OVERVIEW OF MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY AND ITS

APPLICATIONS IN FRUIT JUICE PROCESSING

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Bachelor of Technology

BY:

Abhiram Kalluri (220101)

Harish H R (220110)
Jithesh Kumar (220111)
Manish Saini (220118)
Mankala Karthik (220119)
G C S Vignesh (220132)
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF:
Dr. Vinoth Kumar Raja

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

(2020-2024)
 APPROVAL SHEET
This Project Work entitled “Overview of membrane technology and its applications in
fruit juice processing” by Abhiram Kalluri, Mankala Karthik, G C S Vignesh, Manish Saini,
Jithesh Kumar and Harish H R, are approved for partial fulfilment of the second-year,
Bachelor of Technology in Chemical Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering,
NIT-Andhra Pradesh.

Supervisor (s):

________________________

________________________

Examiners:

________________________

________________________

Chairman:

________________________

Date: ____________

Place: ____________

1
 DECLARATION

We declare that this written submission represents my ideas in my own words and where
others' ideas or words have been included, I have adequately cited and referenced the original
sources. I also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity
and have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea/ data/ fact/ source in my
submission. I understand that any violation of the above will be cause for disciplinary action
by the Institute and can also evoke penal action from the sources which have thus not been
properly cited or from whom proper permission has not been taken when needed.

Abhiram Kalluri (220101) Mankala Karthik (220119)

Harish H R (220110) G C S Vignesh (220132)

Jithesh Kumar (220111) Manish Saini (220118)

Date: April 30, 2022

2
 CONTENTS

1. Approval Sheet

2. Declaration

3. Abstract

4. Chapter 1: Introduction -----------------------------------------------------5

5. Chapter 2: Literature review -----------------------------------------------7

6. Chapter 3: Driving forces governing membrane separation----------8

7. Chapter 4: Classification of membranes---------------------------------10

8. Chapter 5: Fabrication of ceramic and polymeric membranes-----12

9. Chapter 6: Applications of membrane separation processes--------16

10.Chapter 7: Clarification of fruit juices using membrane separation

process-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19

11.Chapter 8: Results and Discussion 24

12.Chapter 9: Summary and Conclusion------------------------------------25

13.Bibliography ------------------------------------------------------------------26

14.Acknowledgements 27

3
 ABSTRACT

Membrane technology encompasses the related scientific and engineering approaches for the
transport or rejection of components, species, or substances through or by the membranes.
The concept of membrane-based separation has been introduced since the 18th century and
regarded to have advantages over most conventional separation processes, e.g., distillation,
adsorption, and absorption.

Because of its multidisciplinary character, membrane technology is used in several industries,

including water treatment for domestic and industrial water supply, chemical,
pharmaceutical, biotechnological, beverages, food, metallurgy, and other separation
processes.

In the process of fruit juice clarification, the main intention is to increase the shelf life of the
juice, keeping in mind the natural flavour and nutritious components of the juice. Membrane
technology has evolved as an efficient and cost-effective alternative to the traditional thermal
processing of fruit juices, that comes at a cost of the depletion of natural flavour as well as
degradation of nutrients from the juice.

However, the biggest challenge in the membrane technology is the fouling of membranes
which greatly effects the rate of separation as well as he quality of desired product and the
cost of replacement of membranes.

This Mini Project is intended for the study of Membrane technology, the classification of
membranes, their working principle and driving forces responsible, the fabrication of ceramic
and polymer membranes and the effects of different membrane characteristics on the
separation process and henceforth, the applications of different membranes in various
industrial processes. Different membrane separation methods, including Microfiltration,
Ultrafiltration, Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis for the clarification/ concentration of fruit
juices have also been studied.

4
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A membrane is a thin barrier that permits the transport of certain species across it from one
fluid to another, under the influence of a driving force across the membrane, allowing the
passage of one or more desired components in a mixture.

The stream that enters the membrane is called feed-stream, the fluid that passes through the
membrane is known as the permeate while the fluid that contains the retained components is
named retentate or concentrate.

The driving force for any mass transfer operation is the difference of Chemical Potential,
which depends upon the difference of Pressure, Temperature, Concentration, Electric
Potential difference, etc.

5
1.1. MASS BALANCES OVER MEMBRANE

Assuming that no chemical reaction takes place and the mass balance is carried out at steady
state, the overall mass balance equation can be represented as:

(Input) = (Output) + (Accumulation)

Since, at steady state, Accumulation = 0, the mass balance equation can be written as:

ṅ f = ṅ p + ṅr

Where, ṅ f is equal to total molar flow rate in feed stream, ṅ p is the total molar flow rate in
product stream and ṅr is the total molar flow rate in retentate stream.

If x i is the mole fraction of component i, the mass balance equation for a single component
can be given as:

ṅ f xi , f =ṅ ρ x i , p + ṅ r x i , r

6
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Various experiments have been done by using both ceramic and polymer membranes of
different geometric structures as well as morphologies for the processing of fruit juices in
order to increase the shelf life of a fruit juice keeping its nutritious value in mind. In the
contemporary world, a high population means a large demand of food. Considering the case
of fruit juices, the most critical raw material, the corresponding fruit needs to be produced.
However, it is obvious that, it is not possible to produce a particular fruit throughout the year
unless genetically modified, which could have other consequences. Keeping in mind to retain
the natural genetic character of a fruit as well as to address the demand of fruit juices of a
particular juice throughout the year, the shelf life of the fruit juice needs to be extended,
which could be possible either by thermal processing or by membrane separation.

The advantages of membrane separation over that of thermal processing has been further
discussed in this project report. There is a large variety of membranes currently available for
different purposes. However, choosing the most suitable membrane for a particular process is
the most critical part in obtaining the highest optimization and feasibility in a particular
process. Therefore, the choice of the membrane could only be done once we come to know
about the characteristics of a membrane as well as anticipate the possible challenges that we
could face while carrying out a particular separation process.

The project report focusses on the scrutiny of all such membranes that could be the best fit
for clarification of different kinds of fruit juices as well as about various parameters affecting
the process and the possible measures that could be taken in order to achieve highest quality
product as well as most feasible processing technology.

7
 CHAPTER 3

DRIVING FORCES GOVERNING MEMBRANE SEPARATION

Chemical potential is the main driving force that governs membrane separation process.
Since chemical potential cannot be measured easily, other driving forces such as pressure
gradient, concentration gradient and electric potential difference are taken as reference
that govern the membrane separation process.

Reverse
Osmosis(RO)

Pressure Gradient Ultrafiltration

Nanofiltration

Membrane Dialysis
Separation Concentration
gradient
Gel permeation
chromatography

Electroosmosis
Electric Potential
Difference
Electrodialysis

8
The above flowchart depicts the classification of membrane separation process based on
different driving forces.

3.1. DIFFERENT MEMBRANE PROCESSES DRIVEN BY PRESSURE GRADIENT:

Pressure gradient drives many day-to-day basis membrane separation processes such as
Reverse osmosis, Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration, Nanofiltration etc.

a. Reverse osmosis: Reverse osmosis occurs when pressure is applied to the solution on

the side of the membrane that contains the lower solvent concentration. The pressure
forces the solvent to flow from a region of low concentration to one of high
concentration.
b. Microfiltration: Microfiltration is a type of filtration physical process where a
contaminated fluid is passed through a special pore-sized membrane to separate
microorganisms and suspended particles from process liquid.
c. Ultrafiltration: Ultrafiltration removes bacteria, protozoa and some viruses from the
water.
d. Nanofiltration: Nanofiltration removes these microbes, as well as most natural organic
matter and some natural minerals, especially divalent ions which cause hard water. 

3.2. PROCESSES DRIVEN BY CONCENTRATION GRADIENT:

Concentration gradient drives membrane separation processes such as dialysis and gel
permeate chromatography.

a. Dialysis: dialysis is the process of removing excess water, solutes, and toxins from the
blood in people whose kidneys can no longer perform these functions naturally. 
b. Gel permeation chromatography: Gel permeation chromatography is a type of size-
exclusion chromatography, that separates analytes on the basis of size, typically in
organic solvents. The technique is often used for the analysis of polymers.

3.3. PROCESSES DRIVEN BY ELECTRIC-POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:

Membrane separation processes such as electroosmosis and electrodialysis are governed by

electric potential difference.

a. Electroosmosis: Electroosmotic flow is the motion of liquid induced by an applied

potential across a porous material, capillary tube, membrane, microchannel, or any
other fluid conduit.

9
b. Electrodialysis: Electrodialysis is used to transport salt ions from one solution through
ion-exchange membranes to another solution under the influence of an applied
electric potential difference. This is done in a configuration called an electrodialysis
cell.

10
 CHAPTER 4

CLASSIFICATION OF MEMBRANES:

Membranes can be classified into different categories: Geometry, Structure and Material, in
the following ways as shown in the flowchart:

Cylindrical porous

Symmetric/Isotropic
Porous
Membranes

Based On morphology Dense

Asymmetric/Anisotropic
Composite Membranes
Membranes

Flat Membranes
CLASSIFICATION
OF MEMBRANES Based on Geometry

Tubular Membranes

Polymeric Membranes

Based on material

Ceramic Membranes

4.1. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MORPHOLOGY:

On the basis of structure, membranes are broadly classified into two types:

a. Symmetric Membranes: Symmetric membranes have uniform pore size or structural

morphology throughout the cross-section of membrane, and are widely used in
dialysis, MF, and UF applications.
They are also known as isotropic membranes. They are further classified as:
 Porous membranes: Porous membranes consist of a solid matrix with defined
holes or pores. The pore size is the only factor which controls the application
in which the porous membranes can be used.
 Dense membranes: This membrane type has a very complex permeation
principle and separation technique. It is used for gas separation, for example
the oxygen transportation in zirconium oxide at high temperature. The
separation technique of non-porous membranes takes place through a
solution-diffusion mechanism at which the permeating molecules are first

11
 dissolved into the membrane, then diffuse and finally desorbs from the
membrane

b. Asymmetric Membranes: Asymmetric membranes are anisotropic structures

comprising two main layers with diverse properties, such as morphology and
permeability. Usually, asymmetric membranes are characterized by a relatively dense
and extremely thin top layer supported on an open, much thicker porous substructure
bottom layer.
Asymmetric membranes have a subset known as composite membranes.
 Composite membranes: Thin-film composite membranes are semipermeable
membranes manufactured principally for use in water purification or water
desalination systems. They also have use in chemical applications such as
batteries and fuel cells.

4.2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GEOMETRY:

On the basis of geometry, membranes are broadly classified into two types:

a. Flat Membranes: Flat sheet membranes are housed in plate-and-

frame  or cassette devices. The separation between individual membranes for flow of
the feed material is typically 0.5 to 2.0 mm.
b. Tubular Membranes: Tubular membrane modules are tube-like structures with porous
walls. Tubular modules work through tangential crossflow and are generally used to
process difficult feed streams such as those with high dissolved solids, high
suspended solids, and/or oil, grease, or fats.

4.3. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MATERIAL:

On the basis of material, membranes are broadly classified into two types:

a. Polymeric Membranes: The membranes fabricated out of natural or synthetic

polymers such as Cellulose acetate (CA), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polyimide,
polycarbonate (PC), polyethylene (PE), and polypropylene (PP), and
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) are known as polymeric membranes. Albeit they are
cost effective, they possess relatively less thermal and mechanical stability. Polymeric

12
 membranes have been widely used in various gas separation applications mainly due
to their high-performance regarding permeation and selectivity.

b. Ceramic Membranes: Ceramic membranes are a type of artificial membranes,

generally fabricated by depositing colloidal suspensions of metal hydroxides on
porous supports.
Ceramic membranes are found to have high thermal and mechanical stability and are
driven by transmembrane pressure for separation, concentration and purification.
Ceramic membranes are usually fabricated from Titania (TiO2), silica (SiO2),
alumina (Al2O3), and zirconia (ZrO2).
Ceramic membranes are generally composed of three layers. The inner layer is the
porous supported layer which provides a high mechanical strength for the fabricated
membrane. The second one is the intermediate layer which is coated over the
supported layer and characterized by a lower pore size. Because of the difference in
pore size between the support layer and the top layer, the intermediate layer acts as a
bridge between these two layers. The top layer is where the separation takes place.

Fig.: General structure of a Ceramic membrane

13
 CHAPTER 5

FABRICATION OF CERAMIC AND POLYMERIC MEMBRANES:

The detailed fabrication of ceramic and polymeric membranes are as follows:

5.1. CERAMIC MEMBRANE FABRICATION:

There are several methods for the preparation ceramic membranes such as slip casting,
extrusion, pressing, etc. The following steps generally summarize the preparation procedure:

 Suspension preparation: Where the starting powders are mixed with a suitable
binding liquid.
 Forming: This includes shaping of the prepared suspension according to some
predetermined method.
 Heat treatment: This means using high temperatures to bind the membrane
particles through a sintering process.

The fabrication of composite membranes is done by coating the membrane support then
firing as illustrated:

Fig: General Ceramic membrane preparation procedure

A few methods adopted for the fabrication of ceramic membranes are Solid State Method,
Tape Casting method, Slip Casting method, Pressing method, Extrusion method etc.

14
5.2. POLYMERIC MEMBRANE FABRICATION:

Polymeric membranes can be fabricated using the following processes:

a. Phase inversion: Phase inversion is a de-mixing process in which initially

homogeneous polymer solution is transformed from a liquid state to a solid state in a
controlled manner. This method is the most commonly used and it helps to fabricate
polymeric porous membrane with a large form of structure.
In membrane preparation by the phase inversion method, the membrane structure,
properties, and chemical interaction depend on the choice of polymer, as does the
choice of additives used in the casting solution.

b. Interfacial polymerization: Interfacial polymerization (IP) is used for fabrication of

thin-film composite (TFC) RO and NF membranes and this method is most important
for commercial fabrication. The original IP protocol involved is described below:
 First, in an aqueous solution of a polymeric amine, soak the microporous
polysulfone support.
 Second, in a solution of a diisocyanate in hexane, immerse the amine
impregnated membrane
 Lastly, the membrane is cross-linked by performing a heat treatment at 110°C.
The various factors, such as the posttreatment conditions, affect the structural
morphology, concentration of monomers, solvent type, reaction time, and
composition of the barrier membrane layer.

15
 Fig: Interfacial Polymerization Process

c. Electrospinning: Electrospinning is a comparatively new process to fabricate

membranes that are porous in nature for various applications, including filtration and
desalination. In this process, a high potential is applied between the grounded
collector and the polymer solution droplet, and this overcomes the surface tension of
the droplet because the electrostatic potential becomes sufficiently high and a charged
liquid jet is formed.

The unique features of these fibrous membranes are controllable aspect ratios. The
morphology of the nano/microfibers, or both, can be achieved by optimizing the
following factors:
 Solution viscosity
 Environmental conditions
 Applied electric potential
 Flow rate of the solution

The fiber size, shape, and morphology are needed to identify or finalize the
porosity, pore size distribution, hydrophobicity, and surface morphology of the
electrospun fibrous membranes.

There are various other novel ways adopted in the manufacture of polymer
membranes such as track etching, stretching etc.

16
 CHAPTER 6

APPLICATIONS OF MEMBRANE SEPARATION PROCESS:

6.1. REASONS FOR USING MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY:

Membrane processes employ a barrier layer that allows water to permeate or pass through it
but rejects or retards other components from going along with that filtrate. In the case of
microfiltration and ultrafiltration, distinct pores in the polymer allow for water to flow
through the barrier but retard/reject the passage of species larger than the pores. Reverse
osmosis barrier layers do not have distinct pores but do allow water to diffuse through the
barrier layer and reject most of the dissolved ions in the mixture. Since heat is not used to
affect the separations, the components in the mixture are less likely to suffer thermal
degradation. Membranes are replacing diatomaceous earth filtration (DE), multimedia
filtration, centrifugation, extraction, rotary vacuum filters, evaporation and distillation and
other unit operations that have been used to make products. Cold sterilization of beverages,
pharmaceuticals and milk take advantage of the membrane systems. Most of the membrane
products commercially available have a polymeric barrier layer however ceramic membranes
with distinct pores have been used in demanding conditions and are finding use in new
applications. Ceramic membranes have pore sizes that classify them as microfiltration and
ultrafiltration filters.

6.2. APPLICATION OF MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY IN INDUSTRIES:

Membrane products are well known for producing potable water in municipal plants and
seawater desalination. However, what is not appreciated is how much membrane technology
is used in industrial applications around the world. Membranes achieve separations without a
phase change and the absence of applying heat can be advantageous to some applications.
The ability to remove water from a process stream or effluent has shown to be an effective
way of concentrating valuable components of an aqueous stream. At times the membrane
facility may not be large compared to a municipal plant but the value to the system and
process may be critical for overall economic viability. Sometimes, the water available to an
industrial facility may not meet the requirements of the application and membranes can be
used to improve the quality so that the process can be run. Or perhaps the discharge from the
processes is too great and a reduction step is needed that can be facilitated by membranes. At

17
times, the concentration of the solution may not be desirable and an easy, efficient means of
adjusting the concentration may be in order by using membranes. Finally, membranes are
used in Membrane Bioreactors (MBR) for waste treatment in food and dairy, pharmaceutical
and other facilities. 

Applications include:

a. Food and beverage:

 Bottled water
 Beer, wine and alcoholic beverages
 Fruit juices
 Milk and cheese
b. Industrial processes:
 Petroleum refining
 Clarification of biochemical processes
 Paint, adhesive and solvent recovery
 High purity applications such as semiconductor and power industry needs
c. Mining and metal processes:
 Platinum processes and waste reduction
 Gold and uranium recovery
 Recovery of precious metals
 Landfill leachate reduction

Membrane processes have found a great variety of applications in which their use has
improved products, recovered valuable components, added stability to the mixture, enhanced
the aesthetics of the solutions and contributed to the economics of the processes.
Microfiltration, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis and nanofiltration each offer different
separation options for industrial applications that will continue to grow in their use.

6.3. NON-INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS:

Among the very numerous applications on an industrial scale, a few of the main separations
which represent the latest advances in food processing, are reported.

Clarification of fruit, vegetable and sugar juices by microfiltration or ultrafiltration allows the
flow sheets to be simplified or the processes made cleaner and the final product quality

18
improved. Enzymatic hydrolysis combined with selective ultrafiltration can produce
beverages from vegetable proteins.

Also, membrane processes have been popular in the separation of bacteria and viruses from
water in the wastewater treatment processes

The applications of membrane technology are manifold. Membranes are not only used
for filtration, extraction, and distillation, they can also be applied for gas storage in biogas
plants or act as catalysts in syntheses.

19
 CHAPTER 7

CLARIFICATION OF FRUIT JUICES USING MEMBRANE SEPARATION

PROCESS

This Mini Project is focused upon the study of fruit juice clarification using Membrane
separation processes. However, the project has been limited to case study and acquiring
information from research articles and printed text material due to the time period available
for the project after being brought into knowledge about the same, constraining the data only
to previously published material instead of experimental collection.

Thermal processing remains the most widely employed method for shelf-life extension and
food preservation and concentration. However, industrial thermal treatments may have
negative impacts on nutritious components.

Membrane technology has emerged as a substitute to traditional juice clarification and

concentration processes, as they require less manpower, reduce operating cost and low
temperature. It is a low temperature process in which the organoleptic quality of the juice is
almost retained.

The advantages of these membrane processes over traditional methods are lower thermal
damage to product, increase in aroma retention, less energy consumption, and lower
equipment costs.

7.1. NEED FOR FRUIT JUICE CLARIFICATION

Raw fruit juice contains lower molecular weight components like sugar, acid, salt, flavour,
and aroma compounds. It additionally contains noteworthy measure of macromolecules
(100–1000 ppm) for example, polysaccharides (pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and starch),
dimness shaping segments (suspended solids (SSs), colloidal particles, proteins, and
polyphenols) and so forth. Therefore, in order to store for longer periods for commercial use,
the juice needs to be clarified.

7.2. TRADITIONAL CLARIFICATION PROCEDURE AND ITS DISADVANTAGES

20
Clarification is necessary for the removal of such macromolecules. In traditional processes,
enzyme treatment of raw juice is being performed with the help of enzymes (pectinase and
amylase) for reducing the pectic substances and starch content followed by addition of fining
agents. The main function of the fining agents such as gelatine, bentonite etc. is to enhance
the settling of formed flocs. This enzymatic treatment helps in reducing the turbidity and
viscosity and thereby makes the clarification process easier.

The suspended solids, colloidal particles, proteins etc. are removed by conventional filtration.
To facilitate the filtration process, filter aids are used. The above-mentioned traditional
methods to clarify fruit juice are batch processes and are highly labour-intensive and time-
consuming. Also, one major concern is the incomplete removal of additives (fining agents
and filter aids) from product juice which can affect the taste of juice.

Thermal evaporation is one of the most conventional techniques for fruit juice concentration.
Despite its economic feasibility and technology, it does exhibit some disadvantages when
applied to fruit juices. Even under vacuum, operating temperatures are still high enough to
bring about significant deterioration in the product juice such as degradation of colour, loss of
nutritional characteristics, and the development of a “cooked” taste. For example, lipids and
ascorbic acid can be oxidized, amino acids and sugars can undergo browning reaction, and
pigments, especially anthocyanin, carotenoids, and chlorophyll, can be degraded. Due to high
temperatures of evaporation, loss of aroma compounds occurs in fruit juices.

Hence, compared to these traditional methods, energy saving membrane operations such as
microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF), represent a valid alternative for the clarification
of additive-free high-quality fruit juices with natural fresh taste.

7.3. MEMBRANE PROCESSES

Membrane processes, commonly used for fruit juice clarification are Microfiltration (MF),
Ultrafiltration (UF), Nanofiltration (NF), Reverse Osmosis (RO), Electrodialysis,
Pervaporation, Osmotic Distillation etc. A few of the following have been discussed below:

a. Microfiltration (MF): In the fruit juice processing industry, the main purpose of MF is
mainly clarification to remove suspended solids (SS), fat and high molecular weight
proteins. Microfiltration (MF) membranes are normally of average pore size between
0.1 and 10 µm.

21
 b. Ultrafiltration (UF): UF is essentially utilized for fractionation, fixation and filtration.
UF is utilized to clear up a wide assortment of natural juices by evacuating polluting
influences, for example, yeast, molds, microscopic organisms and colloids, together
with proteins, tannins and polysaccharides, which all confers stability to the last item.
c. Nanofiltration (NF): NF can be utilized to in part demineralization, and in addition to
concentration. In the juice processing industry, NF can be used to concentrate useful
bioactive compounds from fruit juices e.g., lycopene in case of watermelon juice.

7.4. MEMBRANE FOULING AND CONCENTRATION POLARIZATION

One of the main problems of using of membranes for clarifying or concentrating fruit juices
is membrane fouling and concentration polarization. Concentration polarization is reversible
fouling while pore blocking is mostly irreversible. Concentration polarization and pore
blocking results in flux decay with the process time, thus reducing the permeability of the
membrane or making a thin layer over the membrane surface. Membrane fouling controls the
frequency of cleaning, the lifetime of the membrane, area needed for separation which
ultimately determines the costs, design and operating parameters of membrane plants.

Membrane fouling is a complicated phenomenon due to the involvement of various colloidal

particles present in the juice in making the cake layer over the membrane surface or blocking
the membrane pores. The fouling materials in fruit juice are mainly composed of cell wall
polysaccharides and macromolecules, such as pectin (polyuronic acids mostly derived from
d-galacturonic acid, primarily plentiful in apple and citrus fruits), cellulose, lignin and
hemicelluloses. The main problems generated by build-up of these foulants are the reduction
in flux and changes of physico-chemical properties of filtrate.

7.4.1. METHODS FOR REDUCING FOULING AND CONCENTRATION

POLARIZATION

Pre-treatment methods before juice clarification can reduce the particulate suspended
materials in the juice, resulting in improvement of flux and attainment of higher
concentration factors. The first step for pre-treatment for clarification of citrus juices using
membrane separation is pectin removal with the help of enzymes. The most used method for
pre-treatment of juices to remove pectin is enzymatic treatment by pectinase. More than 95%
recovery of the product can be achieved by UF of such depectinised juices.

22
A few other flux enhancing techniques to diminish fouling layer and pore blocking in juice
processing include ultrasonic vibration, periodic backwashing with air or N2, and
backwashing by pulsating flow etc.

7.5. FACTORS AFFECTING FRUIT JUICE CLARIFICATION

a. Effect of operating parameters in permeate flux: Permeate flux decline with time due
to concentration polarization and fouling remains a major hindrance in fruit juice
processing using membrane methods. Most researchers have found that an increase in
temperature have a positive effect in flux enhancement in fruit juice clarification
processes. High values of pressure helped in maintaining a high level of flux during
reverse osmosis concentration of fruit juices. A trend of declining permeate flux is
generally observed with an increase of volumetric concentration factor in case of fruit
juice concentration processes.
b. Effect of pre-treatment in permeate flux and juice quality: Over the years, enzymatic
treatment has been widely used as a pre-treatment in juice processing industries.
Researchers have shown that Enzymatic pre-treatment helps in maintaining a higher
flux level in case of clarification/concentration of citrus juices by reducing the juice
viscosity and pectic materials. Depectinisation also helps in reducing the juice
turbidity which ultimately enhances permeate flux.

Other factors affecting the fruit juice clarification include pore size distribution, mode of
filtration (e.g., dead end filtration, crossflow filtration) etc.

23
 CHAPTER 8

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Throughout the case study, the team has explored about various types of membranes, and
observed the following:

1. Tubular membranes have been less prone to fouling as compared to flat plate
membranes, due to the cross-flow mode of filtration.
2. Although, polymer membranes are cheaper, ceramic membranes provide great
mechanical, thermal as well as chemical stability and hence compatible with a myriad
of applications.
3. There are numerous applications of membrane technology in the food processing
industry, such as extraction of casein and fat from milk, increasing the shelf life of
fruit juices by clarification process, removal of bacteria, viruses and colloidal particles
of harmful pollutants such as microplastics etc. for potable and safe drinking water, in
which membrane technology had a promising scope of a highly efficient as well as
affordable way to obtain the desired product and also making the further processing of
retentate much easier and feasible.

24
 CHAPTER 9

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

During the study, relationships between the synthesis of membranes, their structure, surface
properties, and performance have been wetted upon. We saw that remarkable progress has
been made in the fabrication of membranes for various applications such as water treatment,
food processing etc.

However, it is still a challenge to produce reliable membranes with antifouling properties,

high mechanical strength, high tolerance to chlorine attack, and minimal thickness of the
membrane barrier layer to provide a high flux. To ensure progress in these fields, more effort
is needed to further improve common membrane fabrication methods as well as to develop
new fabrication techniques. A comprehensive understanding of the relationship between
porous structure-surface properties and the performance of membranes in water treatment
processes is crucial for further development of membranes and optimization of fabrication
processes. Membrane performance (flux, rejection, and fouling) is strongly influenced by
membrane chemical composition and the specific features of porous structure and the
membrane surface, including hydrophobic/hydrophilic properties, membrane charge (zeta
potential), surface roughness, pore size, and pore size distribution.

Coming to the focus area, i.e., fruit juice processing, significant development has happened
over the time to retain the quality of fruit juices, along with the elements that could
potentially reduce the shelf life of the fruit juices. However, juices with high acidic character,
high concentration of dissolved particulates or microbial contents are still a challenge to be
handled as they increase the rate of fouling and concentration polarization in the membrane.

25
 CHAPTER 10

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Mulder M. Basic principles of membrane technology. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic

Publishers; 1991.
2. Marco Mazzotti, Matteo Gazzani, Federico Milella, Paolo Gabrielli. Membrane
separations, Rate controlled separation processes, Department of Mechanical and
Process Engineering, ETH Zurich HS-2016.
3. S. Lakshmi Sandhya Rani, R. Vinoth Kumar (2021), Insights on applications of low-
cost ceramic membranes in wastewater treatment: A mini-review, Case Studies in
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The knowledge and experience acquired by the group though the project work is priceless.
We are highly indebted to the relentless efforts put by our faculty, mentors and classmates,
extending their selfless efforts for the successful completion of this mini project for the
academic year 2021-22.

We are thankful to our supervisor, Dr. Vinoth Kumar Raja, Head, Dept. of Chemical
Engineering, for the guidance and supervision throughout the period of project.

We thank Ms. S L Sandhya Rani, Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, for her
help and guidance in providing the basic insight about the focus area as well as in guiding our
path for finding relevant reference material for the same.

We are grateful to our Faculty, Department of Chemical Engineering, and laboratory staff
who have delivered their support for the collection of necessary information and in nurturing
our knowledge about the assigned focus area, as well as in helping us in learning about the
respective lab equipment available in the institute for the same.

We profusely render our gratitude to our parents and our friends for their tireless support in
helping us succeed in the completion of mini project.

Sincerely,

Abhiram Kalluri (220101) Mankala Karthik (220119)

Harish H R (220110) G C S Vignesh (220132)

Jithesh Kumar (220111) Manish Saini (220118)

Date: April 30, 2022

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