History U1

Nationalism in Europe
The French Revolution
During the 19th century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought
different changes like the emergence of nation states. The first idea of
nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. It led to the
transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to an assembly of French
citizens. Measures were introduced by revolutionaries to create a sense
of collective identity amongst the French, like la patrie (the fatherland)
and le citoyen (the citizens).
╰ new french flag
╰ standardised administration
╰ hymns composed
╰ martyrs remembered
╰ internal customs & dues were abolished
╰ Estate General elected by the body of citizens and renamed as the
National Assembly
╰ regional dialects discouraged
╰ French was accepted for speaking and Paris language was accepted
for writing.

Napoleonic Code
Napoleon destroyed democracy in France and introduced the Civil Code
of 1804.
╰ removed all privileges based on birth
╰ equality before law
╰ right to property
╰ simplified administrative divisions in Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy
and Germany
╰ abolished feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and
manorial dues
╰ removed guild suystem in towns
╰ transport and communication systems improved
╰ universal laws
╰ standardised weights
╰ common national currency

Making of Nationalism in Europe

In the mid 18th century, there were no nation states in Europe. Germany,
Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons,
whose rulers had autonomous territories, they did not share a common
culture.
╰ the Habsburg empire ruled over Austria and Hungary
╰ combination of many religions and people
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 ╰ half of the population spoke magyar

╰ the other half spoke a variety of dialects
╰ in Galicia, the aristocracy spoke polish

Aristocracy & the Middle Class

╰ socially and politically ╰ in the Western and Central
dominant parts, there was an emergence
╰ owned estate and propter in of commercial classes
the country ╰ existence based on production
╰ lived in town houses for the market
╰ as a result, industrialists,
businessmen and professionals
came into existence.

Liberal Nationalism
The ideas of national unity in the 19th century were closely related to
the idealogy of liberalism . For the new middle classes, it meant freedom
for individual and equality of all before the law. In France,
╰ right to vote and get elected
╰ exclusively
╰ to people who owned property
During the 18th and 19th centuries, women and non-propertied men
organised opposition movements demanding equal political rights.

In the economic sphere, liberalism meant

╰ freedom of markets
╰ abolition of restrictions
╰ imposed by the state on the movement of goods and capital
In 1834, a Customs Union or Zollverein was formed.
╰ abolished tariff barriers
╰ reduced number of currencies from over thirty to two.

Conservatism
After Napoleons defeat, European governments were inspired by a spirit
of conservatism.
╰ believed that the following be preserved:
╰ monarchy
╰ church
╰ property
╰ hierarchies

Treaty of Vienna
European powers Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria who had
collectively defeated Napoleon met at Vienna to draw a settlement for
Europe

 It was hosted +by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich and they drew
the Treaty of Vienna of 1815. The main intention was to restore
monarchy and create new conservative order in Europe.
╰ Bourbon dynasty restored to power
╰ France lost territories which it had annexed under Napoleon.
╰ states set up on the boundaries of France to prevent expansion.
╰ Kingdom of Netherlands (included Belgium) was set up in the North
╰ Genoa added to Piedmont on the South.
╰ Prussia given territory on the west (Saxony)
╰ Austria given control of Northern Italy
╰ Russia given part of Poland
╰ German confederation of 39 states not effected

Revolutionaries
Liberal nationalists opposed monarchial forms that had been established
after the Vienna Congress.
╰ fight for liberty and freedom
╰ saw creation of nation states as a necessary part in the struggle for
freedom

Guiseppe Mazzini
╰ born in Genoa in 1807
╰ joined Carbonari
╰ in the 1830’s, he formed secret societies ‘Young Italy’ (Versailles) &
‘Young Europe’ (Burns).

Age of Revolution
Liberalism and Nationalism was associated with the revolution in many
regions of Europe like the Italian and German states, the Ottoman
Empire, Ireland and Poland. These were led by nationalists belonging to
the educated middle class.
╰ Bourbon kings overthrown by liberal revolutionaries
╰ installed Louis Phillipe as the constitutional monarch
╰ July Revolution in Brussels
╰ Belgium separating away from the U.K of Netherlands
╰ Greece War
╰ happened under the control of Ottoman Turkish Empire
╰ started from 1821
╰ lauded by Europeans
╰ “Cradle of European Civilisation’
╰ Greeks in exile supported it
╰ english poet Lord Byron supported greece
╰ collected funds
╰ went to war
╰ died of a fever in 1824
╰ attained independence in 1832
╰ Treaty of Constantinople recognised it as a nation state.
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 Romanticism
The development of Nationalism also came through culture and it played
an important role in creating the idea of the nation. Romanticists:
╰ criticised glorification of science and reasoning, instead believed in
╰ mystical feelings
╰ emotion
╰ intuition
╰ instead, they emphasised on these to create a sense of a shared
collective heritage as a basis of a nation,
╰ culture
╰ dance
╰ music
╰ language
╰ folk song
Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803)
╰ romanticist
╰ claimed true german culture was to be discovered through
╰ das volk (common people)
╰ volkgeist (true spirit of )
╰ collection of folklore
Poland supported the nationalist feeling through music and language.
Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through
╰ music - opera
╰ dance - Murzuka/Polanise

Language as a Weapon
After Russian occupation on Poland, there were many changes that the
Russian government imposed on Poland.
╰ Polish forced out of schools
╰ replaced with Russian
╰ In 1831, there was a rebellion against Russian — crushed by them
╰ clergies in Poland used polish as a weapon
╰ used it to reach and give religious instructions
╰ punished by sending them to jail & Siberia

Hunger, Hardship and Revolt

The 1830’s were the first years of great economic hardship in Europe.
The first half of the 19th century saw an enormous increase in
population and people from rural areas migrated to cities to liv din
overcrowded slums.
╰ job seekers were more than job openings
╰ shortage of food due to bad harvest
╰ increased prices
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 ╰ small producers could not compete with industrial goods

Silesian Weavers Revolt 1845

╰ All weavers were under contractors

╰ contractors supplied raw materials
╰ weavers return final product
╰ weavers paid wages
╰ During the Industrial Era,
╰ contractor reduced wages
╰ took advantage of unemployment
╰ weavers took procession
╰ marched toward weaver’s mansion
╰ demanded increase in wages
╰ treated with scorn
╰ broke into the mansion
╰ destroyed supplies
╰ broke window planes made out of porcelain
╰ contractor flees with his family
╰ looks around for shelter for oner 24 hours
╰ returns with a requisitioned army
╰ weavers shot dead

Paris Hunger Revolt 1848

The population of paris revolted due to food shortage and widespread
unemployment. Barricades were erected and Louis Phillips was forced to
free. As a result, A National Assembly proclaimed a republic and
granted suffrage to adult males above 21 and guaranteed them the
right to work. National workshops were set up to provide employment.

Revolution of the Liberals 1848

In other parts of Europe like Germany, Italy, Poland and the Austro-
Hungarian Empire, men and women of the liberal middle classes
combined their demands for creation of a nation state. This demand was
based on parliamentary principles like the constitution, freedom of press
and the freedom of association.

May Revolution
On 18th May 1848, elected representatives assembled in the chord of St.
Paul to draft a constitution for a German nation. According to it,
╰ nation to be headed by a monarchy under parliamentary control
╰ offered consituititnal monarchy to Friedrich Willhelm IV (King of
Prussia)
╰ rejected by him
╰ joined other monarchs to oppose the assembly

 The parliament was dominated by the middle classes, who resisted the
demands of workers and artisans due to which it lost the support of its
members. In the end, the assembly was disbanded.

Issue of Political Rights to Women

The issue of extending political rights to women was a dispute within the
liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated
actively over the years.
╰ women:
╰ formed political associations
╰ founded newspapers
╰ took part in political meetings
In 1848, conservative forces suppressed liberal movements but could not
restore the old order. After 1848, monarchies of Central and Eastern
Europe introduced changes that had already been introduced in
Western Europe before 1815:
╰ serfdom and bonded labour abolished
╰ both in Habsburg dominions and in Russia.

Unification of Germany
After 1848, nationalist sentiments were promoted by conservative often
for capturing state power and political dominion over Europe. In
Germany, nationalist feelings were widespread among the middle class.
In 1848, the middle class
╰ tried to unite different regions of the German confederation into a
nation state
╰ governed by an elected parliament
╰ Prussia took on the leadership of this moment
Can military bring unification?
╰ GV Otto von Bismarck
╰ chief minister of Prussia
╰ aimed to achieve unification
╰ through Prussian army and bureaucracy
╰ Blood & iron policy
Major events that lead to the unification were:
╰ three wars fought
╰ Austria
╰ Denmark
╰ France
╰ Prussia wins.
╰ completes the process of unification
╰ German Empire head
╰ On 18th January, 1871, an Assembly comprising the princes of the
German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian
ministers including the Chief Minister Oto von Bismarck, declared
the new German Empire headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.
╰ strong emphasis on & modernised
╰ currency
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 ╰ banking
╰ legal and judicial systems in Germany

Unification of Italy
During the middle of the 19th century Italy was fragmented into seven
states, out of which only one (Sardinia-Piedmont) was ruled by an Italian
Prince. The centre was ruled by the Pope and Southern regions were
ruled by the Bourbon king of Spain.

]
╰ Parma
Northern Part:
╰ Modina
Under Austrian
╰ Tuscany
Lombardy Habsburg
╰
╰ Venita
╰ Papal State
╰ under French army
╰ Sicilles
╰ under Spain
Famous Personalities
╰ Guiseppe Mazzina
╰ revolutionary during the 1830s who supported unification of the
Italian states.
╰ formed ‘Young Italy’
╰ to promote unification
╰ "One, free, independent, republican nation’.
╰ Metternich described him as 'the most dangerous enemy of our
social order’.

╰ Count Camillo Cavour

╰ Chief Minster of Sardinia - Piedmont
╰ spoke French better than Italian
╰ neither a democrat nor a revolutionary
╰ led the movement to unify regions of italy
╰ entered into an alliance with France
╰ succeeded in defeating Austrian Forces in 1859.
╰ completed the Northern parts’ unification (except Venita)
╰ died later on 6 June 1861

╰ Guiseppe Garibaldi
╰ prominent personality in the unification of Italy
╰ joined the Young Italy moment
╰ founded Red Shirts
╰ participated in a republican uprising in Piedmont in 1834.
╰ supported Victor Emmanuel I in 1854 for his effort
╰ King of Sardinia - Piedmont
╰ led the famous expedition to South Italy and the Kingdom of two
Sicilies in 1860 with his ‘Red Shirt’ army
╰ in 1867, led the army to Rome to fight for Papal states where a
French garrison was stationed
╰ France retreats to fight the Unification of Germany
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 ╰ Victor Emmanuel II enters Papal State and finishes unification

of Italy

Major Event in the Unification of Italy

In 1860, the army (regular troops and armed volunteers) under Garibaldi
marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
╰ succeeded in winning support of local peasants to drive out Spanish
rulers
╰ Victor Emmanuel II declared king of United Italy in 1861
╰ Tuscany, Modena, Parma and the Papal joined with Sardinia
╰ by March of 1860, entire Central Italy united with Piedmont
╰ Rome became part of Sardinia

Unification of Britain: Why was it unique?

There was no British nation before the the British primary identities of
the people who inhabited the British Isles were Ethnic ones like
English,Welsh, Scot or Irish.

The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the
formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. By this Act, Secotland
was incorporated in England. Hence, the British Parliament was
dominated by its English members.

Incorporation of Ireland
╰ divided into Catholics and Protestants
╰ the English supported Protestants of Ireland to establish dominance
╰ revolt raised by Catholics suppressed
╰ in 1798, after a revolt led by Wolfe Tone, Ireland was forcibly included
the United Kingdom of Britain in 1801,

A new ‘British’ nation was established through the propagation of a

dominant English culture. New symbols, flags and national anthems:
╰ British Flag (Union Jack)
╰ National Anthem (God Save our Noble King)
These were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as
subordinate partners in this union.

Allegory
It is the personification of abstract ideas via a female figure.
╰ French/Marianse
╰ red hat with cockade
╰ tricolor flag
╰ Germania
╰ crown of oak leaves (symbolises heroism)