Model Control Systems Transfer Functions

Mathematical Modeling of
Control Systems
Control System Design Procedure
1. Modeling of control systems
2. Analysis of control systems
3. Design controller for the control system

Control system modeling
1. Differential equation
2. Transfer function
3. State-space
Control system analysis Control System Design Techniques

1. Transient response 1. Time Domain Analysis
2. Stability 2. Frequency Domain Analysis
3. Steady-state error
Control System Analysis: Example 1
Figure: Elevator Control

system example
▪ When the fourth-floor button is pressed on the first floor, the elevator rises
to the fourth floor with a speed and floor-leveling accuracy designed for
passenger comfort.
▪ The push of the fourth-floor button is an input that represents our desired
output, shown as a step function in Figure above. The performance of the
elevator can be seen from the elevator response curve in the figure.
Control System Analysis: Example 2
Antenna Positioner: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JIluQV0NzOY
Figure: Antenna azimuth position control system
Figure: Antenna azimuth position control system
Figure: Response of a position control system, showing effect of high
and low controller gain on the output response
The Laplace Transform and
Transfer Function
What is Laplace Transform?
▪ A technique to solve differential equation.
▪ Transforming time domain function to frequency domain function.

Laplace Transform Definition: F ( s) = 
0−
f (t )e − st dt
Why use Laplace Transform?
▪ Solving differential equation is easy that is through algebra. No need to

carry out differentiation or integration.
Laplace Transform Table
Laplace Transform Theorem?
Laplace Transform Theorem?
Example of Laplace Transform technique?
Integral Approach: Laplace Transform Approach:
dy dy
= a zero initial condition = a with zero initial condition
dt dt
t Taking Laplace Transform
y (t ) = adt = at t0 = at
  dy 
L   = L[ a ]
0  dt 
a
sY ( s ) =
s
a
Y (s) = 2
s
Taking Inverse Laplace Transform
a
L−1[Y ( s )] = L−1  2 
s 
y (t ) = at
Find the Laplace Transform of f (t ) = Ae − at u (t )
Solve using Laplace Transform definition
  
F (s) = 
0

0

f (t )e − st dt = Ae − at e − st dt = A e − ( s + a )t dt
0

 A − ( s + a )t  A
F ( s ) = − e  =
 s + a 0 s + a
Find the Laplace Transform of f (t ) = Ae − at u (t )
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
Using Table, item no 5: time shifting theorem

Solve using Laplace
Transform Table: 1
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) → 𝐹(𝑠) =
𝑠+𝑎
By linearity theorem
𝐿[𝑘𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑘𝐹(𝑠)
Therefore:
𝐴
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) → 𝐹(𝑠) =
𝑠+𝑎
What is Transfer Function Model?
▪ Frequency domain mathematical model that separate

input from output:
dc(t ) C ( s) 1
+ 2c(t ) = r (t ) =
dt R( s ) s + 2
dc(t )
+ 2c(t ) = r (t )
dt
sC ( s ) + 2C ( s ) = R ( s )
C (s) 1
=
R(s) s + 2
Converting differential equation to transfer function:
d 3c(t ) d 2 c(t ) dc(t ) dr 2 (t ) dr (t )

3
+3 +7 + 5c(t ) = + 4 + 3r (t )
dt dt 2 dt dt 2
dt
s 3C ( s) + 3s 2C ( s) + 7 sC ( s) + 5C ( s) = s 2 R( s) + 4sR( s) + 3R( s)
C ( s )(s 3 + 3s 2 + 7 s + 5) = R( s)(s 2 + 4s + 3)
C ( s) s 2 + 4s + 3
= 3
R( s) s + 3s 2 + 7 s + 5
Converting transfer function to differential equation:
2s + 1
C (s)
G(s) = 2 =
s + 6s + 2 R( s)
C ( s)[s 2 + 6s + 2] = R( s)[2s + 1]
C ( s) s 2 + C ( s)6s + 2C ( s) = R( s)2s + R( s )
d 2 c(t ) dc(t ) dr (t )
+6 + 2c(t ) = 2 + r (t )
dt 2 dt dt
What is State Space Model?
Given a system, we follow these steps to get an SS model:
1. System variables: Select a subset of all possible system variables as states and
determine inputs & outputs.
2. State differential equations: Write n simultaneous, first-order DEs of the
states in terms of the states and inputs for an nth-order system.
3. Initial conditions: If we know the initial conditions of all the states at t0 as well
as the inputs for t ≥ t0, we can solve the simultaneous DEs for the states for
t ≥ t0.
4. Output-state relation equations: Write linear relations of the outputs in terms
of the states and inputs for t ≥ t0.
5. State space (SS) representation: The state and output equations represent a
viable representation of the system.
▪ States: Typically the minimum number of states required to describe a system

equals the order of the system DE. We can define more states than the
minimum set; however, within this minimal set the states must be linearly
independent.
▪ Inputs & outputs: Single-input, single-output (SISO) systems are a unique case
of general multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) systems. The output and
input of a SISO system are represented by scalar quantities. The outputs and
inputs of a MIMO system are represented by vector quantities.
Transfer Function of Translational
Mechanical System
Friction Models for Translational Systems
▪ Whenever there is motion or tendency of motion between two physical

elements, frictional forces exist.
▪ The frictional forces encountered in physical systems are usually of a

nonlinear nature.
▪ The characteristics of the frictional forces between two contacting surfaces

often depend on such factors as the composition of the surfaces, the
pressure between the surfaces, and their relative velocity among others,
so an exact mathematical description of the frictional force is difficult.
▪ Three different types of friction are commonly used in practical systems:

viscous friction, static friction, and Coulomb friction.
Viscous Friction: It represents a retarding force that is a linear relationship
between the applied force and velocity. The schematic diagram element for
viscous friction is often represented by a dashpot, such as that shown in
Figure. The mathematical expression of viscous friction is shown in Figure
where B is the viscous frictional coefficient.
Figure: Functional relation

between the viscous frictional
force and velocity
▪ Static friction: It represents a retarding force that tends to prevent motion
from beginning. The static frictional force can be represented by the
expression which is defined as a frictional force that exists only when the
body is stationary but has a tendency of moving.
▪ The sign of the friction depends on the direction of motion or the initial
direction of velocity. The force-to-velocity relation of static friction is
illustrated in Figure. Notice that, once motion begins, the static frictional
force vanishes and other frictions take over.
▪ Coulomb friction: It is a retarding force that has constant amplitude with
respect to the change of velocity, but the sign of the frictional force
changes with the reversal of the direction of velocity. The mathematical
relation for the Coulomb friction is given in Figure, where FC is the is the
Coulomb friction coefficient. The functional description of the friction-to-
velocity relation is shown in Figure.
▪ It should be pointed out that the three types of frictions cited here are
merely practical models that have been devised to portray frictional
phenomena found in physical systems. They are by no means exhaustive or
guaranteed to be accurate.
▪ In many unusual situations, we have to use other frictional models to

represent the actual phenomenon accurately. For linear system modeling,
we choose an appropriate friction model.
Friction Models for Rotational Systems
▪ The three types of friction described for translational motion can be

carried over to the motion of rotation.
Viscous Friction
Static Friction
Coulomb Friction
Example 1:
K x(t)
f(t)
fv1
M
fv2
Modeling Steps:
1. Decide the input and the output

2. The free body diagram of the mass M
3. The frequency-domain representation of the forces
4. The transfer function
Step 1: Decide input and output
Input variable:
K x(t)
Applied force f (t )
f(t)
fv1
M
fv2 Output variable:
Mass position x(t )

Mass velocity x (t )
Mass acceleration x(t )
Step 2: The free body diagram
K x(t)
x(t )
kx(t )
f(t)
f v1 x (t )
fv1 Mx(t ) M f (t )
M
fv2
f v 2 x (t )
Step 3: The frequency response representation
Figure: Force-velocity, force-displacement, and impedance translational

relationships for springs, viscous dampers, and mass
x(t ) X (s )
kx(t )
kX (s )
f v1 x (t )
f (t ) f v1 sX ( s )
Mx(t ) M M F (s )
2
Ms X ( s )
f v 2 x (t ) f v 2 sX ( s )
X (s )
kX (s )
f v1sX ( s )
M F (s )
Ms 2 X ( s )
f v 2 sX ( s )
Output Input
Ms 2 X ( s ) + ( f v1+ f v 2 ) sX ( s ) + kX ( s ) = F ( s )
Step 4: Transfer Function
If the position of the mass is the interested output: x(t ) → X ( s )
X ( s) 1
G( s) = =
F ( s) Ms 2 + ( f v1 + f v 2 ) s + k
If the velocity of the mass is the interested output: x (t ) → sX ( s )
X ( s) s 1
G( s) = =
F ( s) 1
Ms + ( f v1 + f v 2 ) + k
s
If the acceleration of the mass is the interested variable: x(t ) → X ( s ) s 2
X (s)s 2 1
G (s) = =
F (s) 1 1
M + ( f v1 + f v 2 ) + k 2
s s
Example 2:
Modeling Steps:

2. The free body diagram of the mass M
3. The frequency-domain representation of the forces
4. The transfer function
Step 1: Input and Output variables
Position, velocity or
Input variable: f (t ) Output variable:
acceleration of the mass
Step 2,3 and 4: The free body diagram, the frequency response
representation and the transfer function equation – Mass M1
x1 (t )
f v3 X 1 ( s) s f v3 X 3 ( s) s
M 1 X 1 (s)s 2
k 2 X 1 (s)
k1 X 1 ( s ) M1
f v1 X 1 ( s ) s k 2 X 2 (s)
Terms related to x1 Terms not related to x1
(M s
1
2
)
+ f v1s + f v3 s + k1 + k 2 X 1 ( s ) − f v3 X 3 ( s ) s − k 2 X 2 ( s ) = 0
x2 (t )
f v 4 X 2 (s)s
f v 4 X 3 (s)s
M 2 X 2 (s) s 2 F (s )
M2
k 2 X 2 (s) k 2 X 1 (s)
f v 2 X 2 (s)s
(M 2 s 2
)
+ f v 2 s + f v 4 s + k 2 X 2 ( s ) − f v4 X 3 ( s ) s − k 2 X 1 ( s ) = F ( s )
x3 (t )
f v3 X 3 ( s) s f v 4 X 3 (s)s
M 3 X 3 ( s)s 2 f v3 X 1 ( s) s
M3 f v 4 X 2 (s)s
(M s
3
2
)
+ f v3 s + f v 4 s X 3 ( s) − f v3 X 1 ( s) s − f v 4 X 2 ( s) s = 0
representation and the transfer function equation – Mass M1,
M2 and M3
(K 1 + K 2 + f v3 s + f v1s + M 1s 2 ) X 1 ( s) (− K 2 )X 2 ( s) (− f v3 s ) X 3 (s) = 0
(− K 2 ) X 1 ( s) (K 2 + f v 2 s + f v 4 s + M 2 s 2 )X 2 ( s) (− f v4 s ) X 3 ( s) = F (s )
(− f v3 s ) X 1 ( s) (− f v4 s ) X 2 (s) (f v3 s + f v4 s + M 3s 2 ) X 3 (s) = 0
 s 2 M 1 + s ( f v1 + f v3 ) + (k1 + k 2 ) − k2 − sf v3  X1   0 
    
 − k2 s 2 M 2 + s( f v 2 + f v 4 ) + k 2 − sf v 4   X 2  = F 
 − sf v3 − sf v 4 s 2 M 3 + s ( f v3 + f v 4 )  X 3   0 
 
Assume all parameters equal to 1
s 2 + 2s + 2 −1 − s  X1   0 
    
 −1 s + 2s + 1
2
− s   X 2  = F 
 −s −s s 2 + 2 s   X 3   0 
 
s 2 + 2s + 2 −1 − s  X1   0 
    
 − 1 s 2
+ 2 s + 1 − s   X 2  = F 
 −s −s s 2 + 2 s   X 3   0 
 
If we are interested to control the position of the mass M2, then solve for X2.
Cramer’s rule:
s 2 + 2s + 2 0 −s
−1 F −s
−s 0 s 2 + 2s
X2 =
s 2 + 2s + 2 −1 −s
−1 s 2 + 2s + 1 −s
−s −s s 2 + 2s
Using MATLAB
s 2 + 2s + 2 0 −s
−1 F −s
−s 0 s 2 + 2s F (4 s 3 + 16s 2 + 20s + 16)
X2 = =
s + 2s + 2
2
−1 −s s 5 + 6 s 4 + 13s 3 + 16s 2 + 8s + 2
−1 s 2 + 2s + 1 −s
−s −s s 2 + 2s
X 2 ( s) 4s 3 + 16s 2 + 20s + 16
G( s) = = 5
F ( s) s + 6s 4 + 13s 3 + 16s 2 + 8s + 2
Example 3:
Transfer Function of Rotational
Mechanical Systems
without Gearing
Figure: Torque-angular velocity, torque-angular displacement, and impedance rotational
relationships for springs, viscous dampers, and inertia
Example 1:
Modeling Steps:
1. Decide input and the output

2. Draw the free body diagram of the masses
3. Convert to the frequency-domain representations
4. Create transfer function
Step 1: Decide Input and Output
Input variable: Output variable:

Any angular position, velocity
T (t ) or acceleration of the
rotational masses
Step 2: The free body diagram J1
k 2 1
Terms related to θ1
J 11
T J1 J 11 + D11 + K1 − K 2 = T

D11
K1
K1 2
J 22
J 22 + D22 + K 2 − D23 − K1 = 0

D23
J2
D22
K 2
3
J 33
D22
J3 J 33 + D23 + D33 − D22 = 0
D23
D33
Inertial 1: s 2 J 11 ( s ) + sD11 ( s ) + K1 ( s ) − K 2 ( s ) = T
Inertial 2: s 2 J 2 2 ( s ) + sD 2 2 ( s ) + K 2 ( s ) − sD 2 3 ( s ) − K1 ( s ) = 0
Inertial 3: s J 3 3 ( s ) + sD 2 3 ( s ) + sD3 3 ( s ) − sD 2 2 ( s ) = 0
2
Put the equations in matrix form
 s 2 J1 + sD1 + K −K 0  1  T 
    
 −K s 2 J 2 + sD2 + K − sD2   2  =  0 
 0 − sD2 s 2 J 3 + s ( D2 + D3 )  3   0 
 
 s 2 J1 + sD1 + K −K 0  1  T 
    
−K s J 2 + sD2 + K − sD2   2  =  0 
2

 0 − sD2 s 2 J 3 + s ( D2 + D3 )  3   0 
 
If we are interested to control the position of the mass J3, then solve for θ3.
Cramer’s rule:
s 2 J 1 + sD1 + K −K T
−K s 2 J 2 + sD2 + K 0
0 − sD2 0
3 =
s 2 J1 + sD1 + K −K 0
−K s 2 J 2 + sD2 + K − sD2
0 − sD2 s 2 J 3 + s ( D2 + D3 )
Using MATLAB
s 2 J1 + sD1 + K −K T
−K s 2 J 2 + sD2 + K 0
0 − sD2 0
 3 (s) =
s 2 J1 + sD1 + K −K 0
−K s 2 J 2 + sD2 + K − sD2
0 − sD2 s 2 J 3 + s ( D2 + D3 )
Example 2:
Find the transfer function between T (t ) and  2 (t )

Transfer Function of Rotational Mechanical
System with Gearing
Basic of Gearing System
Gearing System – Position relationship
1. Distance travel by Gear 1 must equal

distance travel by Gear 2
r11 = r2 2
r1  2
=
r2 1
2. Ratio of radius between Gear 1 and
Transfer Function
Gear 2 is equal to ratio of number of
teeth between Gear 1 and Gear 2
N1 r1  2
= =
N 2 r2 1
Gearing System – Torque relationship
1. Assume work generated by Gear 1

is equal to work consumed by Gear 2
W1 = W2
T11 = T2 2
2. From previous result
T11 = T2 2
T1  2
Transfer Function =
T2 1
T1 N1
=
T2 N 2
Example 1:
Modeling Steps:

2. Draw free body diagram of the inertia
3. Convert time function to frequency-domain
4. Obtain the transfer function
Step 1: Input and Output Variables
Output variable: Angular position of

input shaft θ1(t)
Output variable: Angular position
of input shaft
θ2(t)
Input variable:
Step 2: The free body diagram of J
Step 3: The differential equation of J
2
J2
N2
T1
N1 J
D2
K 2
N2
J2 + D2 + K 2 = T1
N1
N2
( Js 2 + Ds + K ) 2 = T1
N1
Step 4: Transfer Function – θ2(t) as output
N2
Inertial J: J2 + D2 + K 2 = T1
N1
By Laplace Transform
N2
Inertial J: s 2 J 2 ( s ) + sD 2 ( s ) + K 2 ( s ) = T1
N1
 2 ( s) N2
=
T1 ( s ) N1 ( Js 2 + Ds + K )
N2
Inertial J: J 2 + D 2 + K 2 = T1
 
N1
N1
Gear system
relationship
2 = 1
N2
N2
( s 2 J + sD + K ) 2 ( s ) = T1 ( s 2 J + sD + K )1 ( s )
N1 N
= T1 2
N1 N2 N1
1 ( s ) 1
= 2 2 2
T1 ( s )  N1   N1   N1 
(
N   Js 2
+ 
N 
 Ds + 
N   K)
 2   2   2 
1 ( s ) 1
= 2 2 2 Gearing system causes
T1 ( s )  N1   N1   N1 
(
N   Js 2
+ 
N 
 Ds + 
N   K) impedance transfer
 2   2   2 
2
 N Destination 
K Destination = K Source  
 N Source 
2
 N1 
K S1 = KS2  
 2
N
1 ( s ) 1
= 2 2 2
T1 ( s )  N1   N1   N1 
(
N   Js 2
+ 
N 
 Ds + 
N   K)
 2   2   2 
1 ( s ) 1
= 2 2 2
T1 ( s )  N1   N1   N1 
(
N   Js 2
+ 
N 
 Ds + 
N   K)
 2   2   2 
Example 2:
 2 (s)
Find Transfer Function?
T1 ( s )
Shaft 1 - Source
Shaft 2 - Destination
2
 N2 
De = D2 + D1   N2 because destination
 N1  is shaft 2
2
 N2 
J e = J 2 + J1   N2 because destination
 N1  is shaft 2
There is no rotational
spring at shaft 1
Ke = K2
2
J e2
N2
T1
N1
Je
De2
K e 2
N2
J e 2 + De 2 + K e 2 = T1
 
N1
Transfer Function of Passive
Electrical Networks
What is the meaning of single loop and multi-loop electrical network?
Single loop network Multi-loop electrical network

(one mesh or current) (more than one mesh or current)
How to creating transfer function for a passive electrical system:
Following four Steps:

1. Decide input and output
2. Convert each component representation to frequency domain
representation
3. Obtain relationship between voltage and current (Ohm’s law)
4. Obtain transfer function between output and input
Creating transfer function for a single-loop passive electrical
system:
Input:
Supply voltage v(t)
Output:
Capacitor voltage vc(t)
Step 2: Convert into frequency domain
Table Conversion
between Time
Domain and
Frequency Domain
Time Domain Frequency domain

Step 3: Obtain relationship between voltage and current
(Ohm’s Law)
1
V ( s) = ( Ls + R + ) I ( s)
Cs
Step 4: Obtain transfer function between output and input
Frequency domain Input = V ( s )

Output = Vc ( s)
1
Vc ( s ) = I (s)
Cs
1
V ( s) = ( Ls + R +
)CsVc ( s)
Cs
V ( s) output 1
G(s) = c = =
V ( s) input CLs 2 + CRs + 1
Creating transfer function of two-loop electrical network
Steps:
2. Convert to frequency domain
3. Obtain relationship between
voltage and current (Ohm’s
law)
4. Obtain transfer function
between output and input
Input v(t )
Output i2 (t )
Step 2: Convert to Frequency domain
Step 3: Relationship between voltage and current
Loop 1:
1. Loop by loop analysis R1 I1 ( s ) + LsI 1 ( s ) − LsI 2 ( s ) = V ( s )

2. Two equations since
there is three loops Loop 2:
1
R2 I 2 ( s ) + I 2 ( s) + LsI 2 ( s) − LsI1 ( s) = 0
Cs
Step 4: Obtain transfer function
R1 I1 ( s ) + LsI 1 ( s ) − LsI 2 ( s ) = V ( s )
1
R2 I 2 ( s ) + I 2 ( s) + LsI 2 ( s) − LsI1 ( s) = 0
Cs
 R1 + Ls − Ls   I ( s )  V ( s )
  
1
 =
+ Ls   I 2 ( s )  0 
1
 − Ls R2 +
 Cs 
Let R1 = 1; R2 = 1; L = 1; C = 1
1 + s − s   I ( s )  V ( s ) 
 s 2 + s + 1  1  =  
 −s   I 2 ( s)  0 
 s 
V (s) −s
1 + s V (s)
s2 + s +1
0 −s 0
I1 ( s ) =
s I 2 (s) =
1+ s −s 1+ s −s
s2 + s +1 s + s +1
2
−s −s
s s
1 + s V (s)
−s 0 V (s)s
I 2 (s) = =
1+ s −s (1 + s )(s 2 + s + 1)
s2 + s +1 + s2
−s s
s
s 2V ( s )
I 2 (s) =
s 3 + ( s + 1)(s 2 + s + 1)
s 2V ( s)
I 2 ( s) =
s 3 + ( s + 1)(s 2 + s + 1)
s 2V ( s )
I 2 ( s ) s 3 + ( s + 1)(s 2 + s + 1) s2
G ( s) = = = 3
V ( s) V (s) s + ( s + 1)(s 2 + s + 1)
Creating transfer function of multi-loop electrical network
Steps:
2. Convert to frequency domain
3. Obtain relationship between
voltage and current (Ohm’s
law)
4. Obtain transfer function
between output and input
Input:
Supply voltage V(s)
Output:
Capacitor voltage Vc(s)
Step 3: Obtain relationship between voltage and current (Ohm’s Law)
1. Loop by loop analysis

2. Three equations since
there is three loops
(Ohm’s Law)
Loop 1:
(2 + 2 s ) I1 − (1 + 2 s ) I 2 − (1) I 3 = V ( s )
Method
1. Sum impedances around
loop
2. Minus impedances share
with other loops
(Ohm’s Law)
Loop 2:
− (1 + 2 s ) I1 + (1 + 9 s ) I 2 − (4 s ) I 3 = 0
Method
loop
with other loops
(Ohm’s Law)
Loop 3:
1
− (1) I1 − (4s ) I 2 + (4s + + 1) I 3 = 0
s
Method
loop
with other loops
(Ohm’s Law)
(2 + 2 s ) I1 − (1 + 2s ) I 2 − (1) I 3 = V ( s )
−(1 + 2 s ) I1 + (1 + 9 s ) I 2 − (4 s ) I 3 = 0
1
− (1) I1 − (4s ) I 2 + (4s + + 1) I 3 = 0
s
 
 (2 s + 2) − (2 s + 1) −1   I1  V ( s )
− (2s + 1) (9 s + 1) − 4s I  =  0 
  2   
 −1 (4s + s + 1)   I 3   0 
2
− 4s    
 s 
Input = V ( s ) 1
Vc ( s ) = I 3 ( s )
Output = Vc ( s) s
Need to solve this simultaneous equations for I3
 
 (2 s + 2) − (2 s + 1) −1   I1  V ( s )
− (2s + 1) (9 s + 1) − 4s I  =  0 
  2   
 −1 (4s + s + 1)   I 3   0 
2
− 4s    
 s 

 
 (2 s + 2) − (2 s + 1) −1   I1  V ( s )
− (2s + 1) (9 s + 1) − 4s I  =  0 
  2   
 −1 (4s 2 + s + 1)   I 3   0 
− 4s    
 s 
(2 s + 2) − (2 s + 1) V ( s )
− (2 s + 1) (9 s + 1) 0
−1 − 4s 0
I s (s) =
(2 s + 2) − (2 s + 1) −1
− (2 s + 1) (9 s + 1) − 4s
(4 s + s + 1)
2
−1 − 4s
s
110

Model Control Systems Transfer Functions

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Model Control Systems Transfer Functions

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Mathematical Modeling of

1. Modeling of control systems

2. Analysis of control systems

3. Design controller for the control system

Control system analysis Control System Design Techniques

2. Stability 2. Frequency Domain Analysis

Figure: Elevator Control

▪ A technique to solve differential equation.

▪ Transforming time domain function to frequency domain function.

Why use Laplace Transform?

▪ Solving differential equation is easy that is through algebra. No need to

Integral Approach: Laplace Transform Approach:

Find the Laplace Transform of f (t ) = Ae − at u (t )

Solve using Laplace Transform definition

Find the Laplace Transform of f (t ) = Ae − at u (t )

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)

Using Table, item no 5: time shifting theorem

▪ Frequency domain mathematical model that separate

d 3c(t ) d 2 c(t ) dc(t ) dr 2 (t ) dr (t )

Given a system, we follow these steps to get an SS model:

▪ States: Typically the minimum number of states required to describe a system

▪ Whenever there is motion or tendency of motion between two physical

▪ The frictional forces encountered in physical systems are usually of a

▪ The characteristics of the frictional forces between two contacting surfaces

▪ Three different types of friction are commonly used in practical systems:

Figure: Functional relation

▪ In many unusual situations, we have to use other frictional models to

▪ The three types of friction described for translational motion can be

1. Decide the input and the output

Mass position x(t )

Figure: Force-velocity, force-displacement, and impedance translational

If the velocity of the mass is the interested output: x (t ) → sX ( s )

If the acceleration of the mass is the interested variable: x(t ) → X ( s ) s 2

1. Decide the input and the output

Terms related to x1 Terms not related to x1

Terms related to x2 Terms not related to x2

Terms related to x3 Terms not related to x3

Assume all parameters equal to 1

1. Decide input and the output

Input variable: Output variable:

T J1 J 11 + D11 + K1 − K 2 = T

J 22 + D22 + K 2 − D23 − K1 = 0

Inertial 1: s 2 J 11 ( s ) + sD11 ( s ) + K1 ( s ) − K 2 ( s ) = T

Put the equations in matrix form

Find the transfer function between T (t ) and  2 (t )

1. Distance travel by Gear 1 must equal

1. Assume work generated by Gear 1

1. Decide the input and the output

Output variable: Angular position of

Single loop network Multi-loop electrical network

Following four Steps:

Time Domain Frequency domain

Frequency domain Input = V ( s )

1. Loop by loop analysis R1 I1 ( s ) + LsI 1 ( s ) − LsI 2 ( s ) = V ( s )

1. Loop by loop analysis

Need to solve this simultaneous equations for I3

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