode Figure 3.16 shows the three phase converter. The 120 degree conduction can be explained with the help of this circuit diagram. Figure 3.16: Six Transistors and Six Diodes configuration of Three-Phase Inverter” SSch tFansistor conducts for 120° shown in figure 3.17: rhe gating signals Only two transistors remain “on” at any instant of ‘igure 3.17: Gating Signals for 120° Conduction The conduction sequence of transistors is 61,12,23,34,45,56,61. There are three modes of operation in one half. cyele and the equivalent circuits for a Y-connected load are shown in figure 3.18, During mode 1 for $ wt < n/3, transistors | and 6 conduct, V4, -% (@) Mose 1 (Mode 2 (©) Modes [igure 3.18: Equivalent Circuls for ¥-Connected Resistive Load During mode 2 for x/3 < ct < 2n/3, transistors | and 2 conduct, v,, During mode 3 for 21/3 < wt < 31/3, transistors 2 and 3 conduct, v, 2 My 2 The line-to-neutral voltages that are shown in figure 3.17 can be expressed in Fourier series as: (2) (3) 4tation (TP Solved Sees), | Power Electronics & Instrument “ 2. Therefore, the instantaneous line-tong ; ha phase advance of 30°. Thet Vay with a phas The line a-to-b voltage is. vy, =V3 Van (or a Y-comnected load) are, a 5 q B) rorne 1 35ye0 nl v INN in ME sina( ot] forn=1,3, : om 3) in| 2 | sin n o-2) forn=1,3,5,.6 (5) 3 3 ta SAH (nfs) ne = ont a rt circuit of xe should be no shor Gets a delay ofr6 between the tuming off Q, and tuming on Q vad terminals are connected to dio &© SUPP through one upper and one lower transistor. At any Pie coon tatill Hejande: 5: 1s has supply and the third one remaine ‘open. The potential of this op characteristics and would be unpredictable, il compared with those of 180° Because one transistor Conducts for 120°, the transistors are less utilized as comps erally used in three- Conduction for the same load condition, ‘Thus, the 180° conduction is preferred and it is generally Phase inverters, Ques 10) For a three-phase bridge inverter operating in 120° conduction mode, determine: 1) DC voltage for a fundamental line voltage of 415 V. 2) Rms line and phase voltage 3) Device voltage rating, “8, = Bay =614.60V=615V 2) ‘The rms voltage line voltage is given by, Ermine) =70.7% Ey. =4345V Similarly, rms phase voltage is given by, Re a ofall TE = 40.8% By, = 40.8% (615) = 250.99y 2 The device votage rating, Veso® 15 Bu 215615 =9225V Ques 11) Discuss pulse width modulation in three phase inverters, DC source to load in di; Pulse width modes, +1 discrete states, The shows thre (single-phase, thee phase three-level thee pass Dea ced PWM inverters. Figure 39 in the corresponding DC/AC inverters Minverter circuits whiceae aed eeof te Sasi Pate & Thee Pas tress Moule) | L" “| _L ‘igure 3.19: Three-Phase DC/AC PWM Inverters y PWM signals with the repeating period Te TneNet as multiple switches, The switches ae controlled by Fre energy i i there Fis the switching frequency fees single-phase rectifiers) and the modulation ratio ne ‘The energy is delivered from the Jc'erBY source to the load during switching- on period and is blocked during ce to loads is transferred in discrete-time mode. Switching-off period. Therefor, the energy fro the ne ane Benetations of gating signals with sinusoidal PWM are shown in figure 3.20 (a). There are thice sinucovn reference waves (Vi. Vj, ed by reference phases Vi, vi and Ve produces gis 25 and & and respectively, as shown in figure 3.20 (b), The instantaneous line-to-line output voltage is Na» = Vi(8i — g3). The output voltage as shown in figure 3.20 (©), is generated by climinating the condition that two switching devices in the same arm cannot conduct at the same time. The normalized carrier frequency m, should be odd multiple of three. Thus, tut of phase without even harmonics; are identical, but 120° o1 three are identical in amplitude and phase in all phases, For example, if the ninth harmonic voltage in phase ais, Vay (= ve sin(Seot) ‘The corresponding ninth harmonic in phase b will be Vay (1) = Vo sin(9( ox —120%)) s sin (900t -1080°)=y, sin (9eot) Figure 3.20: Sinusoidal Pulse- Wrath Modulation for Three-Phase Inverter all phase-voltage (vay, Ven, and Vex) ‘moreover, harmonics at frequencies multiple of see) (2) harmonic. Therefore, for odd Thus, the AC output line voltage vyy = Vay - Vay does not contain the ninth the harmonics in the ac output voltage appear at ‘multiples of three times the normalized carrier frequency ms, normalized frequencies f, centred around m, and its multiples, n=jm,+k = 2,4,6. where j = 1, 3, 5, ... for Therefore, the harmonics are at my+ 2, mp4 ...., 2mp+l, 2mp +5, For nearly sinusoidal ac load. current, the harmonics in the de link current are at fir eel) n=jmptk+1 > sand j=2,4, ... fork =1, 5, 7,.. specifically, at: +3) ++» Such that n is not a multiple of three, »4m+1,4m5, .... + Smet 2, 31mp £4, ‘equencies given by,Po rami tinction Pet Se, VN Ja that n = je kis pog, WME = 2 4p for k = 2,4, 6... sue Post and ny eee three, . , jon (M £1) is Vp, Because the Maximum amplitude of the fundamental phase voltage in the linear TeB the Vs erefore, one can write iy 2 SSIS amplitude of the fundamental ac output line voltage is Va Peak amplitude as, Vent =! M a =M3— forO Stu during the ferapureL led. a}caleiaion D) Pukey weiss time interval (4, t) of duration 116 as show a figure 3.26, This trajectory is oriented so that the Current space vector is quasi-perpendicular and this is ‘expected from thi integral form of the inductive load equation. Tepresents the value of the first phase current. on the volfage space vector, The vector projection on the real axis ‘The variation of the phase current dur Current (Iy4). It yields 2 0314 -05)Iy Ls sen(7) TI6 o ing the interval (4, t) allows determination of the maximum value of the Moves between the position alon; al. The current space vector the linearity ofthis trajectory. ). Similar calculation proves ‘This vector analysis provides information about all the currents and of the 60° symmetry of the operation, iti limiATT rane LTT ae ae ee ee ues 1) Discuss gene a S*neralised configurations of instruments and their functional elements, Generac conigongeratos of tstruments 41. The system atiane of Pancuments can be explained with the help of block diagram as shown in figure measurement system poet ° Me typical elements of a measurement system, It helps (o endonena wee, In general, & Measurement system oF measuring instrument consists of the following elements * ase vate D Teimary Sensing Element: The primary sensing [e!|-oer “Riso” came eceives signal of the physical quantity to be Sent measured as input. Tt converts the signal to » vuhabre a form (electrical, mechanical or other form), so that it = becomes easier for other elements of the measurement | 92 mat stints system, to either convert or manipulate it. fine Bement J Amplited Element Sa 2) Variable Conversion Element: Variable conversion Seale element converts the output of the primary sensing = clement to a more suitable form. It is used only if Prscraon |_MatanObenate im [ necessary. Variable | Manipulation Element: Variable gue 41: Generali Conighraton of nrunente manipulation element manipulates and amplifies the output of the variable conversion element. It also removes noise (if present) in the signal. Data processing element is an important element used in many measurement 4) Data Processing Element: systems. It processes the data signal received from the variable manipulation element and produces suitable output. Data processing element may also be used to compare the measured value with a standard value to a produce required output. Data Transmission System: Data Transmission System is simply used for transmitting data from one 5) clement to another. It acts as a communication link between different elements of the measurement system. Some of the data transmission elements used are cables, wireless antennae, transducers, telemetry systems etc. Data Presentation Element: It is used to present the measured physical quantity in a human readable form 6 ? to the observer. It receives processed signal from data processing element and presents the data in a human readable form. LED displays are most commonly used as data presentation elements in many measurement systems. In addition to the above components, an instrument may also have a data storage element to store measured data for future use.Write a 2) Disey Short note on the following: ull-Type a Instrumentation (TP Solved Seriy)4, len] 1 Electronics Powe c logue and Digital Instruments . 2) Analogue nts 9 Recording te Deletion Type nsruments 4) Indicating Instrume Ans: Cla sification of I G ssiffc Instruments is given below: 2 1 General Classitcation an gener clacton ene ecikions "The diced ions 5 ‘ ) Mechanical Instruments: They are very reliable for static and S wanslent conditions. theY ae unable to respond rapidly to mensurinentof dynamic a 4) Electrical tn 2) sectors are more rapid than metho Flectical methods of indicating the utp of detectors are ove Pid th 7 inaiganieal methods. The electieal system normally depends upon & indicating dev iii) Electronic Oscilloscope ( ice, Instruments: These inst struments have very fast response. One example is a Cathode Ray (CRO) is capable 1 fanose; 2 to follow dynamic and transient changes of the order of few Nanosecondls (10° se), Classification ba ised on Instrument’: ' Characteristies: Another important classification on the basis of instrament’s characteristic ics i) Active and Passive 1 a) bd) i) Null-Type and D, explained belo b) instruments: The act : Active Instruments: In these instavecn, the quantity being measured simply modilied fe nasnitude of some extemal power source The floattype petrol tank level indicator isa kind of act i prone. The change i ‘ometer arm, and the output signal consists of a nds of the potentiometer. ive and passive instruments are explained below: Passive Instruments: In these instruments the output is entirely produced by the quantity being measured. ‘The Pressure-measuring device is an ex: ‘ample of a passive instrument also known as Passive pressure gauge. eflection-Type Instruments: ‘The null-type and deflection-type instruments. are ‘Type Instruments: In these instruments the value of the quantity being measured is in terms of the amount movement of a pointer, ‘The Passive pressure gauge is an example of '@ deflection type instrument. ‘The serniacy of the deflection type pressure measurement instrument de Pends on the lineatity and calibration of the Spring, whilst for the second it relies on the calibration of the weights,. = (Modle 4 “6 fF Of the tangen the galvanometer and ihe asl Of deflection produced by the eurent, radius and nurmber of turns of i) Secondary Ieee ans Betzontil component of the earths magnetic Hel uantity being messarey: 1 deflection of such instruments directly gives us the magnitude of the With aretha rts These have to be calibrated by comparison with an absolute insrument or strument which has already been calibrated beforehand. Such instruments are tboratories, industries and power stations, ec. 4) Classification B, instruments can be casciie eat® °f Instruments: On the basis of nature of operation of instruments, i) Indicating Instruments: 1 being measured Tent Thess instruments given the magnitude of the quantity atthe time when iis Ordinary voltmeters ai ssFement is indicated by a pointer moving over a marked (graduated) dial, ib pe fers, ammeters, wattmeters belong to this group. Over a ginennatTuments: These instruments give a continuous record of the quantity being measured pen lightly t Period. The variations of the quantity being measured are recorded by a pen. This inked The pen is darlene eet OF Paper wrapped over a drum. The drum rotates slowly at uniform speed instrument is uote 29 the Magnitude of the quantity being measured. Thus, a curve is traced. Such an i) Integrating PY d02trs to ive BCG (electo-Cardio-Gram) of «patent. iii) Integr peter are instruments: Such instruments give total amount of quantity being measured over a Quantity,” TR Summation given by such an instrument is the product of time and an electrical Qinpere-hour meter, wat-hour (energy) meter and odometer ina car (which measures the total distance Shae ate examples of this category. The summation value is generally given by a register consisting Of a Set of pointers and dials, or an electronic digital display. 5) Classification based on Method Used for Measurement: On the basis of method used for measurement of quantity, instruments can be classified as: 1) Direct Measuring Instruments: These instruments convert the energy of the measured quantity directly into energy that actuates the instrument and the value of the unknown quantity is measured or displayed or recorded directly. These instruments are most widely used in engineering practice because they are simple and inexpensive. Also, time involved in the measurement is shortest. For example, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Watt meter ete. ii) Comparison Instruments: These instruments measure the unknown quantity by comparison with a standard. For example, de and ac bridges and potentiometers. They are used when a higher accuracy of ‘measurements is desired. GENERALISED PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS Ques 3) Discuss generalised performance characteristics of instruments and its types. Or ‘Name some static and dynamic characteristics of instruments? ‘Ans: Generalised Performance Characteristics of Instruments ‘A specific measurement can be done using various measuring instruments, Thus, to select a suitable instrument, the performance characteristics of these instruments must be known and compared with each other. These characteristics are divided into two parts i 1) Static Characteristics: Performance characteristics which measure slowly varying or unvarying data and thereby indicate the response of the instruments are known as static characteristics, Static calibration is used to obtain static characteristics. Static characteristics of an instrument include accuracy, precision, resolution, repeatability, reproducibility, static error, sensitivity, and drift.cn tiP Shel Seny op 1 ies Instr Power Electro f instruments that meagy,, 7 Dy response 0” jown as dy time-varying ‘The characteristics “co does the ousput are Ka Yynamig Characteriet es! tintities in which the input varies with time an 1 sinusoidal input. NGS. "The time-varying input could be a step input, F=mP © speed of response, ang The ‘i fidelity, a ay cumic characteristics of an instrument include measuring 1B, ‘mic error, in detai truments in det eim'3)_ Resolution ty 5) Reproducibility ‘Ans: na Static Characteristics of the Instruments tere are several characteristics of a stati a, these ate 1) Accuracy: Accuracy is defined oe the dope of cence ‘or exactness of a measured val coos ore ihe expected value (also termed as true or desied value) ofthe quantity measured. The roeeded. Therefore, ieeuinent also specifies accuracy as the maximum amount of error which will not be exceeded. ° itcan be termed as conformity to truth. saeckamle, if accuracy of 21% is specified for a 100 V voltmeter, the true value of the voltage lies between 8 V and 101 V with maximum error for any observed value or reading not exceeding 1V. The accuracy of an instrument can be specified in either of the following ways: ‘ i) Point Accuracy: This type of aceursey does not specify the general accuracy of an instrument; rather it ‘gives the information about the accuracy at only one point on its scale. However, constructing a table of accuracy at a number of points in the range of the instrument may help in calculating the general accuracy of an instrument. ii) Percentage of Scale Range Accuracy: In this case, the accuracy of a uniform scale instrument is expressed in terms of scale range. These types of accuracy specification can be highly misleading. For example, consider a thermometer having a range and accuracy of 200°C and #0.5% of scale range, respectively. This implies that for a reading of 200°C, the accuracy is 40.5%. While for a reading of 40°C. the same accuracy yields a greater error as computed below: 200 FA 5 (40.5) = 2.5% 49 x00) ii) Percentage of True Value Accuracy: In this case, the accuracy is defined in terms of true value of the quantity being measured. Thus, the errors are proportional to the readings, that is, smaller the reading, lesser is the error. This method is considered the best way to specify the accuracy of an instrument. 2) Precision: Precise means ‘sharply or clearly defined’. It is a measure of the degree up to which repeated readings in a group of measurements are similar, provided they are measured under same conditions. It is to be noted that a precise reading need not be accurate or vice versa For example, consider a voltmeter having a very high degree of precision on account of its finely divided, clearly legible, incredibly sharp pointer, and mirror-backed distinct scales which remove parallax. Assume that this device can measure voltage to a value of 1/1000* of a volt but the zero adjustment of the voltmeter is not accurate. Thus, the voltmeter yields highly precise but not accurate readings due to inaccurate zero adjustment There are two characteristics of precision, viz, conformity and mumber of significant figures. For example, consider that the true value ofa resistance is given as 2,485,6720, which is indicated as 2.5MQ when measured using an ohmmeter. The ohmmeter will consistently indiate this reading and consequent) due to scale limitation, the instrument produces a precision error. It is evident from the example that due to lack of significant figures, the result or measurement is no! precise, though its closeness to tue value implies its accuracy. Thus, conformity is necessery bet ot sufficient condition for precision and vice versa.enn 3 4) Repeatability: Repeal 3d 2 8) SBUFALONS OF Inge SEE 1) Resolution: R, "rsrumens ode 4 # Resolution j will res] Nis di achieved intone Needle o ned 28 the smattest change in the measured quantity to which an instrument reading change ret" For examnstt!™€nt will show no deflection unless a change equal to its resolution is 50 mV becatice 10" 210 only mPl® COMsider a 200 V voltmeter in which the needle shows a defleotion or ‘Cause its ion jo ne” the minimum input is 1 V. This instrument cannot be used to measure pecatise its resolunio’, change i input less than jy." © 1V- In general, there will be so eifet onthe instrument for any input oF a variati ‘bility, a Bera fea reading when wormed ag test-retest reliability, is the loseness with waren input is applied randomly. Tt ee Someti repent ne can measure a given tapi alo of nas yiaacurement equipment i, is also termed as inherent precision applied intermitt If an input of a cons itude is icc eae apie z , eo : relation between input and cup wi Figure 4.2 shows the Reproducibility: sim ar Eaten given tt ‘0 repeatability, reproducibility is also a measure of the closeness with which one period of time. It indicat JPeatedly when the input is applied constantly. However, it is measured over a past steady state response of an instrument. The instrument should have good reproducibility, cates th input with a condi Possible only when the output reading of the instrument remains the same when an said to have poor reprodeibiy, PPL continuously over a period of time. Otherwise, the instrument is + Repeatability Figure 42: Graph Showing Repeatability Statie Error: . ob possible bad is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value. If i is not less than the value {rue Value of a quantity so the best measured value is used. The error may be equal to ot When this error diffrac ©Y *°°4"@y (which indicates the maximum error) for a particular instrument, * Gifference is constant, the error is said to be static errr. Senaitty: Sensitivity 1 defined asthe ratio of change in ouput with respect to the change in input of the = ” iple, consider in i ) the output reading should algo change preg a voltmeter in which the input voltage changes by 0.2 V, then the output Therefore, the sensitivity is expressed as AV/AVi. Thus, it represents how truly an instrument responds to a change in the input, Changeof OutputSignal _ Aq, Changein InputSignal ~ Aq, where, qo and qj, are the value of the output and input signals, respectively Drift: Drift is defined as the gradual shift in the indication of an instrument over a period of time during which true value of the quantity does not change, It is categorized into three types, namely, zero drift, span drift, and zonal drift: i) Zero Drift: The same amount of shifting in whole calibration is termed as zero drift, also termed as calibration drift as shown in figure 4.3(a). It can occur due to many reasons | including slippage, undue warming up of electronic lube circuits, or if an initial zero é adjustment in an instrument is not made. K= 2 drift is defined as the drift tea Tea : mee Pereace! eal with the deflection of zee ee _ @Seenve — .Contied Din the pointer (figure 4.3(b)). It is also termed as Figure 4.3: Types of Drift sensitivity drift and is not constant. The combined zero and span drift is shown in figure 4.3(¢). ‘Zonal Drift: If the drift occurs only in a particular zone of an instrument, itis said to be zonal drift. It may mechanical vibrations, wear and tear, stay clecitic and magnetic fields, and high mechanical stresses developed in some parts of the instruments and systems,SS entation (TP SWVEL Sey, y power Bleeronis & Instr the instruments- 5) Writ stics of 8 short note on generatised dynamic characteristics ° or Piscuss the following in brief: Teasuring Lag . 2) Fidelity D Speed of Response Dynamic Error Ans: Dynami ig 5 ic Characteristics of t ime ain pe {is characteristics which ndieate the response of struments thal measretME-VAEV OE se varying inn could a With time and so does the output are known as dynamic characteriShSS: 4 step input, ramp oF sinusoidal input. TaTOUS factors, such as mass, uid capacitance, thermal capacitance or electric ¢ reqpusttuments that are used to measure time-varying quantities. This, conseqve! ‘Sponse of instruments with respect to the change in the measured variables. cause slowness in itance ae results in delay Of the sntly, resul er reaction t0 occur, me oth ne Sot 2 characteristics of an In addition to this, so i - some del ; waitin i lay may arise when the instrument is ‘The dynamic Therefore, itis important to study the dynamic behaviour of the instruments. ‘instrument include measuring lag, fidelity, speed of response, and dynamic error. x, When it is a linear The dynamic characteristic of device depends on the order of differential equation’ differential equation, the device is dynamically linea. First Order Instrument First order instruments are characterized by one parameter called time constant (1) of system. The first order System is represented by, ryt+y=x() where, x(t) is the time function of input and y is the output of system Lower time constant represents fast response and minimum error. Second Order Instrument , A second order instrument is characterized by two constants natural response (@,) and damping ratio ( ¢) of the instrument. The second order system is represented by, 1 ty +B yaya x(t) where a, is expressed in rad/sec. Gis a non-dimensional quantity. This indicates the relative stability of the system. To study dynamic behaviour of a measuring device, some standard inputs are applied, these are: 1). Step input 2) Ramp input 3) Parabolic input 4) Sinusoidal input ‘The generalised dynamic characteristics of instrument are given below: 1) Measuring Lag: Any change in the measured quantity causes delay or retardation in the response of af instrument. This delayed response is known as measuring lag. It can be categorised into two types @ explained below: “ i) Retardation Type: When a change in the measured quantity occurs and the instrument responds immediately, it is said to be retardation type. However, in time delay type, the instrument responds after a dead time after the input is applied. Dead time causes dynamic error by simply shifting the system response along the time scale,eH a ee oe (dates) ” i Fime Delay "type: The 4, ” sey my S889 996 merng tpi wly vey mall and can be igor affected by the dead time © being my lag c of the system is adversely ‘sastred varies quickly, the performance of the syst idlty: The qual ot 2 mrament co ina °F Pepe tn 0 ny aon iy, i find he iy of a ie 0 eevalne raincam andi lsd measurement error, is defined as the dtfcenae borween the saticerror. ‘nd the value indicated by the measurement 39 sin ues 6) What is Wheatstones, * Pride? Discuss measurement of resistance using Wheatstone’s bridge. : Wheatstone’s Bridge ar. Anon bridge tac Seta eri yaa ‘measure an unknown electrical resistance by balancing two an vgs cn id is ite aon, Teg of which includes the unknown component. The primary benefit ots rae potent eg #8 ability to pron accents operation is similar to the {ial potenomere. "NY 1 provide eine HE unknown component peration is F . ¢ A Wheatstone Bridge Circuit in is sing lest form consi cau, with & DC souree of current ape raha ciber to junctions, as sho aa E wn in figure ‘ing a closed ists of a network of four resistance arms forming. ©pposite junctions and a current detector connected to the fan accurately known component (a This is because the 5 Figure 44; Wheatstone's Bridge called Wheatstone’s bridge. ing resistances and is popular for given in figure 4.4. The source of indicating meter, the galva-nometer, is meter, with a zero centre scale, When . ic. mid-scale. Current in one direction irection to the other side. ‘When path is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at bulanced when there is no current through the galvanometer, ‘sequal, i. the potential across the galvanometer is zero. Point A, ic. I, and 1, ‘The bridge is or when the potential difference at Points C and D To obtain the bridge balance equation, we have from the figure 4.4: Ri=1.R: “a | Forthe galvanometer current tobe zero, the following conditions should be satisfied: E 2) L=1,= --Q) TOR Ry i(ee oncro save soe) ny TW. ge Instruments « . Power Bleetonies = 18) R,+R, Substituting v. Se ubsttuting value of I, and I, from equation (2) and (3) in equation (1): ExR, __EXR, R+R, RyRy Ry) x(R; +Ry)=R,X(R, Ry) RR, +R,R,=RR+RRs) r mit balancing, ade adjustable, 10 PER ance is mae oy be determined fom te ate precision device having very ‘This is the equation for the bridge to be balanced. Ina practical Wheatstone Bridge Circuit, at least one of the resis ‘When the bridge is balanced, the unknown resistance (normaly come setting of the adjustable resistor, which is called a standard resistor because small tolerance. Hence, @ Ques 7) What are the benefits and limitations of wheatstone bridge? Ans: Benefits of Wheatstone Bridge A 4). The result is not dependent on the calibration and characteristics of galvanometer as it works on null ations do not affeet the balance of th deflection. 2) The source e.m.f and inaccuracies due to the source fluctu Hence the corresponding errors are completely avoided 43) Due to null defection method used, the accuracy and sensitivity is higher than di 1e bridge, ject deflection meters. Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge 1) ‘The Wheatstone bridge is not applicable for high resistances. 2) The effect of lead resistance and contact resistance is it while measuring low resistances. 3). Heating effect due to large current also plays a major role. ‘may cause the permanent change in the resistance, ‘Tha resistance used must be very precise having tolerance upto 1% or 0.1%, hence cost is high. ass the measurement of inductance using Maxwell- Wein Bridge. Ques 8) Disc or ‘What are the advantages and disa ‘very much significant ‘The excessive currents may generate heat which 4) \dvantages of Maxwell-Wein Bridge? yxwell- Wein Bridge ‘Wein Bridge used to measure an unknown inductance (usually ‘¢ and capacitance. The advantage of this method is that 1d almost loss-free capacitor. The bridge can measure a wide 10. The modified bridge called Maxwell Wein Bridge is ‘Ans: Measurement of Inductance Using Ma ‘a Maxwell-Wein Bridge is a modification to a of low Q value) in terms of calibrated resistanc Jjnduetance is measured in terms of a high-quality an range of inductance values with Q factors less than shown in figure 4.5(b). ally constructed by resistance, inductance and capacitance. There are some particulat ements are connected in each arm as shown in figure 4.5 (a) (Maxwell’s Tenciaie (Maxwell's Inductance-Capacitance Bridge or Maxwell-Wein Bridge). Maxwell Bridge is basic: arrangements that these el Bridge) and figure 4.5 (b) 2* =5%5=25k2 ‘Thus unknown resistance is 25kQ. Ques 11) Calculate the current through the galvanometer for the bridge shown in the figure 4.8. Ans; From the figure 4.8, Use Thevenin’s equivalent for I, Vr = Viv = Van - Van=b Re- hi Ri = ER 20. 71 OR FR, * Ri +Rp 2044 742, Thus B is positive w.r.t D. Re : Now, h Req = [RillR] + [RallRa] ..... with E shorted Ven : = RRs, RRs Vu, 0-446 : +888kQ I, =——2— S88KO I Reg +R, 4-888x10" +300 ~R,) +R, R,+R, = 85.62 HA. This is the current through the galvanometer. Figure 4.10,Th ccerzed Confit: of ames (Moda) Ques 12) The arms of a 1,000 in parallel with anc Maxwell bridge are arranged as follows: AB is a non-inductive resistance of aninductive impeant ae tor of capacitance 0,5 HE, BC is a non-inductive resistance of 6009 CD is under these conditions hen own) and DA is a non-inductive Fesistance of 400Q. If balance is obtained iy he value of the resistance and the ‘inductance of the branch CD. Ans: The bridge is shown in figure 411, Since, RRs = RAR, Ry= RARVR, 600x400 ss Rye 00 1000 "2402. he Figure 1Ly=CRiRa = 0.5 x 10° x 400 x 600 = 12 x 107 =0,12H es 13) The arms of a four-arm bridge ABCD, supplied with a sinusoidal voltage, have the following | values: AB: 200 ohm resistance in parallel with 1p capacitor; BC: 400 ohm resistance; CD: 1000 ohm resistance and DA: Resistance R in series with a 2uF capacitor. Determine 2) The value of R, and 2) The supply frequency at which the bridge will he balanced, Ans: The bridge circuit is shown in figure 4.12 1) For balance condition we have, RoR, RR, oR 2) The frequency at which bridge is balanced is given by, 1 f= 2YRR,CC, 10° 1250 Hz. Figure 4.12 2y400 x 200 x1 x2 0.001nF having a dissipation factor of 6x R, and R; are of same value 10 kQ. itor C,? Ques 14) A capacitor of /—_value 10~ at 1kHz is measured by a Schering bridge at the same frequency. ‘What are the value of the standard eapacitor and the adjustable capaci Ans: According to question, Cy=0.001 6x10 : 5 Is0 as, Ry =———_*10___ 9.09502 (From the equation of Schering bridge) eS E280 x0- O0TXI0 & and, C, =0 oorx0s{ 4, )xo-os5=0 0095pF