Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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June - 2010
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PREFACE
Any comments and suggestions for further improvement of this book would be
greatly appreciated.
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Chapter No. CONTENTS Page No.
1. Value and Importance of mining Industry in Pakistan
and Definition Relating to Mining.
Introduction 1
Mineral Potential of the Country 1
Nature of Mining Industry 2
Present Status of Mining Industry & Major Constraints 2
Future Prospects 4
Definitions Relating to Mining 6
2. Prospecting & Exploration of Mineral Deposits
Sequence of Activities (Introduction) 10
Prospecting procedures 10
Methods of Prospecting (various Techniques involves) 10
Geological Prospecting 10
Geo‐Physical Prospecting 11
Seismic Prospecting 11
Electrical conductivity Prospecting 12
Magnetic Prospecting 12
Geo‐Chemical Prospecting 12
Exploration 13
Difference between Resource & Reserve 13
Difference between proven, Indicated/Probable & Possible 13
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Reserves
Methods of Exploration 13
Comparison of Diamond Drills & Churn Drills 14
3. Development and Exploitation.
Development (Definition) 15
Sequence of Development 15
Exploitation 16
Factors involved in Selection of a Mining Method 16
Classification of Mining Method 17
Surface Mining Methods 17
Underground Mining Methods 18
4. Drilling and Boring
Introduction 20
Difference between Drilling & Boring 20
Types of Drilling Machine 20
Rotary Drilling 20
Percussive Drilling 21
Churn Drilling 22
Hammer Drills Machines 23
Types of Hammer Drills 23
Drifter 24
Sinker 24
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Stoper 24
Boring Method 25
Types of Boring Method 25
Percussive Boring 25
Rotary Boring 25
Tunnel‐Boring Machines 25
5. Explosives
Definition 27
Types of Explosives 27
Low Explosives 27
Black Powder & Gun Powder
High Explosives 28
Nitro‐Glycerin, Dynamites (its types)
Blasting Gelatin 30
Emulsion Explosives 30
Emulite Explosive Products 30
ANFO 31
Permitted Explosive 31
Characteristics of Permitted Explosive 31
Types of Permitted Explosive 32
6. Blasting
Blasting Properties of Explosive 33
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Firing Methods 36
Non Electric 36
Safety Fuse with plain detonator 36
Detonating Cord (Wabo Card) 37
NONEL 38
ii) Electric Firing 39
Instantaneous – Milli‐Second & Half Second Detonators 39
Blasting Patterns 40
Cut Holes, Drag Cut, V‐Cut, Pyramid Cut, Burn Cut, Toe Cut 40
Underground Blasting 43
Shot holes in coal 43
Shot holes in Ripping 44
Surface Blasting 44
Safety Precautions in Drilling & Blasting 45
Direct & Inverse Initiation 45
Stemming Materials 46
Miss‐Fired Shots 46
Procedure after Miss‐Fire 47
7. Underground Supports
Introduction 48
Types of Supports 48
Pillars Supports 48
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Timber Support. & Types of Timber Supports and advantages 48
One Piece Set 49
Two Piece Set 49
Three & Four Pieces and Polygon Set 50
Square Set 50
Rigid Steel Props Types of Rigid Steel Props 51
Grider type 51
New Battle Prop 51
The Butterley Prop 51
S.F.Prop 52
Steel Arches 52
Continuous Rib Type 53
Rib & Post Type 53
Rib and Wall plate type 53
Rib, Wall plate & Post 54
Full Circle rib. 54
Yielding Arches 55
Steel tubing 56
Roof Bolting 56
Types of Roof Bolting 56
Application of Roof Bolting 57
Application of floor Bolting 57
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Advantages of roof and Floor Bolting 58
Friction Prop 58
Hydraulic Props 59
Concrete 60
Stowing/ Waste Fillings 60
Methods of Stowing 60
8. Material Handling
Introduction 62
Loading Machines 62
Surface Loading – Excavation Machine 62
Power Shovels. 62
Drag Lines. 63
Comparison Between power shovels & drag lines. 64
BullDozer. 64
Scraper. 64
Comparison between bulldozers & scrapers. 64
Bucket Wheel Excavator. 65
Front and Loader 66
Underground Loading Machines. 66
Gathering Arm Loaders. 66
Rocker Shovel (Shovel Loader.) 67
Transportation 67
Page VI
Track Haulage 67
Locomotive Haulage‐Advantages.
Types of Locomotive Haulage
Battery Locomotives
Overhead |Trolley wire locomotives.
Rope Haulage 68
Types of Rope Haulage 68
68
Director or Main rope haulage.
Main & tail rope haulage. 69
Endless rope haulage. 69
Gravity Haulage. 70
II) Trackless Haulage 70
Manual (wheel Barrows) 71
Conveyors (Types of conveyors) 71
Shaker Conveyors 71
The Belt conveyor 71
The Scraper chain conveyor 72
III) Shuttle Cars 72
Hoisting – Types of Hoisting 73
Unbalanced Hoisting 73
Balanced Hoisting 73
9. The Atmosphere and Mine Gases
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The Atmosphere 74
Atmospheric Pressure 74
Barometric Changes and their Effects in a Mine 74
Mine Gases 75
Properties, Physiological effects, detection & Uses of
Oxygen. 75
Nitrogen. 75
Carbon Dioxide. 75
Carbon Monoxide. 76
Methane. 77
Hydrogen Sulphide. 78
Sulphur Dioxide (Oxides of Sulphur.) 79
Oxide of Nitrogen. 79
Fire Damp 80
80
Black Damp.
81
White Damp.
81
Stink Damp.
81
After Damp.
Treatment in Cases of Gassing. 82
Procedure to the followed when a person is found unconscious 82
in an irrespirable atmosphere.
10. Ventilation
Natural Ventilation, How it is produced, Calculation for 83
Natural Ventilation.
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Distribution of the Air. 85
Brattice Cloth 85
Stoppings. 86
Doors. 86
Air Crossings. 86
Regulators. 87
Accessional & Descensional Ventilation 88
Homotropal & Antitropal Ventilation 89
Booster Fan (Purpose & Location). 90
Auxiliary Fan (Purpose, types). 90
Advantage & Disadvantages of Forcing Fans. 90
Advantage of Exhaust Fan 91
Fan Ventilation. 91
The Centrifugal or radial flow fan & 91
The Air screw or axial flow fan 92
Comparison between Centrifugal Fans & Air Screw Fan. 93
Reversing of Air. 93
Numericals. 93
11. Mine Water and Its Disposal
Origin and Types of Mine Water 95
Rain Water. 95
Underground Water. 95
Methods of Disposing of Mine Water. 95
Page IX
Drain Tunnels. 96
Hoisting the water. 96
Sumps. 96
Pumping. 96
Hazards of Water. 96
Types of pumps. 96
Reciprocating pumps & their types 96
Bucket or lift pump 97
Piston pump. 97
Ram or plunger pump. 98
Centrifugal, pumps. 99
Turbine pumps. 100
Sludge. 100
Mono pumps 100
Syphon. 102
12. Mineral Dressing
Definition 103
Economic Justification of Mineral Dressing. 103
Various Steps in Mineral Processig. 103
Crushing 103
Definition, Brief Description. 104
Types of crushers 104
Jaw Crushers. 104
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Gyratory Crusher and their comparison. 105
Cone crusher. 106
Rolls. 106
Grinding 107
Definition, Brief Description, Ball Mills. 107
Screening & Sizing 108
Definition, brief Description. 108
Types of Screens 109
Stationary Screen 109
Moving Screen 109
Flotation 109
Definition, Brief Description 109
Types of flotation 109
Direct Floatation 109
Reverse Floatation 109
Washing 110
Definition, Brief Description
13. Sampling and Evaluation
Definition, Purpose and Importance. 111
Introduction to Various Sampling Methods 111
Core drilling 111
Churn Driooling. 112
Rock drills. 112
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Channel sampling. 112
Blasting down large samples. 112
Test pits. 113
By Augar and post hole diggers. 113
Trencling. 113
Salting & its prevention. 113
Theory of Sampling, (Conditioning Ore) 114
Coning and Quartering 114
Valuation of Mines, Various method and necessary information 114
required.
14. Organization, Management, Safety & Welfare
Organization & Types of Organization. 116
Management Duties and Responsibilities 116
Safety & Welfare Aspects, Care of employees. 117
Analysis & Causes of accidents 117
Factors of Accidents in Underground Mining. 119
Factors of Accidents in Open Cut Mining. 119
Prevention of Accidents. 119
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CHAPTER-01
1.1 Introduction:
Pakistan inherited a low mineral base. Mining activity comprised of rock salt, a few
scattered coal mines, chromite, gypsum, lime stone and silica sand. In 1948 the
production of only 4 minerals was recorded. Unlike the other sectors of economy, mineral
sector did not figure prominently in earlier national economic development plans. There
were other pressing needs of the country which attracted higher rating in socio-economic
priorities and the government had to attend to them first. Notwithstanding the fact that the
country needed a firm mineral base of its own for sustained and self-supporting growth of
national economy, the mineral sector suffered from neglect and ignorance which is
evident from its insignificant contribution of less than 1% to GNP. Due to insufficient
geological knowledge, lack of research and development facilities and systematic
planning, shortage of trained and experienced manpower, absence of infrastructure
facilities, inadequate financial allocations and paucity of risk capital the sector as a whole
remained static. While the need for an urgent attention to mineral sector was always felt
but plans of action to achieve the targets remained undefined for lack of proper
understanding of the special needs and challenge of the mining industry vis-à-vis other
industrial and manufacturing sectors. Because of the low priority accorded by the
industrial development strategy to the use of indigenous raw materials the proper
exploitation of national resources did not take place.
The development of mineral resources in any country constitutes only one element of the
national development and needs to be re-structured to fit within the frame work of overall
development strategy. The broad objectives of mineral development includes ensuring
optimum utilization and conservation of mineral resources, earning and saving of foreign
exchange, supply of raw material, inputs to the industries and stimulating socio-economic
development of under-developed regions of the country.
1.2 Mineral Potential of the Country
1.2.1 The sedimentary rocks cover about 80% of the total land of the country and therefore
major mineral resources are of non-metallic minerals and industrial rocks. These include
coal, rock salt, clays, gypsum, lime stone, dolomite, iron ore, barite, fuller’s earth, silica
sand, bentonite etc. The known mineral deposits/showings found in igneous rocks are
onyx marble, sulpher, porphry copper, chromite manganese, magnesite, lead, zinc while
the metamorphic rocks contain fluorite, beryl marble, slates, precious stones garnets etc.
1.2.2 Although about 47 minerals are reported to occur in the country yet the exploration and
exploitation is restricted to only a few viable mineral prospects determined, mainly by the
overall economics of mining and market demands.
1.2.3 The picture of mineral resources in the country is rather vague. Adequate information
about their extent, quality and quantity is not available. This is due to the fact that mineral
exploration and evaluation which is essentially carried out to determine the techno-
economic viability of mineral prospects was accorded low priority. The private sector
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holding 85% of the mineral properties was shy to invest capital in mineral exploration nor
was it worthwhile for them to raise any risk capital. In public sector the pace of mineral
exploration and evaluation remained extremely slow for want of adequate risk capital.
Thus a very small percentage of national resources have gone into this vital activity and
as a result the mineral potential of the country is mainly undetermined and under-utilized.
1.2.4 The industrial rocks and minerals were known to occur before Pakistan came into being
but only a few minerals viz coal, sulphur, chromite etc. were exploited on a small scale.
On account of low priority accorded to the mineral sector in the overall development
strategy no significant progress was made after independence as far as detailed
exploration and evaluation was concerned and only lignite deposits of coal in Sindh.
Hazara Phosphate Saindak copper, China clay and low grade Nepheline Syenite, marble
deposits of NWFP and Baluchistan including the world famous onyx of Chagai and also
Barite deposits of Lasbela and Hazara as well as glass sand deposits of Salt Range,
Punjab, NWFP and Mohmand territories were added to the mineral inventory.
1.2.5 Apart from iron ore, copper and chromite, the other known resources of metallic mineral is
of little economic significance. There are fairly large reserves of iron ore but because of
low grade, complex chemical and mineralogical composition and/or difficult accessibility
these deposits have not been exploited so far. Apparently large low grade deposits of
lead and zinc are known to occur in Baluchistan and the reserves of other metallic
minerals are yet to be evaluated.
1.3 Nature of Mining Industry
1.3.1 It is considered necessary that all those who are associated with this basic industry
should understand the requirements, complexities, special challenges of the mineral
industry.
1.3.2 The nature of mining industry is extra-ordinarily complex. The physical characteristics of
mineral resources, their heterogeneity, their remotes, geological certainties and their
development and processing requirements cause the industry to operate at the levels of
risk higher than those of industrial sector. The elapsed time between mineral discovery
and commercial exploitation may range from 10 to 15 years. Because of these
complexities, long gestation period and inherent risk to capital, return on capital
investment is neither quick nor sure.
1.3.3 Mineral exploration and evaluation is a prime and basic requirement of scientific and
commercial mining. It is essentially carried out to convert resources into reserves and to
establish the techno-economic viability of a mineral prospect. It is a risk venture and the
ratio of risk is at least 1:10 i.e. out of 10 mineral exploration projects only one may prove
viable and the expenditure on remaining 9 prospects becomes abortive. However, the
technological and financial risks have to be taken perforce as without this no development
and expansion in mineral sector can even be envisaged. Moreover due to inherent risks
involved in the criteria for financing, the industrial projects cannot rigidly be applied to
mining industry.
1.4 Present Status of Mining Industry & Major Constraints
1.4.1 The development of mineral sector in Pakistan has not kept pace with the developments
that have taken place in other sectors of economy. Due to low priority, lack of systematic
planning and institutional frame work as well as absence of well defined National Mineral
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Policy, the sector as a whole remained static. The situation aggravated because the
subject of mineral development was transferred back and forth several times between
centre and provinces. The frequent changes in the policy and divided responsibilities led
to the mush rooming of a number of agencies in public sector both at Federal and
Provincial level. There had been no coordination between these agencies and no rules or
guide lines had been laid for this purpose. Besides, the end-using concerns under the
Ministry of Production are also involved in mining. They are only interested in retaining
and operating the mines under their control to the extent of their own requirements
irrespective of production potential of the mineral prospects for other uses internally and
abroad. The present situation has defeated the efforts towards concentrated development
of mineral resources.
1.4.2 The mining industry was in the hands of the private sector and still nearly 85% of the
mining leases/prospecting licenses over more promising and accessible prospects are
under their control. The private sector by and large has made no major contribution to
mineral exploration with the result that the potential of the areas under their control is not
established and the valuable resources have been under-utilized. In the field of
commercial mining the private sector has so far concentrated on the surface minerals
which are easily accessible and easy to mine using wasteful mining techniques. They
have mainly resorted to skimming of high grade deposits which were easily saleable,
without any regard to optimum recovery and beneficiation of low grade minerals. Their
main objective was to earn maximum and quick profits with minimum capital investment
even if it resulted in spoiling of deposits for good. With these short term objectives, they
have been doing booming business in coal, marble, limestone, fireclay, silica sand and
construction materials.
1.4.3 There are not many known mineral deposits of economic significance in the country.
There is, therefore, a growing tendency for competition among public sector agencies as
well as private parties to acquire leases of promising mineral prospects. In this scramble
the respective merits, competency and capability of the agency concerned is often lost
sight of. This has only retarded the progress of mineral sector.
1.4.4 No co-ordination and integrated long-term development plans could be implemented
because of diverse interests and different priorities of the existing mineral development
agencies. As such flexibility of operations, intra-sectoral adjustments and shift in priorities
is almost absent and could not be made since no single organization is responsible for
mineral development.
1.4.5 There is still a gap between mineral discovery and development which has been caused
by the paucity of risk capital and lack of a well equipped mineral exploration and
development agency.
1.4.6 There is no clearly stated National Mineral Policy defining the role of various agencies
involved in exploration and mining and indicating national priorities. As a result, the
mineral development is sporadic and there is a lack of direction and clear cut goals. The
decisions are taken on adhoc basis and this situation puts an obstacle to effective
development of mineral resources.
1.4.7 Multiplicity of agencies has resulted into scattering of limited financial, manpower and
material resources and consequently no single agency is properly equipped to undertake
all facts of mineral development and utilization on its own.
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1.4.8 The policy of fragmented and disjoined mineral leasing is not only uneconomic but also
not keeping with requirements of planned development of mineral sector.
1.4.9 There are several large deposits of low grade minerals which may become commercially
useable if those could be upgraded. Such minerals have not been exploited and utilized
for want of research and development facilities. Whatever arrangements are available
they are inadequate and scattered and are as such incapable of providing reliable and
quick services to mineral exploration and development.
1.4.10 The Pakistan Mining Concession Rules, 1960 and Mines Act 1923 and the regulation
thereto are neither development oriented nor they ensure conservation and optimum
utilization of valuable resources. Each province has its own rules which are largely
divergent. No significant improvement is possible unless a uniform set of rules with regard
to mineral concessions and mine safety are framed and enforced throughout the country.
1.4.11 Mineral deposits are mostly located in remote and under-developed areas of the country
devoid of essential infra-structure facilities and social amenities. This is seriously
inhibiting the development of even small and medium scale mining.
1.4.12 Last but not the least, the financing policy of the Government is conducive to proper long-
term development and expansion of mineral sector. Allocation of interest bearing loan for
risk project of exploration has adversely affected the mineral exploration programme.
1.5 Future Prospects
1.5.1 It is generally believed that Pakistan as a result of intensive exploration will not prove to
be a highly mineralized country, such as Chile or South Africa. There is no doubt that the
mineral industry can be enlarged manifold with more systematic mineral exploration and
evaluation and scientific development of mineral resources.
1.5.2 In view of the expansion of the industrial and agriculture sectors and the development of
new cement factories, fertilizer plants and iron and steel industry, the future requirements
of minerals and energy are expected to increase manifold. Apart from the existing
industrial rocks and minerals which are being produced in commercial quantities the
production of other major prospects could be increased to meet the requirements of the
country.
1.5.3 The estimated coal reserves are of the order of 185 billion tones valuing $ 110 billions
priced at oil equivalent of $ 30 per barrel. These resources have the potential to narrow
down the gap between energy supply and demands. The potential demand for coal in the
year 1988 is estimated to be 5.40 million tones which can be met from indigenous
resources provided early measures are taken to re-organize and develop the coal sector
on scientific lines.
1.5.4 The total reserves of low grade Sedimentary iron ore at Kalabagh are to tune of 300
million tones with 150 million in proven category. The beneficiation studies conducted by
PCSIR revealed that the ore could be upgrade to 58% Fe and used as a blend with high
grade ore in Pakistan Steel Mill. Alternatively another Steel Plant could be based on these
deposits.
1.5.5 There are very large deposits of rock salt in the country and the production has increased
from 0.30 million tones in 1971-72 to 0.578 million in 1983-84. With the development of
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Salt Solution Mining Project and new conventional mines the production can be raised to
1.00 million tones per annum subject to the availability of additional market demand.
1.5.6 Gypsum deposits have been estimated at 5.50 billion tones. Apart from its other industrial
uses it is used for reclamation of zodiac soil and for correction of low quality ground
water. The potential demand for agricultural gypsum over the next decade would be 1.625
million tones which can be fully met from available resources.
1.5.7 The proven and indicated resources of rock phosphates at Hazara are of the order of 3.48
million tones and 3.606 million tones respectively. These resources will be developed for
import substitute.
1.5.8 Virtually inexhaustible reserves of raw materials for cement are available in the country
which can meet the requirements of the projected expansion f cement industry.
1.5.9 The proven resources of copper ore are to the tune of 412 million tones which are
amenable to commercial exploitation and beneficiation for internal use as well as for
export.
1.5.10 The magnesite occurs in NWFP. The available reserves of 3.00 million tones are
sufficient to meet the requirements for magnesite and chrome magnesite bricks.
1.5.11 Apart from the reserves of China clay available in Swat, about 3.50 million tones exist at
Nagarparkar Sindh. These deposits have not been developed for want of infra-structure
facilities.
1.5.12 Nephyline Syenite is an important raw material for alumina, feldspar etc. The total
reserves of the mineral in NWFP have been estimated as 6 billion tones which are
suitable for use in glass industry.
1.5.13 Naukundi iron ore has been found technically suitable as feed for blast furnace in
palletized form in replacement of lump ore. The available reserves are sufficient to meet
47% of the total demand of Pakistan Steel.
1.5.14 The available resources of Chromite in the country are sufficient to meet the demand of
chrome based chemicals and refractories project.
1.5.15 According to available data there is a significant potential for increasing the production of
Gem stones provided detailed exploration is undertaken. The high quality Mangora
Emerald Merits a detailed exploration at depth.
1.5.16 Large deposits of high grade marble exist in different parts of NWFP and Tribal territories.
Quarrying, cutting and polishing of the marble are not up to the mark and needs looking
into. High grade barite deposits about 6 million tones occur in Gonga area of Lasbela and
are being exploited for oil industry.
1.5.17 It is evident from the above that the mining industry in the country, though modest at
present, can be enlarged to meet the growing needs of the industrial and agriculture
sectors. The potential is under utilized and practical steps need to be taken to improve the
performance of this sector. This will pose a challenge at all levels and the Government
will have to lay the basis and encourage the creation of a prosperous mining industry in
the country.
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DEFINITIONS RELATING TO MINING
1.1 Sketch
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1.8 Shoot
The certain portion of a vein where valuable minerals are commonly concentrated.
1.25 Bedded Deposits
A mineral deposit of tabular form generally lies horizontally. A coal seam is a typical
example of bedded deposit.
1.26 Masses
Large ore bodies of irregular shape are called masses.
1.27 Out Crop
The surface exposure of a mineral deposit.
1.28 Float
A float is composed of loose pieces of ore or rock which have fallen from veins or strata.
1.29 Gossan
It is the ferruginous deposit filling the upper part of some mineral veins or forming a
superficial cover over masses of pyrite.
1.30 Dip
The angle at which a bed, stratum or vein is inclined with the horizontal.
1.31 Strike
The bearing of a horizontal line in the plane of an inclined bed, stratum, or vein. It is
perpendicular to the direction of the dip.
1.32 Apex
The top of the terminal edge of the vein on the surface. The vein has a dip or strike from
this point.
1.33 Hanging Wall
The wall or rock on the upper side of an inclined vein. In bedded deposit it is known as roof.
1.34 Foot Wall
The wall or rock under an inclined vein. It is called the floor in bedded deposit.
1.35 Shaft
It is a vertical or nearly vertical opening in a mine connecting the surface face with
underground working. It is a principal opening through which the mine is exploited and
men, supplies, ore and waste are transported.
1.36 Drift
A horizontal or nearly horizontal opening in or near ore body parallel to the strike of the
vein.
1.37 Cross Cut
It is a horizontal opening driven perpendicular to the strike of the vein or across the
direction of the main working.
1.38 Level
Mines are normally worked from shaft through horizontal passages or drifts called levels.
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1.39II.
Sump
An excavation made underground to collect or store water, from which water is pumped to
the surface.
2.25III.
Winze
A vertical or inclined opening driven from a level downward for the purpose of connecting
with lower level.
3.25IV.
Raise
A vertical or inclined opening driven upward from a level to connect with a level above.
1.26 Stope
An excavation from which ore has been extracted or part of an ore body from which ore is
currently being mined. It is usually inclined or vertical, but may also be horizontal.
1.27 Tunnel
It is a horizontal or nearly horizontal opening/passage that is open to atmosphere at both
ends. For example: tunnels used in railways.
1.28 Adit
A horizontal or nearly horizontal underground opening into a mountain with single access to
surface.
1.29 Collar
This term applies to the thick ring of concrete or other material around the mouth of a shaft.
It is the junction of a shaft and the surface.
1.30 Ore
Ore is defined as natural aggregate of minerals which can be extracted from earth’s crust at
a profit. An ore contains commercially useful minerals as well as “gangue” minerals. The
term ore is used with mineral deposits containing metals.
1.31 Gangue
Worthless minerals associated with economic minerals in an ore are called gangue.
1.32 Country Rocks
The general mass of enclosing rocks adjacent to ore deposit is called Country Rocks.
1.33 Waste
A barren rock which contains no minerals of economic value.
1.34 Mineral
Any naturally occurring, inorganic (Not containing carbon) homogeneous substance in the
crust of earth having a composition expressed by a chemical formula, clear physical
properties and economic significance (Importance) is known as mineral. Although coal is an
organic matter but it is considered as mineral from mining point of view.
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1.35 Metallic/Metals
These forms a large part of the earth on which we live. Nearly 80% of the known elements
are metals. The metallic minerals have certain properties, which distinguish them from
other elements.
1.36 Non Metals / Non Metallic
The non metallic lacks the properties of metallic mineral, such as bright metallic luster,
Hardness, density and good conductor of heat and electricity. The main non metallic
minerals are coal, rock salt, boron, carbon, phosphorus.
1.37 Lode
A miner’s term for a fissure filled with a concentration of one or more minerals particularly
used to describe quartz and gold veins.
1.38 Drive
A horizontal opening like a tunnel lying in or near the ore body parallel to the strike.
1.39 Draw Point
A spot where gravity fed ore from a higher level is loaded into hauling units.
1.40 Grizzly
A rugged screen for rough sizing at a comparatively large size, it can comprise fixed or
moving bars, disks or shaped tumblers or rollers.
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CHAPTER-02
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helps to discover, define and appraise the mineral prospect.
In early days search for outcrop of a mineral deposit was main feature of geological
prospecting. Now, new deposits are discovered usually by geological methods
supplemented by other data (Geo-physical and Geo-chemical). Therefore, searching ore
deposits using different techniques is called geological prospecting.
2.3.2 Geophysical Prospecting
Geophysics is the science that applies physics to the study of the earth. Geophysical
prospecting uses different physical properties of subsurface rocks. Geophysical
prospecting is divided into sub fields according to the property of the mineral/rock being
measured, such as magnetic, gravity, seismic, electrical conductivity, thermal or
radioactive properties.
Geophysical prospecting is a process which searches for any unusual effect or changes
in the geophysical properties (anomalies) of the particular portion of the earth on
instruments specifically designed for the detection of that change.
Data received through geophysical prospecting is always ambiguous, that is, doubtful. It
requires an expert to interpret the data. Out of many explanations it is always difficult to
choose the right one. From most optimistic data, analysis is made to reach at any
conclusion. The combinations of different geophysical prospecting methods are used for
better results. Some of important and widely used methods are:-
1. Seismic prospecting
2. Electrical conductivity prospecting
3. Electromagnetic prospecting.
4. Gravity prospecting
6.
5. Magnetic prospecting
2.3.2.1 Seismic Prospecting
Investigating the depth and character of sub-surface rock formation by noting the travel
times of seismic waves or artificial shock waves through them is known as seismic
prospecting. The speed of the seismic waves varies as the wave travels through different
kinds of rock.
Seismic prospecting methods involve basically the same type of measurements as
earthquake seismology (study of shock waves). Explosives and other energy sources are
used to generate the seismic waves. This method is superior to other geophysical
methods due to various factors such as high accuracy, high resolution and great
penetration.
Seismic method is principally used in exploring for petroleum and rarely any exploratory
well is drilled without seismic information. Seismic methods are also important in
groundwater searches and in civil engineering projects.
Seismometers or seismographs are used to measure and record the resulting motion of
the earth produced by seismic waves.
Seismic prospecting has two major classes: refraction and reflection methods.
Refraction seismic techniques are best suited to a flat terrain where the underlying
formations show marked changes in seismic speed. The reflection method is used where
the reflecting bed is uniform in nature and is horizontal.
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2.3.2.2 Electrical Conductivity Prospecting
This utilizes artificially generated electric currents to find difference in electrical
conductivity (quality of a substance to allow pass heat or electricity through it) between
ore and the enclosing rocks or between adjacent geological formations. Hence property of
electrical conductivity of the earth is measured. Electrical methods are suitable for
prospecting for ore bodies like massive sulfide ore body. There is a significant change in
measurement when massive sulfide mineralization is present beneath the surface. They
are also used to investigate geological structure and determining the depth below the
surface to water level or bedrock.
2.3.2.3 Electromagnetic Prospecting
With the exception of magnetic, the electromagnetic prospecting technique is the most
commonly used in mineral exploration. It is not suitable for oil search and civil engineering
work. In this method, an alternating current of low frequency-500 cycles is sent through a
wire loop either horizontal or vertical on the surface. A primary electromagnetic field is
produced which penetrates into the earth. This produces a secondary electromagnetic
field due to subsurface conducting body when the electric current is induced in it. The
result of exploration is to give direction and intensity of the electromagnetic field at various
points. When properly mapped these indicate the position of the subsurface conducting
body. Ore body of sulfide graphite or associated pyrite or pyrrhotite may be detected by
this method.
2.3.2.4 Gravity Prospecting
Gravity exploration is based on the Law of Universal Gravitation. The Earth’s density
varies from one location to another. As such the force of gravity varies from place to
place. Gravity prospecting deals with measuring these variations.
The gravity effect of ore bodies is generally small despite the fact that there may be large
density difference between ore and its surroundings. Therefore, gravity surveys to detect
ore bodies have to be very detailed. The instrument which detects changes in gravity is
called a gravimeter.
Gravity prospecting is used as initial survey in oil exploration. In mining it is used to detect
and help identify geological structures such as faults, anticlines, salt domes and buried
channels.
2.3.2.5 Magnetic Prospecting
The earth acts like a huge magnetic. The magnetic material in the earth increases the
strength of the earth’s field within itself. This increase in strength over normal field at that
location is called the magnetic situation anomaly. The instrument used to investigate the
anomaly caused by magnetic body is known as Magneto Meter. A number of
observations are made at different points. In general several corrections have to be made
for changes in temperature and for daily variations in the earth’s magnetic field. Magnetic
ore bodies and ferruginous sediments are detected by measuring their magneto
anomalies.
2.3.3 Geochemical Prospecting
Geochemical prospecting for minerals include any method of mineral exploration based on
systematic measurement of the chemical properties of naturally occurring minerals.
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Geochemical prospecting detects minute changes in the chemical composition of sample of
air, ground water, soil, or botanical specimens caused due to near presence of some
metallic ore bodies. These anomalies (changes in chemical properties/pattern of materials)
indicate the possible presence of ore. Such anomalies may be formed:-
1. At depth by ingenious or metamorphic process or
2. At the surface by weathering and erosion etc.
In modern prospecting, geochemical prospecting is generally carried out in combination
with geological and geophysical surveys.
In different applications of geochemical prospecting main target ores are mainly the
sulphids of copper, lead, zinc, nickel and molybdenum and to lesser extent, uranium,
tungsten, tin, mercury, gold and silver minerals.
3.1 Exploration
The exploration may be defined as to determine the geometry, extent and worth of an ore
deposit value and tonnage of a deposit. It also helps in the preparation of feasibility reports.
The series of steps in exploration stage are as follows:
1. The favorable area identified by prospecting is marked out.
2. The mineral deposit marked out be sampled thoroughly and samples
analyzed.
3. The sampling data is utilized to prepare estimate of tonnage, grade, extent
4.
and value of the deposit.
On the basis of above the present worth can be calculated and recommendations made
regarding the feasibility of mining.
3.2 Difference between Resource and Reserve
A resource is a concentration of naturally occurring material that is potentially economical
to extract.
A reserve is a portion of a resource that can be economically extracted.
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3.5 Comparison of Diamond and Churn Drills
1 Can drill in any direction, including 1 Can drill only vertically downward. Large
upward from underground. station must be provided for underground
drilling.
2 Core sample gives valuable geological 2 No core sample but cuttings give
information; texture of rock, attitude of information as to type and value of rock.
bedding, etc.
3 Sample is small, though shape and 3 Provides larger sample which may be
diameter of core is uniform. May give more representative.
accurate sample if core recovery is good.
4 Slower than churn drilling under average 4 Faster to depths of 1000 to 1200 ft.
conditions.
5 Hole usually serves no other purpose 5 Large hole may later serve for ventilation,
than exploration. drainage or blasting in some cases.
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CHAPTER-03
Page 15
to the mine site.
7. Planning and constructing of surface plant, including all support and service
facilities and administrative offices.
8. Erection of mineral processing plant, if required, and ore handling and shipment
facilities, and provision of stockpiling and waste disposal facilities.
9. Selection of mining equipment for development and exploitation, with
acquisition as needed.
10. Construction of main access openings to ore body and such secondary
openings as required including, in surface mining, advanced stripping, and, in
underground mining, shafts and certain other sub surface facilities.
11. Recruitment and training of labor force and provision of support services
(housing, transportation, consumer stores, etc) as necessary, with attention to
12.
other social political economic needs of employees.
13.
Several steps in development may proceed nearly simultaneously (e.g.) steps 3, 4 and 5
in one effort and 6, 7, 8, and 10 in another). To ensure proper coordination and timely
completion of all development tasks, careful scheduling is required, especially of all
construction.
3.2 Exploitation
It is the 4th stage in the life of a mine. Exploitation is the work of recovering mineral from
the earth in economic amounts. In this process, a number of extractive unit operations are
employed, the primary ones constituting the production cycle and the secondary ones the
auxiliary or support functions on the surface, pits or cuts are excavated in all kinds of
mineral deposits, but in underground, openings are made in rooms or longwalls in coal
mines and stopes in non coal mines.
3.3 Factors involved in Selection of a Mining Method
A mining method should be selected which best matches geological and environmental
characteristics of the mineral deposits, which is to be mined. Beside this, the safety
factors the lowest mining cost and maximum profit should also be kept in mind.
Experience plays a major role in decision making. The factors which govern selection of a
mining method are as under:
3.3.1 Characteristics of Deposit
These are probably the most important determinant, because they largely decide the
choice of surface Vs underground mining and affect the production rate, the method of
materials handling, and the layout of the mine in the ore body. They include size, shape,
dip and depth of the deposit.
3.3.2 Geologic and Hydrologic Conditions
The geological characteristics of both the mineral deposit and adjacent country rock,
influence selection of a method. The extent of support required for underground, control
hydrological affects drainage and pumping requirements, both surface and underground
are taken into consideration.
3.3.3 Geo-technical (Soil and Rock Mechanics) Properties
Again, both ore and waste are involved. The mechanical properties of the materials
comprising the deposit and country rock are the key factors in selecting the equipment in
a surface mine and choosing among the classes of methods (unsupported, supported,
and caving) if underground.
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3.3.4 Economic Considerations
Ultimately, economics determines the success of a mining venture. These factors govern
the choice of method because they affect output, investment, cash flow, payback period
and profit.
3.3.5 Technological Factors
The best match between natural conditions and mining method is sought. While a
particular method may not be ruled out in mining.
3.3.6 Environmental Concerns
Not only the physical environment but the social-political economic climate is involved.
3.4 Classification of Mining Method
The classification of mining method applies to surface and underground mining of coal
and none coal. (These are basically two Mining Methods).
3.4.1 Surface Mining Methods
If the work of mineral extraction takes place entirely open or operated from the surface
the process is called surface mining e.g. quarrying/open pit.
3.4.2 Underground Mining Methods
If mineral extraction work is done through openings below the surface of the earth, the
process is called underground mining e.g. room and pillar mining method and long wall
mining method.
3.4.1 Surface Mining Methods
They are:-
a) Open Pit Mining
In open pit mining, the over burden is stripped and transported to a disposal
area to uncover the mineral deposit. Both stripping and mining are conducted
from one or a sequence of benches. Open pit mining is a large scale method in
terms of production rate is responsible for 60% of all surface output.
b) Open Cast Mining
It is mainly used for coal. This method resembles the open pit mining but differs
in only one respect i.e. the overburden is not transported to waste dumps for
disposal but cast or hauled into adjacent mined out panels. Open cast mining is
also a large scale method and ranks with it as the most popular surface
methods.
c) Quarrying
It is different from the term quarry which is sometimes applied to any surface
mine producing a non metallic mineral.
Quarrying is the most expensive surface mining method and, with square set
stopping, the most costly mining method. It is also a highly selective, small scale
method, with low productivity.
The products of all dimension stone quarries are non metallic. Prismatic block of
rock common dimension stones are granite, marble, limestone, sandstone etc.
d) Auger Mining
Although the over burden is not removed, and the coal is extracted by an auger
or a mining machine working underground, the crew operating the machine is
located at the surface, hence we classify it a surface method.
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e) Hydraulicking
In hydraulicking, a high pressure stream of water is directed against a placer
bank to under cut and cave it.
f) Dredging
Dredging is the underwater excavation of a placer deposit. It is usually carried
out from a floating vessel. The body of water may be natural or man-made,
depending on the sizes of the dredge and deposit.
g) Bore Hole Extraction
In bore hole mining, water is injected by wells into a mineral formation where it
dissolves, melts and is then returned to the surface through well bores. Some
times a reagent is added to the water.
h) Leaching
It is the chemical extraction of metals or minerals from the confines of an ore
deposit as well as from material already excavated and mined.
3.4.2 Underground Mining Methods
i) Self Supported Mining Methods
It consists of those underground mining methods, which are essentially self
supporting and require no major artificial system of support to carry the load.
a) Room & Pillar Mining
This is the method which is mostly used in Pakistan alongwith long wall method.
In room and pillar mining, openings are driven orthogonally and at regular
intervals in a mineral deposit usually flat lying, tabular and relatively thin forming
rectangular or square pillars for natural support.
b) Stope & Pillar Mining
Stope and pillar mining is the unsupported method in which openings are driven
horizontally in a mineral deposit in regular or random pattern to form pillars for
ground support.
c) Shrinkage Stoping
Shrinkage stoping is a method in which the ore is mined in horizontal slices and
remains in the stope as temporary support the walls and to provide a working
platform for the miners.
d) Sub Level Stoping
Sub level stoping is a vertical stopping method utilizing long hole drilling and
blasting carried out from sub levels to break the ore.
ii) Supported Mining Methods
These methods require substantial amounts of artificial support to maintain stability
in exploitation openings.
a) Cut and Fill Stoping
It is the method in which horizontal slices of ore are excavated in the stope and
replaced with waste as fill.
b) Stull Stoping
It is the method in which systematic or random timbering with simple supports is
employed for ground control.
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c) Square Set Stopping
It is one of the most expensive methods in underground mining. In square set
stopping, small blocks of ore are systematically extracted and replaced by
prismatic skeleton of timber sets.
iii) Caving Mining Methods
This is the third classification of underground mining methods. In this method, the
exploitation workings are designed to collapse. There are three major caving
methods.
a) Long wall Mining
It is the most used mining methods in Pakistan. Long wall mining is an
exploitation method used in fairly flat-lying, thin tabular deposits in which a long
face is established across a panel between set of entries and retreated or
advanced by narrow cuts, aided by the complete caving of the roof or hanging
wall.
b) Sub Level Caving
In sub level caving, overall mining progresses downwards while the ore between
sub levels is broken overhand. Mining is conducted on sub levels from
development drifts and cross cuts, connected to the main haulage level by
ramps, ore passes and raises.
c) Block Caving
It is the mining method in which masses, panels or blocks of ore are undercut to
induce caving, permitting the broken ore to be drawn off below.
Page 19
CHAPTER-04
Page 20
The cutting tool may be hollow bit with the cutting edge set with diamonds or with an
annular groove on the cutting edge in which chilled shot revolves, a saw tooth crown
made of finest steel and tipped with a special hard alloy, or a patent roller bit such as the
“Hughes Simplex”.
The tool used depends on the strata to be cut.
All rotary drill machines are equipped with water flushing systems and their big advantage
is that in most cases a complete core is cut from the strata and brought to the surface for
examination.
Diamond System of Drilling
The drilling tool, in this case is the diamond crown. It is a cylindrical cast steel shell having
in its lower face a number of small sockets in which pieces of black diamond are set. Half
of these are set to the outside to dress the sides of the hole. The others half is set to the
inside to dress the core.
Single tube Core Barrel
The barrel is screwed to the upper part of the bevel-shell which connects it to the crown.
A steel coupling block with a central passage for the circulating water is screwed to its
upper end and serves to connect the barrel to the hollow bore rods above. A mud bucket
is provided above the coupling block to receive the large particles of derbies which the
circulating water fails to carry to the surface.
The junction piece between the barrel and the crown is beveled and contains a core lifter.
This core lifter is a split ring, corrugated on its inner face and occupies the wider portion of
the bevel-shell when boring is taking place so that it does not grip the core. When boring
is stopped and the barrel and crown lifted by the rods, the core lifter takes up a lower
position, thus tightening on the core. The latter may now be broken off by a twist and
raised to the surface.
Page 21
rods or wire rope and the weight of the chisel fitments rods; etc is utilized to give the
striking force.
Boring
The beam is mounted on steel springs, which give great elasticity and cause sudden
recoil of the boring tool which prevents jamming. The progress of the chisel is followed by
controlling the passage of rope through a clamp near the drum. This rope drum is also
used to raise the rod from the bore hold to change tools, attached the sludger, etc. With
this method it is possible to bore a depth equal to the length of one rod without ceasing
operations and as water flush is mixed. A mixture of mud and water is pumped down the
column, which in this case is hollow and the mixture returns to the surface on the outside
of the rods carrying with it is a large percentage of the debris.
The rotation of the column is by hand by a turning lever clamped to it.
i. Churn Drills
The churn drill is used for prospecting placer gravels and also for sampling certain ore
deposits, especially those of copper, lead, zinc and iron. It is also used for drilling blast
holes, holes used for ventilating purposes or holes through which electric wires and power
lines are carried into a mine instead of down the shaft. It is mounted on a wooden or a
steel base which is fitted with wheels or with caterpillar tread. A 6 inches drill is largely
Page 22
used in sampling ore deposits where holes are drilled up to 600 ft deep. Larger size with
starting bits up to 26 inches are used for holes 1000 ft or more in depth and require a
derrick 60 to 85 ft. high. Portable machines range from 6 to 9 or 12 inches in size. The
larger holes drilled with heavier machines generally give a slightly lower cost per ton of
rock or ore blasted. The churn drill is usually driven by electric, diesel or gasoline power,
though steam is occasionally used.
Hammer Drills
Fig 4.3
The modern hammer drill strike from 1500 to 2000 blows a minute and is a product of the
highest grade of machine work. A rotating mechanism is provided to the bit after each
stroke so that a fresh rock surface is presented for each below.
Page 23
4.4 (i) The Drifter
These are the heaviest form of hammer drills and are made in various sizes depending
upon the severity of the work to be done. The heaviest type weighs over 200 pounds and
is used for holes up to 20 ft in depth. Drifters have a stroke of from 21/8 to 3 inches and a
standard length of feed of 24 inches but a special feed screw 30 inches long is made
also. The drills are heavy and must be mounted on a column or bar.
Sinker
Fig.4.4
Stoper
Fig. 4.5
Page 24
4.5 Boring Methods
Broadly speaking, all boring methods may be divided into two main classes:-
i) Percussive Boring Method.
ii) Rotary Boring Method.
Percussive Boring may further be sub-divided into:-
i) Boring by Rigid Rods;
ii) Rope Boring
If rigid rods are used, these may be either solid or hollow, the later being employed when
it is desired to keep the hole constantly flushed with water. In general, percussive method
is suitable only for vertical holes.
Partial Face (Road Header) Machines: attack only a limited area of the tunnel face at
any one time using a cutter head mounted on the end of a hydraulically operated boom.
Full Face Machines: excavate the complete heading.
Blind Shaft Borer: are similar to full face TBM’s but bore downward and have special
facilities for removing cuttings.
Raise Borers: make use of a pilot hole to pull a rotating cutting upward, with cuttings
falling downward.
Irrespective of the category of TBM or shaft borer, all machines have certain essential
components. With reference to the most common full face type of machine (as shown in
Fig.4.5 below), these are the cutter head armed with cutting tools; a system of propulsion
Page 25
and reaction to thrust the cutter head and to rotate it against the rock face, a system for
muck removal; and when needed, facilitates for erecting permanent support and a shield
to provide temporary ground support and protection for the operating crew.
Page 26
CHAPTER-05
EXPLOSIVES
5.1 Definition
An explosive is a solid or a liquid substance, or mixture of substances, containing a large
store of chemical energy and capable of being converted by chemical action into a large
volume of gases at high temperature and pressure. The action at which chemical reaction
occurs is very rapid. Its strength depends on the speed with which its chemical energy is
released.
5.2 Types of Explosives
i) Low Explosives
ii) High Explosives
5.2(i) Low Explosives
A low explosive is consisted of a mechanical mixture of finely ground combustible (non
explosive) substances and suppliers of oxygen e.g. gun powder. Its characteristics are:-
i) It is fired by simple ignition
ii) Its decomposition proceeds by progressive combustion from grain to
grain.
iii) The gas pressure increases gradually.
v)
iv) It produces pushing effect on the material on which it acts.
vi)
Page 27
The disadvantages of gun powder are that it is effective by water, it is bulky for a
given explosive effect and most important from the coal mining point of view its
flame is of long duration and a portion of the explosive may continue to burn after
the coal or stone has been brought down, so exposing the burning residue to the
external atmosphere. It is, therefore, dangerous in any place where there is risk of
inflammable gas and it has been replaced for nearly all coal mining purposes by
some form of high explosive. All explosives on the Permitted List are of the high
explosive type.
Page 28
b) Dynamite.
When nitroglycerin is mixed with Sodium Nitrate and wood pulp, it forms nitroglycerin
dynamites. In a similar manner, blasting gelatin is used to make a series of gelatin
dynamites, such as:-
i) Straight Dynamites
ii) Low Freezing Dynamites
iii) Ammonia Dynamites
iv) Gelatin Dynamites
v) Ammonia Gelatin Dynamites
i) Straight Dynamites
Straight dynamite may contain 50% nitroglycerin, 14% combustible, 35% sodium
nitrate and 1% antacid. Straight dynamites are powerful, quick acting and fairly water
resistant, but on detonation produce poisonous gases, especially in the higher
grades. These gases are largely carbon monoxide, but some oxides of nitrogen may
be present. Straight dynamites made from ordinary nitroglycerin will freeze at
temperatures slightly above 320 F. It should not be used in the frozen conditions but
first must be carefully thawed.
ii) Low Freezing Dynamite
These dynamites are made by replacing part of the nitroglycerin of straight
dynamites with some ingredient to render the dynamite incapable of freezing under
ordinary conditions of use. The freezing point is depressed by adding nitro
substitution compounds, such as nitrated sugars, nitrotoluene, nitrated polymerized
glycerin or ethylene glycol dinitrate. These dynamites are made in 20 to 60 %
strength, have a rate of detonation from 2700 to 6325 meters/sec.
iii)
iv)
Ammonia Dynamites
In these dynamites parts of the nitroglycerin is replaced by ammonium nitrate, which
make them somewhat slower in action than straight dynamite. They produce less
objectionable fumes and are safer to handle. Since ammonium nitrate is
deliquescent, such dynamites do not resist water well and are dipped in melted
paraffin for protection, are made in 15 to 60% strength, and their rate of detonation is
from 2400 to 4500 meters/sec.
iv) Gelatin Dynamites.
The gelatin dynamites are dense plastic explosive having high water-resistant
characteristics, and they produce the least poisonous fumes of any high explosive.
They are made by adding 48.2% nitroglycerin, 1.8% nitrocellulose, 37.4% sodium
nitrate, 11.1 % wood meal and 1.5 % maize meal. Gelatin dynamites are made in
from 20 to 90 % strength and their rate of detonation is from about 2750 to 7700
meters/sec.
v) Ammonia Gelatin Dynamites
In these dynamites part of the nitroglycerin used in gelatin dynamites is replaced by
ammonium nitrate. One 50% ammonia gelatin has the composition of 35.3%
nitroglycerin, 0.7 nitro cotton, 20.11% ammonium nitrate, 33.5% sodium nitrate,
7.9% carbonaceous material, 0.8 antacid and 1.7% moisture. Made in 30 to 90%
Page 29
strength, these dynamites have rates of detonation from 2750 to 6700 meters/sec
and about the same cartridge count as gelatin dynamites.
All gelatin and ammonia gelatin dynamites, regardless of strength, and blasting
gelatin have two rates of detonation. The low rate is 2800 meters/sec. The high rate,
produced by priming them with 60% nitroglycerin dynamites, varies from about 4700
meters/sec for 20% strength to 7660 meters/sec for 75% strength and 8600
meters/sec for blasting gelatin. The degree of confinement and the condition or age
of the dynamite also affects the rate of detonation.
5.3 Blasting Gelatin
When from 90 to 93% of nitroglycerin and 7 to 10 parts of gun cotton are mixed, a tough
elastic and jelly like mass, blasting gelatin is formed. In commercial forms it contains
about 1% of alkaline substance to improve its keeping quality. Blasting gelatin is the
strongest of conventional high explosive and is highly water resistant. It is safe to handle
but must be handled carefully when frozen. It has velocity of detonation about 8700
meters/sec. It is not plastic but rubber like.
5.4 Emulsion Explosives
These are composed of very small drops of ammonium nitrate solution and other oxidizer.
These are densely dispersed in a continuous phase, which is composed of a mixture of
mineral oil and wax.
The emulsion explosives can be distinguished from other liquid and plastic explosives that
they can be detonated without the addition of a sensitizer which in itself is an explosive.
To make the emulsion initiable, small cavities are made in the form of micro balloons with
a diameter of one tenth of a millimeter. These collapse under the influence of the initiating
shock.
The density of the explosive and its capacity of initiation can be adjusted with the amount
of micro-balloons in the emulsion. The emulsion explosives retain their consistency over a
wide temperature range i.e. from 200C to + 350C.
The stability of emulsions is outstanding compared with other civil explosives. The
detonation properties remain unchanged over a long period of time under normal storage
conditions.
The water soluble drops of ammonium nitrate in the emulsion are completely surrounded
by the oil of a wax film. This makes the emulsion as highly water resistant.
From a handling point of view the emulsion explosives are very safe and a high degree of
impact is needed for accidental initiation.
5.4.1 Emulsion Explosives Products
By using different percentages of micro balloons and aluminum wide range of emulsion
explosives can be manufactured.
Emulite Explosives
Emulites at present are manufactured in four qualities:-
a) Emulite 100
It is a cap sensitive emulsion explosive which is manufactured in paper cartridge or
plastic hoses. Its good fume characteristics and water resistance makes it an
excellent all round explosives. It is suitable for mechanized charging.
Page 30
b) Emulite 150
It is similar to emulate 100 but aluminum is added to increase the energy content. It
is manufactured in paper cartridges plastic hoses and plastic pipes.
c) Emulite 200
It is non cap sensitive emulsion explosives, which is used for bench blasting with
medium and large size blast holes. It is supplied in plastic hoses.
d) Emulite 300
It is a non cap sensitive emulsion explosives, which is intended for medium and
large diameter blast holes in bench blasting.
5.5 ANFO
ANFO consists of a mixture of Ammonium Nitrate (AN) and Fuel Oil (FO) at a ratio of
94:6. The use of ANFO in larger scale started in the United States in the middle of the
1950’s. Some reasons for its popularity are:
-
- Low price
- Safety in manufacturing, transport and handling
- Easy to handle in bulk
-
- Charging can easily be mechanized.
On the other hand, (i) ANFO has a somewhat lower weight strength as compared to
gelatine explosives, about 80%. (ii) It is also sensitive to water and should not be used
in wet holes unless some type of plastic film hose is used to protect the explosive.
(iii) It has also relatively low degree of packing involving a closer drilling than when
using gelatin explosives.
Two kinds of ANFO, crystalline and prills are used for blasting. The crystalline types
normally have a particle size less than 0.5 mm while a suitable prills size is 0.3 – 2.5 mm.
Sometimes also a mixture of these two types is used.
b) Cooling agents.
c) Sheathed Explosives
d) Eq.S. Explosives
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a) Cooling Agents
All permitted explosives have cooling agents in their composition. Cooling agents
are sodium chloride (Nacl). Potassium Chloride (KCl) and Sodium Flouride (NaF).
Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) also absorbs heat.
b) Sheathed Explosives
As an additional safeguard, each cartridge is surrounded length wise by a sheath of
sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) about one eight inches thick, the ends of the
cartridge being left uncovered.
The purpose of the sheath is to reduce the risk of igniting gas. It acts as a blanket of
carbon dioxide and water paper around the flame and hot gases from the
explosives.
A serious disadvantage of the sheathed explosive is that it may be removed or
displaced by accident or design and then fail to achieve its purpose.
c) Equivalent to Sheathed Explosives
An Eq.S. explosive is one without a sheath, which is “certified to be not less safe
than an equivalently sheathed explosive of the same group”. The inert material is
incorporated direct and uniformly into the explosive composition itself. This removes
the dangers arising from a displaced sheath and simplifies manufacture. The inert
material may be sodium chloride used in conjunction with ammonium nitrate or
alternatively ammonium chloride used in conjunction with sodium nitrate.
5.8 Types of Permitted Explosives
a) Gelatinized Nitro Glycerin Explosives
It contains about 40% N.G. and nitro glycol gelatinised with nitro cotton, together
with some ammonium nitrate, sodium chloride (a cooling agent), wood meal (a
combustible) and small percentages of other minor ingredients. Such explosives
have high water resistance and high density (specific gravity about 1.5). They are
used for heavy duty in stone drifts, sinking shafts and hard ripping. Examples are
polar ajax, Nitric NO2 and Driftex.
b) Powdery Nitro Glycerin Explosives & Nitrox No. 2
These contain about 18% N-G and Nitro Glycol with or without nitro cotton and from
25% to 50% ammonium nitrate together with sodium chloride and remaining other
ingredients. Such explosives have a lower density (specific gravity about 1.0) giving
a greater speed of explosive in the shot hole and a less violent blasting action. It is
suitable in medium rock and hard coal. Examples are polar viking and minex.
c) Powdery Non-Nitro Glycerin Explosives
These contain about 35% to 80% ammonium nitrate, together with sensitizer such
as T.N.T. plus some combustible material and a cooling agent. The specific gravity
ranges for 0.7 to 1.0 these produce milder and more rending action. They have wide
application in coal. Examples are unirend, Tolumite No.1 and Trinite No.1
The normal permissible maximum charge for ordinary permitted explosives
(Sheathed or unsheathed) is 28 oz. But for Eq.S. explosive is 36 oz.
Page 32
CHAPTER-06
BLASTING
6.1 Blasting Properties of Explosives
To select an ideal explosive for each purpose, the most important properties which should
be considered are as under:-
a. Velocity of Detonation (VOD)
b. Strength
c. Detonation Stability
d. Density
e. Water Resistance
f. Sensitivity
g. Safety in Handling
h. Environmental properties
i. Resistance to Freezing
j. Oxygen Balance
k. Shelf Life
Now we explain each one by one:-
6.1.1 Velocity of Detonation (VOD)
Velocity of Detonation (VOD) is the speed at which detonation travel through an explosive
column.
The velocity of detonation of an explosive is higher when the explosive is confined than
un-confined.
Recent researches have confirmed that velocity of detonation should be equal to the
velocity of the seismic waves through the rock. High velocity of detonation would thus be
favourable in the case of hard rock. Explosives like Dynamites and Emulite are suitable
for hard rocks like granite, genesis and basalt while ANFO is suitable for softer rocks like
lime stone and sand stone.
6.1.2 Strength
The blasting gelatin was chosen as a standard, as it is well known all over the world and
is the most powerful civil explosives so the strength of an explosive is expressed as a
percentage of the strength of blasting gelatin.
The weight strength denotes the strength of any weight of an explosive comparing with
the same weight of blasting gelatin. The bulks or volume strength denotes the comparison
of any volume of an explosive with the same volume of blasting gelatin. The
manufacturers have started to compare the weight and volume strength with those of
ANFO. The ANFO has become most widely used and well known explosives. In order to
measure the strength of explosives different tests have been carried out e.g.
1. Lead Block Test
2. Ballistic Mortar Test
3. Bubble Energy Test
4. Nitrodyn
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6.1.3 Detonation Stability
It means that the detonation goes through the entire explosive column. The sensitiveness
of propagation is an important property, which has to be considered in blasting
operations. If the sensitiveness is low there can be interruptions in the detonation. If the
column of explosive in the charges an explosive with too high a sensitiveness can cause
propagation between adjacent blast hole if the holes are closely spaced. In under water
blasting the risk of propagation between the blast holes is great. The propagation ability is
higher in confined conditions than in un-confined ones.
6.1.4 Density
The density of an explosive is its specific weight expressed as Kilograms per liter or
grams per cubic centimeter. The density determines the possible charge concentration in
the blast hole. It is one of the most important properties to be considered when designing
blasting operations. The drilling pattern will be more widely spaced if the high density
dynamics (M) is used instead of low density ANFO.
6.1.6 Sensitivity
The sensitivity of an explosive is expressed as the minimum energy needed to initiate the
explosive. The cap sensitive explosives are not needed to be primed while non-cap
sensitive explosives need to be primed with an amount of high explosives in order to
obtain initiation and stable detonation.
It determines the height from which weight must fall on the explosive in order to
create detonation;
b) The Friction Test
It is a test in which friction under increased pressure is applied to a small amount of
c)
explosives. When a reaction in an explosive is obtained, pressure is recorded.
c) The Projectile impact Test
d)
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d) The Heat Test
It determines how much heat an explosive can withstand before the reaction starts.
The above Tests form the basis of the authorities to classify the various explosives
from the point of view of handling and transportation.
6.1.8 Environmental Properties
These are more and more taken into consideration. The aim is to minimize the toxic
fumes. The inhalation of such fumes creates headaches and skin irritation. When
handling nitroglycerin explosives, various toxic gases like carbon monoxide, oxides of
nitrogen and nitroglycerin vapors are produced. The fumes characteristics differ between
different kinds of explosives. No matter which explosive is used some noxious gases will
be produced in the detonation.
In underground operations it is essential that toxic gases are kept to the acceptable level.
Increased amount of fumes can be produced if explosives within sufficient water
resistance are used. In adequate priming, poor confinement, use of wood spacers, and
incomplete explosion are other causes of an increased production of noxious gases.
It is important that an adequate amount of air ventilation should flow in the travelling roads
and in working faces to dilute/remove the toxic gases as early as possible.
6.1.9 Resistance to Freezing
It is important in the countries where the temperature falls below zero degree centigrade.
Dynamites and water gels become stiffer in low temperatures and loose their good
tamping characteristics. Emulsion explosives retain excellent tamping characteristics
even at the lowest temperatures.
6.1.10 Oxygen Balance
An excess of Oxygen in the explosives can form Nitrogen Oxides (NO and NO2) and
deficient oxygen will form carbon monoxide. These gases are toxic and may prove fatal.
In open air blasting these gases rarely cause any problem as blasting fumes are
dispersed after the detonation.
6.1.11 Shelf Life
The shelf life of an explosive is very important as the explosive frequently has to be keep
for long time in storage, and often under un-favourable conditions.
Plastic nitroglycerin explosives should not be stored in high temperature as they tend to
soften and the salts in the explosives penetrate the paper wrapping of the cartridges, thus
deforming them. Storage temperature around +32 degree centigrade should be avoided.
The ammonium nitrate in the explosive undergoes a physical re-arrangement making the
explosives in the cartridge swell thus deforming the cartridge. The blasting effect is not
affected.
Powder type explosives in the cartridge are sensitive to moisture. In a humid
environment, the salt in the explosive tends to form deposits on the cartridge thus
hardening it.
ANFO is sensitive to humidity and cakes easily when stored under such conditions.
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6.2 Firing Methods
The firing methods can be divided into two main groups.
6.2.1 Non-Electric
6.2.1 (a) Safety fuse with plain detonator
6.2.1 (b) Detonating cord
6.2.1 (c) NONEL
6.2.2 Electric Detonators
Accessories of Non-Electric Firing Methods.
6.2.1 Non-Electric
6.2.1.1 Safety Fuse with Plain Detonator
Safety fuse consists of black powder core which is tightly wrapped covering of textile and
insulated against moisture by water proofing materials like asphalt and plastics. The
covering act as protection for the black powder core against water, oil and other material
which can change the burning speed or desensitize the powder. The covering also
prevents “Side spit” which can cause pre-mature detonation if it sets fire to the explosives
charge.
The Safety fuse has a steady and well controlled burning speed. There are many brands
of safety fuse; the burning speed may differ between different branches. The burning rate
of most brands in USA is 130 seconds per meter at sea level with allowable variation of
10 seconds from standard. In Europe standard burning rate is 120 seconds per minutes
with the same variation.
It should be taken into account that safety fuse will burn faster if it is subject to
confinement or pressure and that the use at high altitudes slow down the burning speed.
Premature or ‘delayed’ detonations are due to poor staged or improper handling.
Plain Detonator
To initiate the explosive, a plain detonator has to be attached to the safety fuse. Due to
varying sensitivity of different explosives, detonators of different strengths are available.
The strength of the detonators is expressed in numbers of which # 6 or # 8 is presently
available in the market. The # 8 detonators contain approximately 0.8 grams. # 8
detonators have become more widely used.
The plain detonators consist of aluminum or copper cylinder which is closed at one end. A
charge of high explosives like hexytol, tetryl is placed in the base of cylinder. On top of
base charge a primary charge is placed normally load Azide. The primary charge is
sensitive to initiate by the end spit of the safety fuse and subsequently initiate the base
charge. The figure shown below shows the different parts of a plain detonator:
Plain Detonator
Fig 6.1
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Assembly of plain detonator to a safety fuse:-
1. Cut the fuse so that black powder core is visible;
2. Cut the end of fuse separately and introduce it gently into the detonator
against the primary charge. Leave no air gap. Slanting cuts must be
avoided as the tapered end can fold over and block the end spit.
3. Crimp the detonator thoroughly to the fuel with crimper. The types
available are hand crimpers and bench crimper.
4. In wet conditions insulate the crimp with grease.
Fig 6.2
Length of safety fuels should not be below 1.0 meters but for single shot a length of 0.6
meters may be allowed. However the fuse should have sufficient length to exceed the
collar of the blast hole with at-least 0.1 meter.
The safety fuse may be lit by using either matches or better, special ignitor torches. When
several fuses are lit, it may be practical to use igniter cord and bean hole connectors. The
bean hole connector which contains a pyro-chemical compound is crimped to the end of
safety fuse and igniter cord is inserted into a slot in the bean hole connector. When the
igniter cord is lit, it ignites the connector which in turn lights the safety fuse.
6.2.1(b) Detonating Card (Wabo Card)
It is a very common firing device. It is used in countries which have difficult climatic
conditions with frequent thunder storm and where electric firing is not allowed. It is used
where several holes are fired simultaneously. It consists of a PETN core which is
wrapped in textile coverings, water proofing materials and plastic sPSU suc.
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The detonating cord strengthens detonator which detonates alongwith entire length with a
velocity of 7.0 meters per second. These must be used very carefully with ANFO in small
medium size blast holes because it gives incomplete initiation.
Detonating cord is manufactured with core loads ranging from 3 grams per meter to 80
grams per meter. The most widely used cord has a core load of 10 grams per meter. The
powerful detonating cord with core load of 40 and 80 grams per meter are mainly used for
seismic prospecting and other special purposes. Multiple row blasting can be carried out
with detonating cord as shown below in the figure.
Delay DETONATOR
Fig 6.3
A wide range of relays with delay times from 5 meters per second to 50 meter per second
are available.
8.2.1(c) Nonel
The NONEL are ideal when electric firing is neither possible not permitted. Nonel
Detonator functions as an electric delay detonator but the leg-wires and the fuse head
have been replaced by a plastic tube through which shock wave is transmitted. The end
spit of the shock wave from the plastic tube initiates the delay element in the detonator
The plastic tube which has outer diameter of 3mm is coated on the inside with a thin layer
of reactive material, which transmits the shock wave with a velocity of approximately 2.0
meters per second. The plastic is un-affected by the shock wave and does not initiate any
explosives column it goes through. Two Nonel systems are available.
i.
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i) Nonel GT
Timinings offer both short delays and deci-second and half second delays. The short
delay periods meet the needs of bench-blasting and the deci-second and half-
ii)
second delay periods are intended for tunnel blasting.
iii)
iv)
Nonel Unidet
It is all round firing system which is used in most situations when milli second delay
is needed like bench blasting, trench blasting and under water blasting etc.
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High safety detonators of VA type can be used under a 70 KV power line while the safety
distance for a conventional detonator is 200m.
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6.3.2. Drag Cut
This is applicable chiefly to small or narrow drift. Each group of holes termed as cut holes,
lifters, easers and trimmers are marked as 0,1,2,3, respectively and are fired
simultaneously using instantaneous detonators. Alternately, if desired, the whole round
may be fired with half second delay detonators.
Fig 6.6
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6.3.4 Pyramid Cut
This consists of 3 or 4 or holes drilled in the centre so that they almost meet at a common
point forming a pyramid. The remaining holes are arranged as shown in the Fig. 6.7
below.
Vertical Section
Pyramid Cut
Fig 6.7
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6.3.6 Toe Cut
In toe cut the holes are inclined downward as shown in the Fig (6.9). It is used for small
drifts in soft or medium ground.
Toe Cut
Fig 6.9
6.4 Underground blasting
a) Shot Holes in Coal
The placing of holes in coal is decided by the thickness of the seam, the position of
the undercut, the presence of hard band (if any), the type of roof or floor parting and
the direction of the cleats. These are all variable factors. Only experience is the best
judge to determine the best method.
In the normal case, the shot is arranged as in Fig. 6.10. The length of the shot holes
is kept 6 inches less than the depth of undercut and the burden (distance from the
hole to the undercut) is kept between two thirds to three quarters of the length of the
holes. The spacing between the holes may be 4 ft 6 inches to 8 ft depending upon
the weight of burden. The charge may range from 4 oz to 14 oz, depending on the
burden and the hardness of the coal. As far as possible all holes should cross the
main cleats at right angles. In thin seam closer spacing may be necessary because
the burden is small.
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b) Shot holes in Rippings
The essential in roof ripping are to get good fragmentation. The burden in medium
ground should not exceed 3 ft, and in hard ground 2 ft. The charges may range upto
6 oz in so ft shale, from 10 to 20 oz in hard shale and upto 28 oz in hard stone. In all
cases, care should be taken to keep the ripping as near to the face as
circumstances permit in order to reduce the dangers arising from the development of
roof breaks and bed separations.
Fig. 6.11 shows a common arrangement of holes in hard ground. The shots may be
fired singly in the order named but this involves the shot firer going to the face six
times for charging the holes, testing for gas and coupling up. Fragmentation also
may be poor.
Fig 6.11
Alternatively, the holes in each row i.e. on each horizon may be fired simultaneously
with instantaneous detonators. First holes Nos.1,2 and 3 together are fired then
holes Nos.4 and 5 and finally hole No.6 by itself. This involves only three visits to the
face and results in better fragmentation. It is rarely advisable to fire shots in two or
more horizons simultaneously because the burden of the shots in the second and
third horizons is likely to be too great and fragmentation ineffective.
Care should be taken to use only one delay number in one horizon.
The advantages of mille second delay firing in ripping are:-
1. Danger of ignition of gas is reduced because the full round is fired within a
small fraction of a second.
2. Consumption of explosives is also reduced;
3. Roof is less disturbed;
4. Better fragmentation facilitating the removals of debris and its showage in
the packs;
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determined by drilling of holes some one meter deep in a homogeneous bench of rock
and loading them with different charges. The holes are so placed that one is not affected
when the adjacent holes are fired. If d is the shortest distance to a free face, formula such
as W-md3 will give the breakage resistance of the particular rock. Here m is the rock
coefficient and W is the weight of the smallest charge that breaks the bench satisfactorily.
In practice, hole BG is drilled 1 to 3 meters below level AF to ensure breaking the full
depth of the bench. Holes may be drilled vertically by air or churn drills, or practically
horizontally by air drills in which case they are called snake holes. A bench may be
blasted by a large charge of powder placed in an adit and crosscut driven into the bench
at the bottom. This is called coyote or tunnel blasting.
Fig 6.12
1.
Advantages
1. Ignition of firedamp is more certainly prevented.
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2. Complete detonation is ensured.
3. Blown out shot is less likely to occur.
6.7.2 Inverse Initiation
The detonator is placed at the inner most end of the charge with business end pointing
towards the front of the hole.
1.
Advantages
1. Less risk of detonator being pulled out of cartridge.
2. In delay firing, less risk of unexploded cartridges.
3. Gives better rock pull.
6.8 Stemming Materials
The object of “Stemming” or “Tamping” a shothole is to confine the explosive, help to
ensure complete detonation and reduce the risk of igniting gas, if present. It may be
accepted that from the safety point of view, all shot holes be stemmed up to the mouth.
Stemming materials include moist clay, sand (limestone chippings) and sand clay mixture.
6.8.1 Moist Clay
This has the advantages that it is cheap and plentiful, needs no preparation before being
taken underground can be easily moulded, incombustible and when moistened, it remains
moist for a considerable time. It has dis-advantages that clay stemming is liable to be
ejected and then fails to fulfill its intended purpose.
6.8.2 Sand
This offers a very high resistance to dislodgement. This often sticks in the hole and
becomes immovable. Sand therefore forms a most effective stemming material but it
cannot be inserted in the normal way in horizontal or upwardly inclined holes.
6.8.3 Sand Clay Mixture
This is generally accepted as most convenient and effective for general use. It is easy to
handle as clay alone and offers almost as high resistance as sand. The mixture should
consist of 3 parts of coarse sand, brick dust, and one part of good quality surface clay,
together with about 5% calcium chloride to keep it moist. Water should be added to make
a stiff paste, not too wet.
In some coal seams, it is found that more round coal is obtained if an air space is left
between the outermost cartridge and the stemming, a procedure which is called “cushion
firing”. The method is useful where the shothole is long in relation to the burden to be
blasted e.g in thin seams or rippings. Its effect is to lessen the shattering effect of the
explosive, by distributing the pressure over a larger area.
6.9 Miss Fired Shots
A miss fired shot is one in which the detonator fails to explode, or having exploded, fails
to ignite the charge. Imperfect detonation of the charge may occur if the explosive is not is
sound condition (e.g. if ammonium nitrate explosives are allowed to become wet); if the
cartridge do not touch each other; if cartridges of too small a diameter are used; or if the
hole is not properly stemmed. Complete failure of the detonator to explode may be due to:
1. Defective shot firing exploder by which the required voltage is not generated;
2. Bad connection between exploder and shot firing cable;
3. Defective shot firing cable, e.g. broken wires or damaged insulation;
4. Dirty connections between cable and detonator leads;
Page 46
5. Broken detonator leads or insulation damaged when charging;
6. Faulty detonator, e.g. broken wire bridge or defective priming composition;
The necessary precautions include; (a) careful testing and maintenance of exploders (b)
use of good shot firing cable; (c) careful making of connections; (d) storage of detonators
in cool and dry magazine; and (e) careful handling of detonators to avoid damaged leads.
The manner of dealing with a miss-fire, if one occurs, is laid down in detail in the
Explosives Orders to which reference should be made.
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CHAPTER-07
UNDERGROUND SUPPORT
7.1 Introduction
When minerals are excavated the caritas (open space) are formed. These spaces will
collapse if not supported artificially. The roof and sides of mine opening must be
supported to ensure safety.
Rocks in natural forms are in stable –equilibrium position Mining activities disturb their
balance. The over lying massive weight tends to exert pressure on the roof of mine
opening. It may be noted that, in coal measure strata, the rock pressure per foot of depth
is about one pound per sq. inch.
7.2 Types of Supports
Following are the types of supports normally used in mining:-
1. Pillars
2. Timber Supports
3. Rigid Steel Prop
4. Steel Arches
5. Roof Bolting
6. Friction Props
7. Hydraulic Props
8. Concrete
[
9. Waste Fillings/stowing
7.2.1 Pillars (Mineral themselves)
Pillars of low grade ore are left un-mined at intervals to support the walls in some
methods of stoping. This is a regular procedure in room and pillar mining in bedded
formation.
7.2.2 Timber Supports
Timber was probably first material used as a mine support. The timber used as a support
should be of good quality. It should be free of defect e.g. knots etc., dry and straight.
Wood seasoning (chemical or physical) treatment is done to increase its strength and to
prevent decay. Long grained timber such as oak, pine, eucalyptus etc are used in the
mines to secure roof and sides.
Advantages of Timber Supports
These are cheap in the first cost, light in weight and are easily available and framed.
These relatively have great strength in proportion to their weight.
They fail gradually when loaded beyond their strength.
They give warning of failure by an audible sound.
7.2.2.1 Types of Timber Supports
Timbers can be used as a support in a mine in different shapes as follows:-
a. One piece set
b. Two pieces set
c. Three and four pieces set
d. Square set
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a) One Piece Set
b)
The term is applied to a single stick of timber, called a post, stull or prop. It is used to
support the walls of stopes/openings. Post and prop are applied to vertical timbers and
stull is applied to inclined timber.
A post is set first by digging a shallow hole or hitch to give a firm even footing as
shown in Fig. 7.1 (A) After the post has been placed in the hitch, a head board is put
over the top and wedges are driven between the head board and the rock to tighten
the post in place. The function of the head board is to distribute the pressure over the
end of the post and to prevent the end of the post from splitting as weight comes on it.
In a narrow inclined vein, stulls are not placed perpendicular to the dip but at an angle
above the perpendicular that is from one tenth to one quarter of the dip. In this position
a downward movement of the hanging wall tightens the stulls in place instead of
loosening it. Figure 7.1 (B) illustrates one way of reinforcing a stull. In Fig. 7.1 (C), a
narrow and steeply inclined vein is timbered with stulls.
Fig 7.4
Fig 7.4
Fig 7.1 (D) Fig 7.1 (C Fig 7.4 Fig 7.1 (B) Fig Fig
7.1 7.1 (A)
Fig 7.4
Page 49
c) Three and Four Pieces and Polygone Set
d)
In ground that requires greater support; three and four pieces sets are used as
illustrated in fig. 7.3 & 7.4 below. Three pieces set are used to support roof and sides
while four pieces set are used to support floor to avoid floor heaving. Sometimes a
horizontal support is used between two props or caps that is called distance bar. It
helps the props or caps to stay in position.
The posts are spread apart at the bottom to give greater stability. In narrow and
steeply dipping veins, the greater pressure is usually from the side walls, but in drifts
and cross cuts the pressure may be vertical, lateral or both, if the ground is very
heavy. A sill is used in case the pressure is heavy or the bottom is soft.
d) Square Sets
It finds its application in stopes, narrow veins, irregular and small ore bodies where
walls and back of the excavations are supported by regular framed timber. Timbering
is of units or hollow cubes with a timber along each edge as shown in figure 7.5 Four
vertical timbers of a square set are called posts while the caps and struts being
horizontal. If the floor is hard sills may be omitted and the posts are set directly hitched
Page 50
in the floor. Caps and Girts are placed on the top of the posts. Caps being at right
angles to girt.
Square sets may be made of round or sawed timber or of both. Sometimes square
sets are filled with waste rock to make it a permanent support.
Fig 7.5
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to a limited length. The prop may thus be described as semi-yielding prop during the
initial compression but behaves as a rigid prop as soon as the sleeve has
descended to its lowest position.
d) S.F. Prop
This consists of an H-girder stem and can be tightened against the roof by a wedge.
To set the prop, the wedge is driven in until the prop is tightly fixed. The S.F. Prop
has the advantage of quick setting and relatively easy withdrawal. It is sometimes
used as a breaking off prop at the waste edge.
Steel Supports
Steel supports find these applications in both coal and metal mines, especially for wide
openings and those of permanent character as on haulage roads, pump stations and shift
stations. The steel supports last for much longer time as compared to wood. These are
not affected by atmospheric conditions such as temperature and humidity.
7.2.4 Steel Arches
Steel supports are normally used as arches. Steel arches are of two types.
a) Non yielding arches and their types.
b) Yielding arches.
c) Non-yielding are of different types e.g.
d)
Page 52
The factors which must be considered in choosing a support system are
(1) Method of excavation
(2) Rock behaviors and
(3) The size and shape of the tunnel cross-section.
Methods include the full face method, top heading and various pilot drift methods.
Fig 7.8
Page 53
iv) Rib, wall Plates and Post Type
The Rib, wall plate and post is used where support is not needed tight to the face
and for tunnels whose roof makes an angle with the side wall and where post and rib
spacing differs. Fig.7.9 shows a sketch of this type of prop.
Fig 7.9
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7.2.3.3 Yielding Arches
These arches are so designed that when the ground load exceeds the designed load of
the arch, yielding takes place at the joint and radius of curvature and overlaps on the
joints as shown in Fig.7.11 below. During yielding, the over burden settle into a natural
arch of its own that brings all forces into equilibrium. The shortened arch has increased
strength.
Yielding arches are composed of three sections. The top section slides between two side
elements. After every 15 days or so, the tightening elements are loosened and the arches
slide, converging and thus relieving the stresses on them. This eliminates deformation.
Fig 7.11
1
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Steel Tubing
It is a method of permanently lining a shaft sunk in very wet rock formation. This method
has been more particularly associated with the freezing process of sinking. The tubbing is
placed while ground is still frozen so that the sinkers can work under dry condition. The
best way to fill the spaces between tubbing and rock is to fill it with concrete.
There are two types of tubbing, known respectively as:-
i. English Tubbing
ii. German Tubbing
iii.
The difference between English and German tubbing is that English tubbing is built
upward while German tubbing is built from to downwards.
The tubbing is built up of cast iron rings or plates. The thickness of the plate depends
upon the pressure of the water and the diameter of the shaft.
Page 56
In general, the split rod and wedge type of bolt is the simplest, cheapest and most widely
used especially where compressed air is available to provide the necessary percussive
action. It requires a hole of smaller diameter than the shell type for corresponding duties.
To ensure a satisfactory fix, however, it is essential that the hole be bored to the correct
depth and that the diameter of the hole is not more than 3/8 inches greater than the
diameter of the bolt.
An advantage of the shell or sleeve type is that it has a greater area of contact at the
anchor and may therefore be the more suitable in weak strata. Further, it can be used
where the power supply is either electric or compressed air. Both types give satisfactory
results when properly installed.
7.2.5.2 Application of Roof Bolting
Roof bolting was initially developed in America and applied to the support of narrow
roadways entries, rooms, developing headings, lifts and so on driven in the pillar methods
of working customary in that country. Roof bolting is equally applicable to all such
roadways in Great Britain, or has been used in conjunction with conventional supports,
with complete success. General principles commonly observed are:-
1. Bolts should be installed as close to the working face as possible in order to
prevent or reduce bed separation.
2. Bolts nearest the side of the roadway should be not more than 2 ft. from the side.
3. The best pattern of holes must be determined by experience in each case;
4. The holes are generally driven normal (i.e. at right angles) to the seam but
sometimes the flank holes are inclined over the solid coal sides and alternate
rows of holes next to the face in long wall roadways are sometimes directed
forward over the coal.
5. The roof surface may be supported by steel plates, 8 or 99 in square.
Roof bolting is also applicable to longwall roadways and cross gates. It is unlikely that
bolting can ever replace conventional supports on longwall faces but they are of value as
an additional aid on prop free front faces or where weak cloud immediately above the
seam is difficult to support. Bolts may also be used at face ends, machine stables and
road heads where props have to be removed for the movement of machines. They are
also widely used at roadway junctions and in large excavations such as underground and
chutes, shaft sinking, shaft insets and pit bottom reconstruction.
Page 57
7.2.5.4 Advantage of Roof and Floor Bolting
The successful application of roof bolting, either along or in conjunction with conventional
supports on a reduced scale is likely to bring many benefits in its train in regard to both
economics and safety:-
1. Roof bolts prevent bed separation taking place provided they are installed as
soon as the roof is exposed;
2. Improved roof control is obtained, resulting in the reduction or elimination of falls
of stone with all the hazards these entail.
3. Reduced lifting or pavement occurs, reducing the need for back brushing and
increasing transport efficiency.
4. Large roadway section is available for the operation of machines, mine cars etc.,
with greater clearance for rapid movement.
5. Less risk of falls of roof due to displacement of supports by haulage mishaps.
6. Reduced resistance to air-flow, resulting in improved ventilation.
7. Lower overall costs per ton for supports and roadway repairs generally.
Fig 7.13
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For Mechanical withdrawal, a hook fitted to a chain or wire rope is fitted through an
extension attachment to the release lever and the prop is released and withdrawn by a
power winch.
The friction prop is made in a wide range of size. A typical model weighing 144 lb is about
one meter long when fully in un-extended position. When in extended position, it can work
upto about 1.75 meters.
7.2.7 Hydraulic Props
The hydraulic prop is essentially a self contained hydraulic jack which offers an immediate
resistance of 05 tons. This resistance can be raised upto 20 tons or more as roof
pressure comes on. The prop yields automatically when the load exceeds the designed
maximum figure.
It consist of two concentric tubes, an inner oil reservoir tube A which slides within a outer
pressure tube B, the later being protected from injury by outer casing C. The lower end of
the tube A is closed by a piston head fitted with a bearing ring, sealing gland and also
with a non-return valve. Within the tube A is smaller pump. It is exuded by a pump rod
and crank with a square external boss which is fitted on removable handle.
When the pump is operated, oil is pumped from the reservoir tube A into the pressure
tube B via the non return valve. This forces the tube A upto the required height and
develop initial setting load of 05 tons. The fluid pressure in the pressure tube B is
communicated to a pressure relief valve through a stack pipe P when the roof pressure
exceeds 20 tons, the valve then relieves the pressure by passing a small quantity of oil to
the reservoir tube A, thus allowing the props to yield slightly.
Fig 7.14
To withdraw the prop, a release link (L) is pulled which permits the oil in the tube B to
return to the oil reservoir tube. The release link should be operated from a safe distance
by a light chain. The prop is made in various sizes upto about 02 meters long when
extended and with a yield travel upto 0.4 meters.
Page 59
The hydraulic prop possess the advantages of ease, speed, and safety in setting and
withdrawal. On the other hand the hydraulic prop is a precision instrument and careful
maintenance is essential.
7.2.8 Concrete
Re-inforced concrete is used as a permanent shaft lining at many mines. It may be used
as continuous lining and as rings spaced several meters apart where the shaft is in solid
rock. If wood cushions are used the concrete lining gives very good results. In some
mines cement pillars are built of round slabs of re-inforced concrete about 0.75 meters
diameters and 10 cm thick. Fine sand is used around each slab to give even bearing over
the surface.
Tunnels are lined with re-inforced concrete that includes steel bars as well. The concrete
has advantages of being safe from fire and readily available. It is not affected by
atmospheric conditions and has long life. It has the dis-advantages that it breaks without
giving any warning. Broken concrete cannot be re-used like steel or timber.
Concrete is a mixture of cement aggregates (gravel or broken stone, sand) and water
which is combined using different ratios depending upon it desired used. Some time
concrete mortar (cement of lime, sand and water) is also spread of rock surfaces. This is
known as grouting.
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b) Gravity Stowing
c)
In this method, the force of gravity is used to place the stowing material. This
method is used in seams steeper than 40O. The stowing material is washing refuse
mixed with broken mine rock and it is disposed along the inclination.
If the coal is stable enough, it is easier to work diagonal faces without “Wire
Screens” wedges can hold the face coal.
If the coal is unstable, K-Type of support is needed and the stowing material is held
in place by a “Stowing Screen” behind the support.
c) Mechanical Stowing
In the mechanical stowing system, materials are delivered by conveyor and are
thrown to the back of the face by a Jet Conveyor. The materials are brought by a
conveyor. A diagonal scraper transfers the material to a small conveyor below
working at a speed of 10 m/s thus materials are thrown to the back of the face. The
jet conveyor is pulled up slowly as the stowing progress. The system is adopted to
thick and flat seams. In case of limited space, it is replaced by pneumatic stowing
which requires much less space.
d) Pneumatic Stowing
In pneumatic stowing the stowing materials are conveyed in pipes and thrown to the
back of the face by compressed air. This is very popular system of stowing because
it requires smaller installations. However the mine should have sufficient supply of
compressed air as the amount of air spent by one stowing machine is almost
equivalent to a medium sized compressor at the surface.
The stowing machine consists of a feeder, drum type or screw type that delivers
material to the pipes by compressed air at pressure of 5-7 kg /cm2. The capacity of
these machines is normally 70-150m3/h.
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CHAPTER – 08
MATERIAL HANDLING
8.1 Introduction
All operations involved in excavating and moving minerals during mining are known as
material handling. In cyclic system, loading and haulage/hoisting are two main operations.
While in continuous system, excavation and handling of minerals are done by a single
machine (continuous miner).
Actually, material handling involves three phases; loading, transportation and dumping. In
the past, these operations were normally done manually. In modern mechanized mining,
material handling depends on equipment/machines. Although material handling
underground has been mechanized a lot, but its effect on surface mining is great, reason
for growing scale of surface mining equipment are found in its high productivity and low
operating cost.
Different loading and excavation machines are used in mining field. Loading and
Excavation and Classified on the basis of location of mining activity (surface or
underground) and continuity of operation (cyclic or continuous).
Loading refers to the loading of broken ore into mine cars or shuttle cars from faces
(stope or room and pillar faces) or development headings. Loading is normally used in
underground mining, while for surface mining, the term excavation (extraction by digging)
is used.
Different loading and excavation machines are used in mining field. Loading-Excavation is
classified on the basis of location of mining activity (surface or underground) and
continuity of operation (cyclic or continuous). For surface mining, shovels, loaders,
draglines and scrapers are commonly used. For underground mining, loaders, load-haul-
dump units (LHDs) and continuous miners are used.
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Fig 8.1 Operation of Power Shovel:
1.-Head Block; 2.-Jib; 3.-Crowd arm; 4.-Crown Shaft; 5.-Rope for Releasing Bottom of
Bucket; 6.-Derricking Rope; 7.-Foot Pin of Jib; 8.-Ring of Rollers; 9.-Base Frame;
10.-Slewing Platform Drum; 11.-Transmission of Slewing mechanism; 12.-Hoisting Drum;
13.-Derricking Drum; 14.-Hoisting Rope; I, II, III and IV- Successive Positions of the Bucket
8.2.1.2 Draglines
Draglines are purely loading machines. These are used for loading blasted rock or loose
material into hauling units or to deposit it in near spoil bank. These normally run on
crawler trucks or are of walking types. The parts and working principles are shown in
figure 8.2.
Fig 8.1
Fig 8.2
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COMPARISON BETWEEN POWER SHOVEL & DRAGLINE.
Power Shovel Draglines.
i. Power shovel excavates and i. It loads only.
loads
ii. It is used where power is ii. It is used where reach
needed. is needed.
iii. It has greater loading iii. It has lower loading
efficiency. efficiency.
iv. It digs to shallow depth. iv. It digs to greater depth.
8.2.1.3 Bulldozer.
Bulldozers are used to open up roads through mountains and rocky terrain to move earth
for short haul distance, maintain haul roads and clearing the floors. These may be
classified as cable-controlled or hydraulically controlled based on the method of raising or
lowering the blade. In bulldozers, blades are mounted perpendicular to the direction of
travel while in angle dozers, blades are mounted at an angle to the direction of travel.
These may be wheel mounted or crawler mounted.
BULL DOZER
Fig 8.3
8.2.1.4 Scraper.
Scrapers are used on the surface (they are tyre mounted or towered by tractors). These
are not just excavators; they are load haul dump machines.
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ii. Dozers can be used on ii. Scraper’s use is limited only
rough terrain to smooth terrain to smooth terrain.
iii. Dozers are normally iii. Scrapers are usually tyre mounted.
crawler mounted.
Fig 8.4
Fig 8.4
Fig 8.5
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8.2.1.6 Front End Loader.
A front end loader is basically a tractor with a loading bucket on the front (fig 8.6). It may
be crawler track or rubber-tyred mounted.
Crawler track mounted is used for excavation while rubber-tyred type mainly used for
loading.
Fig 8.6
Gathering-Arm Loader
Fig 87
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8.2.2.2 Rocker Shovel.
It is used both in metal and coal mines. It consists of a bucket in the front, which loads the
material and dumps it into a mine car attached to its rare (back) side (fig.8.2.2.2).
Shovel Loader
Fig 8.8
8.3 Transportation
It includes all the methods used for transportation in mining i.e. haulage and hoisting.
8.3.1. Haulage
Different types of haulages are used for transportation in mining. These are classified as
track haulage and trackless haulage.
8.3.1.1 Track Haulage
It is the haulage system which requires rail track for its operation. For example locomotive
haulage, rope haulage.
i) Locomotive Haulage
In Larges mines, ore is usually hauled along levels by trains of ore cars drawn by a
locomotive. The locomotive is electric, diesel battery or compressed air powered.
Use of locomotive is limited to relatively low gradient.
a.
Types of Locomotive Haulage:-
1. Diesel Locomotives;
2. Battery Locomotives;
b.
3. Overhead (Trolley) wire Locomotives;
1) Diesel Locomotives
Diesel locomotive ranges in weight from 3 tons to 15 tons and in horsepower from
20 HP to 100 HP. It meets almost every possible requirement whether for main
haulage, gathering haulage a shunting.
It is a completely self contained unit, requiring only a supply of suitable fuel oil for its
operation. It can travel anywhere in the mine where a paper track is laid and where
the ventilation is adequate to dilute the exhaust gases. It can deal with heavy loads
on relatively revere gradients.
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On the other hand, a diesel locomotive requires a skilled maintenance to ensure its
safety and efficient operation. The use of fuel oil and high temperature developed
introduce a fire risk which must be dealt with by suitable precaution. The analysis of
exhaust gases e.g. carbon monoxide, firedamp & nitrous fumes are necessary to
ensure that the percentages are kept within prescribed limits.
2) Battery Locomotives
Battery locomotive are generally less powerful than diesel. They require a charging
station for periodically recharging the batteries. They have a wide field of usefulness
especially as gathering locomotives. There is no contamination of the air, no noise
and no vibration.
On the other hand, batteries locomotives have higher first cost than diesels. The
maximum reactive force is less than that of diesel locomotives of similar weight.
3 Over-head wire (trolley) Locomotives
These differ from diesel and battery locomotive in that they are not self contained.
They drive their power from external source. The elective energy is generated at the
surface of the mine and transmitted by trolley wires which extend along the haulage
roads.
Among the advantages, the trolley locomotives can develop high power and speed.
They are simple to maintain, they have a low running cost and their over all
efficiency cannot be compared with other types of locomotives. Special field of
application is on long main haulage roads. Essential requirements are high standard
of ventilation, roomy and well supported roadways.
On the other hand, the system introduces risks of open sparking which might cause an
explosion, and of electrocution with its resulting danger to life and limb.
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The direct rope system may be applied to all duties from hauling one tub at a time to
hauling long trains. The size and the design of the haulage gear thus vary within
wide limits.
With ordinary tubs having plain bearings, the gradient of roadway may be about 1 in
12 or steeper. This system of haulage is suitable for it simple to operate, easily
expandable and can deal with large output over fairly long distances.
On the other hand, it operates on high peek power demand, severe breading duty on
downward run and high haulage speed (10 miles per hour) demanding a high
standard of track maintenance.
2) Main & Tail Rope Haulage
In this system, the haulage engine is provided with two separate drums, one for the
main rope which hauls the full train out and one for the tail rope which hauls the
empty train in when one drum is in gear, the other revolves freely on the shaft but is
controlled. The main rope is approximately equal to the length of the plane and the
other tail ropes twice this length.
Only one track is required except in the headings or pass-byes.
This system of haulage is suitable for undulating roadways where it is not possible or
desirable to maintain the double track. It can readily negotiate curves and it is
convenient for working branches.
On the other hand, it operates at fairly high speed and with long trains. If a
derailment occurs, the resulting damage and delay are likely to be considerable.
3) Endless Rope Haulage.
In this system, an endless rope passes from the driving gear at the out-bye end of
the plane to a return pulley at the in-bye and back again to the driving gear.
Two sets of rail are required, one for the empty tubs going in-bye and one for full
tubs being drawn out-bye.
The rope may be placed either under the tubs or over them. The tubs are attached
to the rope at regular intervals, either singly or in sets, so that there is a constant
delivery of full tubs at the surface.
Under-Rope Haulage
It has the advantages that there is a more direct pull on the draw bars; the tubs may
be more fully loaded. The moving rope, being near the floor, is less liable to cause
personal injury. The method is suitable to steep roadways of uniform gradient.
Over-Rope Haulage.
In has the advantage that fewer rollers are required and there is less friction and
wear of rope and sleepers. The rope is un-affected by a wet floor and is less liable to
corrosion. Attaching and detaching of tubs become easy as rope is at a better
working height. The method is suitable for undulating roadways of varying gradient.
The endless rope system has a wide application provided that a double road can be
maintained. It can negotiate curves, can be easily extended in-bye and can haul
large tonnage over long distances. Moreover it has low speed (1.25 to 2.5 miles an
hour) less wear tear and less liability to major accidents, and breakdown. The
system is well balanced and power costs are smaller than other systems.
On the other hand, it is extravagant in manpower; require a large stroke of tubs and
the roadways is never free for the haulage of men or material in-bye.
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4) Gravity Haulage.
This includes all systems of self acting haulage in which the gradient is sufficiently in
favour of the full tubs. This enables the empty tubs or a balance bogie to draw up
without the aid of mechanical power. Figure as shown in a gravity haulage is known
as balance layout.
Fig 8.9
The gravity haulage is applicable to a single rise gate way near the face where a
single full tub is lowered against a weighted bogie running on rails of narrow gauge
at the side of the tub track whilst the empty tub is pulled up as the bogie descends.
The rope posses 1.5 times around the jig pulley or break wheel which is secured to
an anchor prop at the top of the gateway.
One end of the rope is secured to the tub and the other end posses to the bogie
around the pulley and so back uphill to a holding up prop where it is firmly secured
by a clamp or a lasting chain. It is also secured to a safety prop and the surplus rope
is coiled nearby in readiness for when the face advances.
With the double rope arrangements shown, the travel of the bogie is half that of the
tubs, sometimes, the bogie is arranged to travel the full length of the incline being
than secured with a single rope. In the later case, the weight of the bogie must be
midway between the full and empty tubs. When a double rope is used, a bogie of
twice this weight is required. A bumping chock a prop is provided at the bottom of
the bogie track to act as a buffer.
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i) Manual (Wheel Barrows)
Wheel barrows are used in small, irregular mine workings and in some stops as an
alternative for shoveling.
ii) Conveyors
Different types of conveyors normally driven by electric motor are used. Normally
these are used for transporting the material up or downgrade. Belt conveyors, chain
and flight conveyors and shaker conveyors are major types.
Underground conveyor may be divided into three main types:
1) Shaker Conveyor
2) The Belt Conveyor
4)
3) The Scraper Chain Conveyor
1) Shaker Conveyor
This consists of a series of steel trays, troughs or pans each 10 to 12 ft long,
connected together end to end with an overlap of about two or three inches and
supported on pairs of loose wheels or rollers about 6 to 8 inches diameter.
Fig 8.10
This type of conveyor is only suitable for conveying coal or other material on the
level or down a favourable gradient, for a distance exceeding 120 yards and for out-
puts upto about 30 tons per hour on level and rather more when conveying down hill.
Shaker conveyors have the advantages of cheapness, simplicity and robustness. It
can be easily shortened or extended or moved forward as required. It can be easily
repaired and also used for diverting dirt down a longwall face for packing the goaf.
2) Belt Conveyor
This consists of a flexible rubber belt or band. With driving gear, tension frame and
intermediate rollers to carry both the loaded and the return half of the belt. Either top
belt conveyor or bottom belt conveyor may be used for carrying coal underground.
Belt conveyor has the advantage that it can convey coal on the level or uphill or
down hill on all gradients upto about 1 in 3. It is comparatively silent in action has a
continuous delivery and lower power consumption. It is capable of handling outputs
upto 2000 tons per shift.
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It shows disadvantage when alignment is daily needed on longwall face. Moreover
belt has high first cost and its life may short unless great care is taken in the initial
selection and maintenance.
Fig 8.11
3) Scraper-Chain Conveyor
This type of conveyor combines advantages of both shaker conveyor and the belt
conveyor. Like shaker conveyor, it is robust in construction and can be readily
dismantled and moved forward or shortened or extended in length. Like the belt
conveyor, it can convey material on the level or uphill or downhill. It has an added
advantage that it is more positive in action and can therefore cope with somewhat
steeper gradients. In its various sizes it can handle outputs upto about 250 tons per
hour.
Scraper chain conveyor may be used on longwall faces and also in mechanized
room and pillar mining where it features. Scraper chain principle is applied to gate
and loaders and to auxiliary feeders receiving and from face conveyors and
delivering it to gate belt conveyors.
i) Shuttle Cars
These are used underground to transport coal between two fixed points e.g. from
continuous miner to a conveyor belt. They have a shallow load pan with a conveyor
in the center. Depending upon source of power, there are different types of shuttle
cars.
Shuttle Cars
Fig 8.12
iii)
ii) Load Haulage Dump Units (LHD)
These are compressed air operated machines working on rubber tired. They are
used in stops for loading the material, haulage it for a short distance and their
dumping it in chutes.
Page 72
8.3.2 Hoisting
Hoisting is method of transportation used in vertical or nearly vertical opening (shaft).
There are two types of hoisting:-
Fig 8.13
Page 73
CHAPTER-09
Page 74
In practice, of course the ideal situation is to ensure that ventilation shall be adequate
under all conditions no matter the barometer is rising or falling.
9.4 MINE GASES
9.4.1 Oxygen (O2)
Oxygen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. It has specific gravity of 1.11. The
air contains 20.93 per cent by volume. It is slightly soluble in water and liquefies at -182
Celsius degrees.
It supports life and combustion i.e. helps in burning. The human beings work best when
air contains approximately 21 per cent oxygen.
Physiological Effects
Percentage Effects
20.93 No effect, Normal atmospheric conditions
19.00 The luminosity and flame height of an oil safety lamp is reduced by 50%.
17.00 Oil safety lamp extinguished. Men should be withdrawn.
16.10 Candle extinguished. Men should not be allowed to work.
12.50 All flaming combustion ceases.
10.00 Nausea and headache gradually develop. Lips turn blue.
8.00 Breathing becomes very rapid. Palpitations and mental confusion occur.
7.00 Unconsciousness occurs rapidly and death usually follows.
2.00 All combustion ceases, including smoldering.
Detection of Oxygen
It is generally not necessary to detect the presence of oxygen. It is the lack of oxygen
which leads to dangerous conditions.
Uses of Oxygen
Without oxygen life is not possible in the universe. When very hot, it is used in welding,
cutting and reduction of metals.
9.4.2 Nitrogen (N2)
Nitrogen is colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas. It has a specific gravity of 0.97. It is
slightly soluble in water and liquefies at 195 Celsius degrees. It forms 78.11 per cent by
volume in atmospheric air. It is non-poisonous, does not support life and is non-
flammable.
Physiological Effect
At normal pressures, it has no effect on human body. Under high pressure, it can dissolve
in the blood and can be a risk for the human beings.
Uses
In mining, its major use is for fire fighting purposes. Commercially it may used as a
refrigerant, a propellant gas and to provide inert shielding in welding.
9.4.3 Carbon – Dioxide (CO2)
Carbon dioxide is a colourless gas with slight pungent or acrid smell and a soda water
taste. It has a specific gravity of 1.53 and forms 0.03 per cent of atmospheric air.
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It is quite soluble in water. Its solubility increases with pressure. On cooling it does
normally become a liquid but converts into solid state at 78 Celsius degrees to form dry
ice. It is incombustible gas and does not support combustion.
Physiological Effects
Percentage Effects
0.03 None: This amount is present in normal air.
0.50 Lung Ventilation is increased by 5 percent.
2.00 Lung ventilation is increased by 50 percent
3.00 Lung ventilation is increased by 100 percent
5.00-10.00 Violent headache, man feels very much tired.
10.00-15.00 Intolerable headache, collapse
Occurrence in Mines
Carbon dioxide in mine is a component of black damp and after damp. It is generated by
oxidation of coal and wood and from the respiration of men and animals. It is also one of
the constituent gases given off by mine fires, explosions, blasting and diesel Exhausts.
Uses
Medically it is used as a respiratory stimulant gas which contains, 4 percent carbon
dioxide and 96 percent oxygen are sometime used in resuscitation. Other uses include in
refrigeration and in fire extinguishers.
Detection
It extinguishes safety lamps due to a reduction of oxygen content in the air. The
permissible upper limit in coal mines is 1.25 percent.
9.4.4 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
It is the most dangerous toxic gas encountered in mines. It is considered to be detected
by smell or taste. Many lives have lost due to inhaling of even very small percentage of
this gas.
It is formed due to incomplete combustion of any carbonaceous material. In any mine
where there is or has been or in suspected any fire, explosions or self heating, then
carbon monoxide must be suspected.
Remember that carbon monoxide is always present if smoke is visible and it is a
constituent of water gas, producer gas, white damp and after damp.
Carbon monoxide is also produced in mines from badly functioning diesel engines, from
over heated air compressors and from explosives if proper precautions are not carried out
in shot firing.
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. It has specific gravity of
0.97. Although its specific gravity is almost equal to air, it is often found as a layer towards
roof because it is generally associated with heat.
It is slightly soluble in water and is both flammable and toxic. It will burn in air with a pale
blue flame to form carbon dioxide. The flammable limits in air are 12.5 to 74.0 percent.
Most explosives are being 29 percent.
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Physiological Effects
Percentage Effects
0.02% Slight headache
0.04% Headache, nausea and possible collapse.
0.12% Possible collapse.
0.20% Unconsciousness and death within 10 minutes.
Carbon monoxide positions the human body. It is absorbed in the blood and red blood
cells are converted into white blood cells. It blocks the transportation of oxygen to various
parts of the body.
Detection
Carbon monoxide can not be detected by colour, taste or smell. To detect it, rescue men
should relay on carbon monoxide detectors and monitors. Birds or canaries also help in
the detection of this gas because they are much quickly affected than man. A bird shows
distress (gasping, reffling of feathers and loss of liveliness) if taken to an atmosphere
containing carbon monoxide. The time of its distress depends upon the percentage of
carbon monoxide present in that place.
]
Flammability
The most important property of methane is that it is highly flammable and explosive when
mixed with air or oxygen.
a) Flammability of mixture
i) Mixtures of methane in air within the range 0-5 percent methane are not
explosive. It burns with a pale blue flame. The approximate percentage can
be determined by safety lamps.
ii) Mixtures within the range 5-14 percent are flammable. The most explosive
mixture is 9.8% and the most easily ignited mixture is 7.5 percent.
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iii) Mixtures above 15 percent are not explosive, do not support combustion but
will burn if mixed with air.
b) Ignition Temperature
It can not be defined as a definite. It varies with the mode of ignition. It is generally
between the ranges 650-750 Celsius degrees.
Detection
A variety of approved instruments are available to detect and measure methane
concentrations in the mines. They include:-
a) Oil flame safety lamp
b) Methanometers
c) Automatic fire damp detectors
d) Interferometers
f)
e) Infrared analyzers.
Note 1 Detector tubes are not accurate or specific enough.
Note 2 Infrared analyzers are reliable instruments to use if other flammable gases
are present i.e. after a fire or an explosion.
9.4.6 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)
It is also known as sulpharetted hydrogen or rotten egg gas. It has no colour but a
powerful and unpleasant odour resembling that of rotten eggs. It has a specific gravity of
1.19 and burns in air with a bright blue flame producing sulphur dioxide and water vapour.
Occurrence
It is produced by the decomposition of animals or vegetable matter containing sulphur. It
is also produced in seam containing high sulphur coal. It is also a component of after
damp of coal dust explosions. Small amounts may also be evolved from stagnant water
containing rotten vegetation.
Flammability
It forms flammable mixture in air in the range of 4.5 to 45 percent.
Physiological Effects
Percentage Effects
0.0005 The gas is not poisonous. Does not cause any discomfort.
0.01 Irritation to the eyes and respiratory tract.
0.02 Within 10 minutes intense irritation of the eyes and throat.
0.05 It is the highest percentage that can not breathed without causing
death. However this amount causes palpitation, muscular weakness,
fainting and cold sweats. Serious symptoms within a few minutes.
Pains in the chest.
0.07 Highly dangerous to human life. Depression, unconsciousness and
death.
0.10 Very dangerous, death occurs almost immediately.
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Detection
It has rotten egg like smell. Tube Detectors detect the percentage of hydrogen sulphide.
White blotting paper saturated with lead acetate is turned black in the presence of this
gas. Silver coins are also dis-coloured by the presence of hydrogen sulphide.
c) Occurrence
It is generally found in mines where a heating or fire occurs in coal containing
sulphur or occasionally when rubber is burnt and in diesel exhausts.
d) Detection
It can be identified and determined with detector tubes. Its typical odour can be
detected by smell at 3 parts per millions.
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Physiological Effects
Percentage Effect
0.004 Can be detected by smell.
0.01 Cause coughing, seriously irritate the respiratory
passages.
0.02 Produces great discomfort.
Occurrence
The oxides of nitrogen or nitrous fumes are produced as a component of diesel exhaust,
or by explosives of the nitrogylycesive type especially when they are incompletely
detonated.
Detection
Nitrogen dioxide and oxides of nitrogen can be detected by detector tubes.
9.4.9 Damps
Damps are miner’s term for gaseous formed in coal mines as distinguished from pure air.
There are:
2.
1. Fire damp
2. Black damp
3. White damp
4. Stink damp
3.
5. After damp
9.4.10 Fire Damp
A flammable gas usually it is methane but on occasions, the mixture can include
hydrogen, carbon monoxide and other products of coal. The properties of Fire damp are
similar to methane. It is usually lighter than air. It can accumulate in unventilated mine
workings. It issues when the barometer falls. In short, it is almost the same as methane
already described. It can be detected by a safety lamp.
9.4.11 Black Damp
This is sometimes called choke damp or stythe and is properly defined as a mechanical
mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Analysis of a large number of samples includes
an average composition of about 11-13% carbon dioxide and 87 to 90% nitrogen.
Black damp has the properties of both carbon dioxide and nitrogen. It is usually heavier
than air. It can accumulate on floors of mines; can diminish the flame of a safety lamp.
For every 5% of black damp results 1% reduction in the %age of oxygen, the luminosity is
decreased by 30%. The light is extinguished altogether when the oxygen is reduced to
17% which corresponds about 15% black damp.
Example of calculation of percentage Composition of Black damp in an
air sample
θ Suppose that the results of an analysis are
O2 = 19.54 percent
CO2 = 0.70 percent
Ch4 = 1.62 percent
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N2 = 78.14 percent
Sol. Find the percentages of Nitrogen and Oxygen.
We know that Normal air contains
O2 = 20.93%
N2 = 79.04%
CO2 = 0.03%
In normal air, the ratio of nitrogen to oxygen= 79.04/20/93 =3.776 normal air and in the
ratio of CO2 to oxygen=0.03/20.93=1/698
Thus in the given sample, the fresh air equivalent of the oxygen present has the following
composition.
Oxygen = 19.54
Nitrogen = 19.54 x 3.776 =73.78%
CO2 = 19.54 x1/698 =0.03%
Total air = 19.54+73.78+0.03=93.35%
Hence the excess nitrogen = 78.14-73.78=4.36%
And excess CO2 = 0.70-0.03=0.67%
Total black damp = 4.36 +0.67=5.03%
Thus sample contains 93.35% of ordinary air, 1.62% of CH4 and 5.03% black damp
making a total of 100%.
Page 81
9.5 Treatment in Cases of Gassing
• If a person is rendered unconscious by deficiency of oxygen, due to displacement of
air by firedamp or the withdrawal of oxygen by slow oxidation or other means result
in excess of nitrogen, and death rapidly ensures. The period of unconsciousness
preceding death is very short (due to lack of oxygen) and treatment should not be
long delayed.
• If a person is rendered unconscious by the action of carbon dioxide, a period of
several hours may elapse before death occur. A person thus has a greater chance
of being rescued from such an atmosphere and moreover, he is likely to recover
quickly and completely when artificial is carried out.
• If a person is rendered unconscious by the poisonous of carbon monoxide the
chances of recovery depend largely on the degree to which the blood has been
saturated with the gas. In this case, careful and prolonged treatment is usually
required. Death may occur sometime after the victim has regained consciousness.
Similar remarks apply to poisoning of sulphuretted hydrogen, although cases of
collapse solely to this gas are rare.
• In all cases, the administration of pure oxygen to the victim will greatly increase the
probability and speed of recovery.
• Carbogen which is mixture of 5-7% carbon dioxide and 93% to 95% oxygen should
not be given as effect of carbon dioxide would increase the rate and depth of
breathing to a patient who has become unconscious in an atmosphere of carbon
dioxide.
Page 82
CHAPTER– 10
VENTILATION
The main purpose of mine ventilation is to provide adequate air, currents to dilute, render
harmless and sweep away dangerous gases from roadway and working places in the
mines.
In coal mines the quantity of fresh air prescribed is generally from 100 to 150 cu. ft/min for
each man and 200 cu. ft/min for each horse or mule in a mine.
The difference of pressure or water gauge required to cause a current of air to flow
through a mine may be created either:
1. By purely natural means, called natural ventilation.
2. By means of a mechanical ventilator or fan placed at the mouth of down-cast
level or high cast level.
3. By a combination of natural and mechanical ventilation.
10.2 Natural Ventilation
Natural ventilation means the current of air that flows through a mine by purely natural
means i.e. without the aid of a fan or other mechanical contrivance.
How Produced
Air will flow through a mine when there is a natural difference of density between two
vertical or inclined columns who are inter connected with each other.
As a result of difference of density the heavier or down cast column over balances the
lighter or up cast column and a continuous flow of air takes place so long as the
difference of density is maintained.
Let BC and FD in Fig 10.1 represent two levels of a mine at different surface levels, the
mine working being level and shown by a single road may CD>
At A and F, the air pressures and temperatures are equal as both the points at surface
are on the same altitude. Any difference of pressure causing a current of air flow must
have it, birth below AF.
Natural Ventilation
Fig 10.1
Let us assume the rock temperature in the mine is about 35oC, while the surface
temperature in winter is 250C and in summer 450C. Now the direction of flow of air current
in cold weather, mild weather and hot weather shall be to some extent as under:
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1) In cold weather: the column AB is in the open and is colder and heavier than
the column FE and column BC is also cooler and heavier than ED. The whole
column AC is thus heavier and cooler than the column FD and air will flow
naturally down AC, through CD and up DF.
2) In mild weather, the air in AC may reach the same mean temperature as the air
in DF, so the flow of air may cease altogether.
3) In hot weather, the conditions are reversed. The mean temperature in FD
4)
becomes less than AC and thus the air flows down FD and up CA.
So to maintain purely natural ventilation, two conditions must normally be satisfied.
1. The inlet and outlet of a mine must be at different surface levels.
2. There must be a difference of temperature and therefore of density, between
the two air columns.
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10.2.2 Geothermic Gradient
The chief factor causing the air to be heated as it passes through a mine is conduction of
heat from the strata. The temperature of strata increases as we descend below the
surface, although not everywhere at the same rate. The rate of increase is termed as
Geothermic Gradient. In Great Britain the rate of increase of temperature is I degree
Fahrenheit per 70 feet of depth. In all countries this varies from place to place.
A hurdle screen is a canvas cloth which does not reach right to the roof. It is used to
divert an air-current upwards into a roof cavity in order to keep it clear of gas. Fig. 10.2
shows arrangements where such a screen is used to divert the air from a long longwall
face to the edge of a ripping so as to clear away an accumulation of gas.
Fig 10.3
Brattice partitions are used to ventilate narrow places driven in advance of the general
ventilation e.g. in board and pillar workings. Fig. 10.4 shows faces A and B which are
ventilated by hanging canvas in the manner shown. The air travels in the direction as
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shown by the arrows when the two places have been driven a proper distance, they are
generally inter connected then the brattices can be removed and a door is hung at D. The
air then travels along one heading then across towards hand came back along the others
headings. Brattices are used at for limited distances.
10.3.2 Stoppings
These are used to block off any old roadway not required for travelling, haulage or
ventilation. These are erected between main intakes and returns. They must be explosion
proof and constructed to comply with legal requirements laid down in the regulations. In
general, they are built of stone, sand or rubbish packing with a well built wall of brick work
of concrete at one end in the intake or at both ends. In the intake side road must be kept
clear.
10.3.3 Doors
These are placed on roadways used as haulage or travelling roads. Normally two doors
are used so that one is always closed when the other is open. Fig. 10.5 shows one type
of door. Dimension of the door depends upon the place where it is to be erected but care
should be taken that it is made of well seasoned wood. The door frame consists of two
side pieces, a crown piece and a sole piece and is built into a brick wall which closes the
rest of the roadways. The space below the door is made air-tight as far as possible. The
door must be arranged to close automatically.
Fig 10.5
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that water may accumulate in it, and so an over-cast should be preferred. An air crossing
may be either temporary or permanent in character.
Fig 10.6
ii) The structure must be air tight so as to prevent leakage from intake to return;
iii) It must be explosion proof;
v)
iv) It must be of ample size to permit the free flow of air.
10.3.5 Regulators
Fig. 10.7 shows a common form of a regulator. It consists of sliding wooden shutter fitted
into brick stoppings or in a ventilation door. The area of opening may be adjusted usually
by trial until only the required amount of air passes through. The shutter is then locked in
position to prevent un-authorized interference.
It will be obvious that the smaller the opening of the regulator, the greater will be the
resistance offered by it, the greater will be pressure or w-g. absorbed in forcing air
through and the smaller will be the volume of air flowing through
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ROOF
FLOOR
Regulator
Fig 10.7
In practice a regulator is placed in a low resistance split, possibly near the shaft which is
taking too large a proportion of the total air. It has the effect of reducing the air flowing in
that split and increasing flow of air in an unregulated parallel split of high resistance. It is
thus a convenient means of controlling the relative flow of air to each district according to
the requirements of the district.
It should be understood that a regulator is an added artificial resistance which increases
the total resistance of a mine and reduces the volume of air flowing for a given fan drift
water gauge.
Example 10.1 Calculate the quantity of air passing through a regulator of which the
opening is 2 feet square, when the water gauge on the door reads 1
inch. Assume w = 0.08 Ib. per cub. ft.
Solution By formula (11) Q = 0.65a x 2gh cub. ft. per second.
Fig 10.8
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10.4.2 Descensional Ventilation
Descnsional ventilation occurs when the air enters at a higher level, descends along the
face and leaves at a lower level as in split B.
It may be said that in general, ascensional ventilation is normally to be preferred
because:-
a) The natural ventilation pressure (n.v.p.) developed in the workings assists the
fan ventilation;
b) Quantity of air flowing is increased more especially where the w.g. developed
by the fan is low;
c) Firedamp, being lighter than air is readily carried uphill towards the return and
d) If the fan should stop, the air will continue to flow in the same direction,
although at a reduced rate. These are all very important considerations,
especially in a gassy mine.
On the other hand, with descensional ventilation.
a) The n.v.p. opposes the fan and if the fan is stopped the air flow will be greatly
reduced and may even be reversed;
b) Firedamp newly given off may migrate to the rise, in a thin layer next to the
roof and in the opposite direction to the air current and so find its way into the
top (intake) roadway;
c) A brisk current of air (produced by the fan relatively high w.g.) is essential if
safe conditions as to firedamp are to be maintained at the face; and
d) If a fire occurs on a descensionally ventilated face the hot gases may reverse
the ventilation and so put the fire fighters in a dangerous position, whilst
tending to limit the spread of the fire.
It may nevertheless be argued that especially in deep hot mines, it may be better to take
the intake air into the mine via an upper horizon and ventilate the faces descensionally.
The chief advantage of this is that the air reaches the faces in a cooler and drier condition
and the climatic conditions on the face are thereby improved, possibly postponing the
need for the installation of special air conditioning plant. It is important that the w.g.
developed by the fan shall be sufficient to counteract the n.v.p. and the buoyancy of
methane in the goaf and that adequate standby ventilating plant shall be installed to
ensure continuity of the ventilation at all times. Other advantages arise on a
descensionally ventilated face where the lower road is used both as a return airway and
as a coal transport road but this is more suitably dealt with under the next headings.
Page 89
10.6 Booster Fan
A booster fan is a more or less permanent installation designed to pass the whole of the
air circulating in the district or districts.
10.6.1 Purpose to use Booster Fan
a) To increase the quantity of air at the place of high resistance for in-bye.
b) To improve the working conditions in deep hot mines by speeding up the air;
c) To reduce the excessive leakage between intakes and returns;
d) To reduce or adjust the pressure difference between intakes and returns in
e)
mines liable to spontaneous combustion.
The installation of Booster Fan is considered justifiable where increased quantity of
ventilation is urgently required. Booster Fan may be of either centrifugal or the air screw
type and may be lace either:-
a) In the return to act as an exhausting fan or
b) In the intake to act as a forcing fan.
10.6.2 Location of Booster Fan
It is very important that the correct size of booster fan is chosen and that it is correctly
placed to avoid the danger of re-circulation of air, or of leakage from return to intake or of
undue interference with the ventilation of other districts. It is necessary to conduct the
ventilation survey before the installation of Booster Fan.
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10.9 Advantage of Exhaust Fan
The main advantages of exhausting is that firedamp, dust and fumes at the face are
drawn out direct into the air from the high level side and the working place is kept clear for
persons working and travelling therein.
Disadvantages of Exhaust Fan
1. or runner carrying vanes faces get inadequate air current and gases
may accumulate in them.
10.10 Fan Ventilation
There are two types of fans.
1. The centrifugal or radial flow fan.
2. The air screw or axial flow fan.
10.10.1 Principle and Working of Centrifugal Fan
The principle of centrifugal fan is that the air is entered in the centre and is discharged
more or less tangentially from the circumference.
It consists of a wheel, rotor or blades as shown in fig. below 10.8. The wheel revolves on
a shaft at a speed which depends on the size of the wheel and on the pressure difference
which is set between the centre of wheel and the periphery. The action of these types of
fan is based upon that the air possesses inertia which once set in motion continues to
move in a straight line unless it is compelled by an impressed force to change its
direction.
Consider a particle of air at a as shown in Fig. 10.8. It is acted upon by the blade which is
rotating in a circular path toward b, but due to its inertia, it teds to move in a straight line in
the direction ac. The resultant of these two simultaneous movements as that the particle
actually follow the spiral both i.e. tangential to the circumference along arrow de as shown
in the figure. Strictly speaking the air is said to fly off because of centrifugal force. The
continuous movement of air from inlet to periphery set up a difference of pressure or
water gauge as a result of which mine is ventilated by mechanical means.
The centrifugal fan has spiral casing and evasee chimney.
The purpose of spiral casing is to enclose the fan wheel and to prevent reentry of the
discharged air. Its cross-sectional area increases to accommodate more and more
quantity of discharged air from the wheel.
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Fig 10.10
The purpose of evasee chimney is to reduce the final velocity of discharge to a minimum
and to promote smooth flow of air without turbulence and eddy currents. By this, the
efficiency of the fan is increased and the required w.g. is developed with a smaller
expenditure of power.
10.10.2 The Air Screw or Axial Flow Fans
The principle of air screw fan is that it propels the air forward axially i.e. straight through
the fan in line with the shaft. It is diverted later in to evasee chimney.
The action of an air screw fan depends on the principles of aerodynamics. In an aero
plane, the machine is driven forward through the air when the propeller revolves but in a
fan, the machine itself remains fixed to its foundation and the air is driven forward.
In an axial flow fan, much higher peripheral speed is needed to develop a given w.g. than
in the case of a centrifugal fan.
The figure below shows a sketch of a fixed pitch, single stage air screw fan.
Fig 10.11
Page 92
It consists of multi bladed rotor or runner. When the rotor revolves, it discharges its air
through stationary guide vanes towards nose shaped head. This stream lines the flow of
air. The cone or nose shaped head extends to the perimeter of the air drift and designed
to maintain streamline flow at the outlet also. The rotor and guide vanes are mounted
within a cylindrical casing with a small clearance between blades and casing. The casing
is fitted with an expanding chimney.
The air screw fans are made in all sizes from 18 inches dia to 12 feet diameter. It is
especially high speed machine running from 180 to 3000 r.p.m. It may be driven by an
electric motor. Two or more rotor each with a set f guide vanes can be made to produce
high w.g.
10.10.3 Comparison between Centrifugal Fans and Air Screw Fans
1. The efficiency of centrifugal fan ranges from 70-75% whereas air screw fan
ranges from 80-85%.
2. The centrifugal fan becomes overloaded where as the driving motor of an air
screw fan does not become over loaded, no matter how the resistance or
equivalent orifice of the mine may change.
3. The air screw fans have smaller weight for a given duty as compared to
centrifugal fan.
4. The air screw fans are more suitable for auxiliary ventilation.
5. The centrifugal fans are more suitable for the development of high water
gauges (pressure difference) where otherwise a more costly 3-stages air
screw fan would be required.
6. The air screw fans have high speed of rotation and for this reason it
necessitates careful construction of the rotor with its shaft and bearing.
7. The air screw fans have high noise of operation. This can be avoided by
providing two or three stage construction which enables the required w-g to
be obtained with a lower tip speed.
Solution (a) The quantity of air produced by a fan varies directly as the speed.
Hence at 250 r.p.m.
Quantity of air = 150,000 X 250/200 =150,000 X 5/4 =187,500 cub, ft
per min
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(b) The water gauge produced varies directly as the square of speed
Hence, at 250 r.p.m
Water gauge =4X ( 250
200 )
2
= 4X ( 5
4 ) 2
=
4
16
X
25
4
=25=6.25 inch. W-g
Example 9.3 If a fan which is developing 216 H.P in the air causes 150,000 cub. Ft
of air per min through a mine (a) what power will the fan develop when
passing 200,000 cub. Ft. of air per min. and (b) what quantity would
the same fan produce in the same mine when developing 144 H.P?
Solution (a) in a mine of given resistance, the power varies as the CUBE of the
quantity
2
Hence, when the quantity is increased 200,000 =
150,000
4 times, the power required will be
3 ( )
4
3
time the original power
(b) In a mine of given resistance, the quantity varies as the CUBE ROOT
of the power
Hence when the power is reduced in the ratio 144/216 the quantity of air will be
reduced ratio 3
44 3
2
= =√0.667=0.874
216 3
3
2
Final quantity = 15,000 X =150,000 X 0.874= 131,100 cub. ft per min
3
Page 94
CHAPTER-11
Page 95
drain tunnel are saving the cost of pumping and eliminating the danger of the mine being
flooded through failure of the pumping. The tunnel might also serve both as haulage way
and an air way.
11.2.1.2 Hoisting the Water
It is a simple method of hoisting water in tanks used in shafts. The engine or motor is
located on the surface. The machinery can be easily repaired and the plant has no
danger of being flooded. But the high cost of plant and shaft can not be used for any
other purpose as water is being hoisted are important disadvantages. The method is less
economical than pumping but is useful in emergency is reclaiming a flooded mine.
11.2.1.3 Sumps
It is an excavation in an underground mine where water is stored before pumping to the
Surface. It is commonly placed at the bottom of the shaft or at one or more level in a
mine. A mine may have one or more sump, pumping water from one sump to another.
The size of sump depends upon water inflow.
11.2.1.4 Pumping
The pumps are one of the main sources of de-watering a mine. Water from a lower sump
to upper sump or to the surface is pumped by the help of pumps.
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These pumps are classified as:-
a) Bucket or Lift Pump.
b) Piston Pump.
c) Ram or Plunger Pump.
b)
a) Bucket Pumps
It is also known as “lift pump” because the upward or lifting stroke is the delivery stroke. It
is being used in many countries for drawing water from wells.
Essential Parts
These are
i) Bucket (B)
ii) Pump Barrel (C) and
iv)
iii) Suction Valve (V)
Figure 11.1 shows a sketch of Bucket Pump
Fig 11.1
The Bucket (B) consists of an outer cylinder of iron or brass tapered towards it base. It is
secured to the lower end by a vertical road (r). The bucket moves up and down in the
pump barrel (C) by a sample lever.
The suction valve (V) is placed at the base of the barrel which in turn is connected to a
pipe known as suction pipe, dipping in to the water in the well or sump. The lower end of
the suction pipe is fitted with a strainer. The purpose of fitting strainer is to prevent small
pieces of wood or debris entering in to the pump.
Action of the Pump
1. Consider the bucket (B) to be at the bottom of its stroke and ready to ascent,
the barrel and suction pipe being full of air.
2. On the upstroke, the bucket valve remains closed and the air above is forced
out of the delivery pipe. As a vacuum is created behind it, a region of low
Page 97
pressure is created within the barrel and a certain amount of water enters
from suction. It opens the suction valve (V).
3. On the stroke, valve (V) closed, the bucket valve opens and water passes to
4.
the upper side and discharges out through delivery pipe.
After several up and down stroke, the whole pump barrel is filled with water and discharge
of water becomes continuous.
All types of pumps can work more easily if they are first primed. If this is not done, the
pump will fail to draw water and will heat up and become damaged.
The Suction Head
The maximum theoretical suction head at sea level is calculated by the formula:
30 x 13.6 Delivery Pipe
Suction head = = feet high
12
Atmosphere pressure at sea level = 14.7 lbs per sq. inch.
= 30 inch mercury
Specific gravity of mercury at sea level = 13.6
c) Piston Pumps
This may be described as a moveable plug which fits inside the pump cylinder and is
moved to and from by the piston rod.
Application of Piston Pumps
Piston pumps are suitable only for pumping fairly clean water to moderate heights: up to
about 300 feet to 400 feet. They have the merits of being light, cheap and compact.
The chief draw back is that the piston and working barrel losses a close internal fitting. It
is also not suitable for water of gritty nature and where delivery head is high.
d) Ram or Plunger Pump
This differs from piston pump in that the piston is replaced by a ram of cast iron, brass or
other alloy which does not fit tight in the working barrel. It is made water tight only at the
two centrally placed stuffing bites, S and at the point r where the ram rod enters the pump
barrel.
Figure 11.3 shows a sketch of a double acting ram pump, directly driven by a
Compressed Air engines.
Fig 11.1
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Brief Description
The pump is provided with two suction valves V1 and V2 and two delivery valves D1 and
D2 the course of water is shown by arrows. The valves may be of rubber close type. The
ram and pump caring are of cost iron, lined, if necessary with brass or gunmetal to resist
corrosion.
The air engine has its piston rod coupled direct to the pump rod, the pump being therefore
“direct acting”.
Application of Ram Pumps
Ram pumps are preferred to piston pump when the pumping conditions are more rough
because of dirty water or high lights or both. They may be designed to deliver water up to
3500 feet or even more.
The special advantage of a ram, as compared with a piston is that it has only to be kept
tight at the external stuffing boxes. These can be maintained in good conditions and
leakage if it occurs is at once apparent.
These types of pumps are especially suitable for raising water from dip workings for
keeping dry the advancing face of an incline where the water is dirty and the pump may
frequently be working on air, a condition quite un suitable for centrifugal pump unless
specially designed.
Page 99
The Impeller somewhat resembles a wheel formed of two discs between which are fixed a
number of vanes or blades, curved backward usually from the direction of rotation. An
opening is left at centre of the discs to permit the entry of water via the suction pipe.
When thee Impeller revolves, the water is carried round by the blades and is thrown off
with an increased pressure and at high velocity from the sides of impeller into the volute
casing. Here the velocity is gradually reduced and the kinetic energy is converted into
pressure energy. This enables the pump to overcome a great head.
Centrifugal pumps are usually designed to deal with very large quantities of water, such
as 100,000 gallons per minute, but it is suitable only for low lifts; the maximum being 150
feet or more conveniently up 30 to 70 feet.
Centrifugal pumps are in common use for condenser circulation purposes, coal
washeries, irrigation purposes and motor works supplies.
The Turbine pumps greatly increase the efficiency of conversion of kinetic energy in to
pressure energy. A single stage turbine pump can deliver 400 gallons of water per minute
against a head as high as 100 feet and so a two stage pump can lift water up to 200 feet.
The pump is driven direct by a 3-phase, a.c induction motor running at about 1450 r.p.m.
on a 50-cycle supply.
4 Sludge Pumps
These pumps are used for handling sludge. The sludge is liquid having about 2% of solids
in it. Different types of sludge pumps are used depending upon the nature of sludge to be
handled.
The Mono Pump
This type of pumps differs from centrifugal or reciprocating pumps in its construction and
action. It is a valve less, rotative pump.
Page 100
Fields of Application
1. For in-bye work at the face or in dip workings, where the suction
conditions are difficult and variable and where the pumps may have to
work on the snore i.e. on air.
2. For cleaning sumps and standages, where the water contains large
quantities of fine silt or sludge.
4.
3. For handling coal slurry in coal washeries.
Mono pumps can handle from 6.5 gallons per minute up to 100 gallons per minute at total
heads ranging up to 100 feet for single stage pump and 300 feet from to stage pumps.
The Mono Pumps consist of:
a) A rubber stator
b) A helical rotor
c) Suction and delivery branches
d) Hollow driving shaft.
e)
Page 101
6. Siphon
It is although not a pump but is used for conveying water from a higher level A to a lower
level B over an elevated piece of ground C as shown in Figure 11.7 below.
Fig 11.7
The difference of level H1 between A and C must not exceed 26 feet as a practical
maximum A non return value is fitted at A and a regulating valve at B. Two other valves
are provided at C. One to enable the siphon to be primed with water and the other to
permit escape of air during the process. These two valves are kept closed in normal
working.
The upper end A of the siphon must be kept continuously immersed in water to prevent
access of air, whilst for the same reason it is preferable to keep the end B also immersed
in water, although this is not essential.
Page 102
CHAPTER – 12
MINERAL DRESSING
Introduction
Most of the times many minerals and ores require some preparation before use. With this
preparation we can increase their chemical or physical purity. This can be explained by
taking the example of trapcock and coal traprock which cannot be used as ballast if is not
of required size. Similarly coal is worthless unless it is sufficiently free of waste material.
12.1 Definition
It is a process, which is used to produce marketable mineral products from raw material
without changing chemical and physical properties of the original mineral.
Hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy and oil refining may also deal with raw materials but they
change the character of some or all of the constituents of the raw material.
12.2 Economic Justification of Mineral Dressing-Value Addition
Mineral processing removes bulk of un-wanted material attached to the mineral. It,
therefore, helps in: -
i) Saving in Freight, because no payment is made for the discarded material.
ii) Metal Losses. During melting metal loss is reduced as less and slag is
produced, due to the absence of gangue (unwanted material).
iii) Smelter’s cost. This is also reduced considerably. Because smelter treat
iv)
only pure material without any waste.
The oldest dressing method was un-questionably hand sorting. By this meant the
choosing of valuable lumps of ore from worth less lumps. This method was so crude that
only the highest grade material could be smelted. The hand sorting method was
employed both underground and at the surface where cheap labour is available. Now
Machinery has replaced the place of hand sorting.
12.3.1 Crushing
12.3.1.1 Definition.
Crushing may be defined as that operation or group of operations, which reduces the
large lumps to fragments.
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12.3.1.2 Brief Description
Crushing is the first step in the mineral dressing. Material receive from mine is in the form
of large lumps. These lumps cannot be used in further processing as such. It is, therefore,
required to reduce the size of lumps to get: -
i) Particles of required size.
ii) Increase surface area for chemical activity.
iv)
iii) Liberation.
Crushing is done by pressing the material against the stationary part by a moving part. It
is a dry operation and usually done in two or three stages. The size of the lumps may be
upto 1.5 m and after crushing it may be reduced to a size of 10-20 cm. Or 1/20 of an inch.
Reduction Ratio
The ration between size of feed and in the product is called reduction ratio.
Crushers are heavy duty machines and classified into four main groups:
1. Coarse and Primary breaking Jaw and gyratory crushers are used for
coarse crushing.
2. Intermediate or Secondary crushing Cone, disk and spring rolls are used
for secondary crushing.
3. Fine crushing – Gravity, stamp mills are used for fine crushing.
5.
4. Special uses – Tooth rolls and hammer mills are used for soft material.
Coarse crushing is always conducted on dry materials whereas rolls are used for wet
crushing.
12.3.1.2
(a) Jaw Crushers
Jaw Crushers consist of two crushing faces or jaws one of which are stationary and are
fixed in the crusher frame and the other moving alternately towards the stationary face
and away from it is a small throw.
Jaw Crushers are intended for use as a primary crusher i.e. to receive the coarsest lump
produced from the mine or quarry. Accordingly jaw crusher has a relatively much gap
(width of receiving opening).
Fig 12.1
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All jaw crushers have an adjustable, discharge opening so that they can produce product
i.e. coarse or fine. Figure 12.1 shows the sketch of a Blake type Jaw Crusher. The
crushing frame is made of case steel. The jaws are made of cast steel lined with
replaceable jaw plates of alloy steel, generally manganese steel. The sides of the
crushing opening are made of manganese steel cheek plates. Motion is transmitted from
the main crusher shaft by means of a pitman working on an eccentric on that shaft, and of
toggles. One of the jaws is fixed and the other is movable. The movable jaw is kept
pressed against the toggles by a tension rod and spring. The flywheels are used to
equalize intermittent load which is applied on the jaw crusher.
b) Gyratory Crushers
Gyratory Crushers consists of two substantially vertical, truncated, conical shells, the
outer shell having its apex pointing down and the inner shell having its apex pointing up.
The outer shell is stationary and the inner shell is made to gyrate or to rotate. There are
several types of gyratory crushers, the best known as supported spindly gyratories,
suspended spindle gyratories and the parallel pinch crushers.
Figure 12.2 shows the sketch of suspended spindle Gyratory Crusher. The crusher
consists of: -
1. an outer frame made of cast steel
2. a wearing surface known as concaves
3. inner crushing
4. a spindle which is made to gyrate from a fixed fulerum
5. an eccentric sleeve fastened to a beveled gear
6. an other beveled gear which is driven from a horizontal drive shaft.
Fig 12.2
7.
Page 105
c) Comparison Between Jaw & Gyratory Crusher
1. Gyratory crushers are available for the coarsest crushing. The largest
crushers to date whereas as the capacity of jaw crusher is less.
2. The Gyratory works continuously, whereas the jaw crusher works
intermittently.
3. Reduction ration in the case of gyratory crusher is also better than jaw
4.
crusher.
d) Cone Crusher
Cone crushers are somewhat newcomers as compared to jaw and Gyratory crushers.
These are economical machines for crushing rock pieces of intermediate sizes.
Figure 12.3 shows a sketch of Cone Crusher. It has much large capacity if compared with
rolls or even with gyratory crushers. To achieve best results, cone crushers must be
provided with a dry feed freed of fine particles. If this is not done, the crusher may clog.
Fig 12.4
An early set of rolls after the Cornish style. These rolls were usually
8 to 30 in diameter and 14 to 20 in wide (After Miller)
Page 106
Figure 12.4 shows the sketch of early type of roll machine. The rolls were mounted on
heavy shafts revolving in open bearings contained within cast iron frames. One of the rolls
was driven positively and the other by friction. To assure rotation of the rolls which moves
by friction, it is pressed sideways against the positive roll by a heavy weight hung from a
yoke. Both rolls are positively driven at much higher speeds and breakage is prevented
by mounting the bearings of one roll shaft against coil springs.
Both roll shafts revolving in fixed bearings were used at one time but are now become
obsolete. Rolls shells are replaced when worn.
12.3.2 Grinding
12.3.2.1 Definition
There is little difference between Crushing and Grinding. Crushing is employed on coarse
materials whilst grinding is the breaking down to the ultimate fineness by combination of
Impact and abrasion.
12.3.2.2 Brief Description
The grinding is done by ball mills, rod mills or tube mills. These grinding mills are
operated either wet or dry. We shall only describe a ball mills here to familiarize the
students about the principle.
a) Ball Mills
Balls mills are characterized by the use of steel or Iron balls as the grinding medium.
The crushed rock is feed at one end and ground rock is discharged at the other end
or through the periphery. They are either continuous or intermittent.
Balls mills can be classified according to the shape of the mill, the method of
discharging the ground ore and whether the grinding is conducted dry or wet.
Figure 12.5 shows a Hardinge ball mill.
Fig 12.5
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It consists of two conical sections connected by a short cylindrical section supported
by end bearings on which hollow trunnuous revolve. Feed is taken in through a
feeder located beyond one of the trunnuous and a continuous stream of thick plup
pours from a discharge end located axially on the other trunnions. Hardinge mills are
very widely used, in metallurgical field. They are usually adapted for wet grinding,
but they are also used for dry grinding in conjunction with pneumatic classifiers.
Dry grinding harding mills are used for pulverizing coal, clay limestone and cement.
12.3.3.1
13
Definition
Practically all mineral dressing operation are the functions of the size of the particles
which is to be treated.
There are several methods of sizing mineral particles, the most important of which is
screening.
Screening is the process of separation of a mixture of various sizes of grains into two or
more portions. After screening we get grains of more uniform size than that of mixture.
12.3.3.2 Brief Description
Screening can be practiced from a dividing size of several centimeters to a dividing size
as fine as 0.1 mm. Likewise classification of screening can be practiced from a dividing
size as coarse as 2 or 3 mm to as fine as dividing size as 0.02 to 0.03 mm.
It is often said as a mineral dressing rule that for sizing coarser than 20 mesh, screens
are preferable and for sizing finer than 35 mesh, classifiers are preferable.
It is a good general rule, but there are many exceptions. For example; the products that
are dry like talcum powder, aluminum powder, cement, or foundry sand are screened dry
down to 200-mesh.
Conversely it is also desired to introduce the effect of specific gravity in the sizing, or if the
material is in suspension in water, classification is preferred.
In screening, consideration must be given to the type of screening surfaces and to the
types of machines that are employed with these various screening surfaces.
8.
Screening Surfaces Are Of Three Varieties
9.
i) Parallel rod
ii) Punched plates and
iii) Woven wire
i) Parallel rod screening surfaces are usually made of steel bars, steel rails, Cast Iron
or wood. These are usually used for coarsest sizing.
ii) Punched plates screening surfaces are made of sheet steel punched by dies in
various patterns. The openings are circular, square or slot like. For coarse size,
circular opening and of fine size, slotted opening are the rule.
iii) Woven wire screening surfaces are woven by gauged wire, generally made of steel
but sometimes of copper, bronze, monel metal or some other alloy. The weaving
may be such as to produce square or rectangular openings. For coarse screening a
square opening, woven wire is preferable whereas for intermediate and fine
iv)
screening rectangular openings are advantageous.
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Factors Affect the Rate at Which Undersize Material Pass through a Screening
Surface
The most important are: -
1. The absolute size of the openings
2. The relative size of the particle to that of the opening it must penetrate
3. The percentage of openings to total surface in the screening surface.
4. The angle at which the particle strikes the screening surface.
5. The speed with which the particle strikes the screening surface.
6. The moisture content of the material that is being screened.
7. The opportunity for satisfaction in size layers afforded to the material
8.
which is being screened.
a) Types of Screens
Screens are classified into stationary screens and moving screens.
Stationary Screens
They are principally of the type known as grizzlies. They consist of parallel rods set an
angle to the horizontal suitable for coarse crushing.
Grizzlies may be made by bars having a rectangular cross-section, or special sectional
shape as rails, I-beams. The bars are held together by depressed cross rods.
The slope of grizzlies is generally such that material fed to it will just flow.
Moving Screens
They include moving grizzlies, trammels, vibrating screen and shaking screens.
Shaking screen is used in coal preparation.
13.3.3 Flotation
14
14.3.3.1 Definition
15
Flotation is the process of separation of mineral surface in such a way that particles may
be caused to adhere (stick fast) either to the water in which they are Immersed or to air
bubbles. The particles are collected in froth or remain in the pulp (soft mass) depending
on whether they stick to the air or to the water.
16
Flotation is the most important mineral processing technique for complex ores such as
lead zinc or copper zinc etc. Now its use has been extended to ores such as hematite and
cassiterits.
Particle Size
For Flotation, the floatable particles must not exceed some maximum size ranging from
10 to 14 mesh in the case of coal. 48 to 65 mesh for sulphides and 100 to 150 mesh for
free gold. There are two types of Flotation: -
i) Direct
iii)
ii) Reverse
i) Direct Flotation
In this method valuable minerals are floated and gangue settles down.
ii) Reverse
In this method valuable minerals are collected from the pulp and gangue minerals
are floated.
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12.3.5. Washing
12
12.3.5.1 Definition
13
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CHAPTER-13
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In very soft material and where the ground is badly broken little or no core is discovered
and the drilling results may not be satisfactory.
Steps to be followed in sampling by diamond drills are: -
1. The core should be removed and the hole thoroughly cleaned out after
each sample.
2. Both core and sludge from each sample should be carefully saved.
3. The core and sludge from each sample should be combined in the
ratio of their original masses in the hole.
5.
4. The pieces of core are laid out in proper order and carefully.
13.2.2 Churn Drilling
It is used for soft ores and for placer deposits. The ore samples are usually taken in 5ft.
length.
Placer deposits may be divided into two classes, those related to the present system of
drainage in river and stream and ancient deposit lying as such due to change of river or
stream direction.
The placer of the first type is prospected by drilling a line of holes at right angles to the
main course of stream. The second type is generally of unknown out line and is
prospected by holes placed at the corners of 50,100,200 and 300ft. or even 10 acres
13
square.
13.2.3 By Rock Drill
14
Sometime silver-lead ore occurs as lenses in the bedding planes in limestones. Because
of the irregular occurrence of the ore an irregular system of exploration will not find all the
ore body. Consequently the proportion of non development work is high. Diamond drill
was discarded because of the high loss in carbons. Rock drills are used to drill long holes
of sampling purposes. Drills are used to reduce the number of cross cuts driven though
barren areas. The sludge from each 3ft length of hole is collected in a powder box placed
at the mouth of the hole. The sample is not considered as an accurate sample of the ore
but is used to indicate whether the ground is mineralized or not.
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Large samples are suggested to have double advantage i.e. checking of cutting a series
of channel samples and subsequently blasting down about 1 ft. of the back and then
repeating this procedure a small stope some 10 ft. high can be excavated. The
comparison of the channel samples as assayed and the bulk sample are run through the
mill, the difference between the average of the assays and the recovery in the mill plus
loss in the tailing give the sampling error for channel sampling.
Bulk samples for a metallurgical test are taken by blasting down a large sample from each
stope.
13.2.6 TEST PITS
13
Test pits may be used for sampling placers deposit where the ground is not too wet and
does not tend to cave. Otherwise it is tested by drilling. A larger sample is secured from
test pits and a vertical section of the deposit is exposed. Definite information is secured
regarding the nature and condition of the bedrock. Samples may be taken from a test pit
by cutting a channel 12 inches wide and 6 inches deep down one side of the pit or by
cutting out a certain volume from the excavated material. Test pits are also used for
sampling dumps, in which larger pieces usually accumulate at the bottom.
13.2.7 By Augers and Post Hole Diggers.
These are used for sampling soft and low grade materials such as iron-ore or tailing piles
(heaps). Holes averaging 50 ft. in depth were sunk with a post hole digger in a pile of 200-
mesh tailing by making a core barrel as 6.5 inches dia and 9.5 inches long. Two inches
14
auger bit is used for sampling iron ore.
15
16
13.2.8 Trenching
Trenching may be cut through a shallow superficial deposit, a dump or a tailing pile. A
certain portion of the material excavated every 5th of every 10th shovelful, car load or other
unit is taken for the sample. If the material is rich and irregular in content then a larger
sample is taken than if it is uniformly low grade. If the walls of the trench are smooth a
channel sample may be cut from them.
1.3.3
17
Salting
It is a process of raising the value of a sample above that of the actual value determined
intentionally or unintentionally. It must be constantly guarded against. The possibility of
intentional salting should always be kept in mind, since the common cause of salting is
the desire of vendors (seller) to affect a sale. Intentional salting can be done by various
ways as described below: -
Before samples are cut, gold may be shot into the rock with a shot gun.
A solution of chloride of gold may be injected into samples in rocks.
Rich material may be added to samples during crushing and grinding.
A small piece of clay containing a few color of gold may be dropped into a drill
hole.
Local miners cutting samples can readily salt them by adding valuable
mineral, by breaking into sample an undue proportion of the richer streaks or
by picking out pieces of waste during work.
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13.3.1 Guard against salting (Prevention).
14
The places where samples are to be cut, should not be marked a long time in
advance of sampling.
Some samples of rock known to be barren should be included with the regular
samples. Good results for the barren rock indicate either salting or false
results.
An excellent protection is to resample 10-30 channel samples from different
types of parts of the mine. Original samples are not numbered in regular order
and resample are given different numbers in regular order and resample are
given different numbers. The resample are not of the same weight as the
original samples and it would be very difficult to salt the two samples by
exactly the same amount.
In this method, a cone of the crushed material is shoveled at one point on the quartering
floor. The particles are allowed to roll down in all directions from the central point to have
a uniform composition of the mass. The top of the cone is flattered with the edge of the
shovel. The material is spread equally in all directions until a disk is formed. The
thickness of the disk is about 0.1 time the diameter of the core. This disk is them marked
into quadrants. The diagonally opposite quadrants are cut out and the material in the
rejected quadrants is removed. The mass now contains half the original quantity. After
reducing the large pieces proportionally, coning and quartering are repeated. Thus one
quarter of the original is obtained. The process of crushing, coning and quartering are
repeated until we get a sample of desired size. However the procedure followed during
this operation should always be the same. This method is applicable to all kinds and
grades of ores, needs no expensive plant and keeps the sample constantly in sight.
13.5
14
Evaluation of Mines.
Mines are valued for the following reasons:-
i) For the purpose of sale.
ii) For the dissolution of partnership or corporations.
iii) For the purpose of merging different mining companies.
iv) For the taxation purposes.
v) For loan purposes.
vii)
vi) For litigation purposes.
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Normally the object of valuing the mines is to determine its salable value at which the
property may be transferred from a willing seller to a willing buyer.
Mines may be valued in several different ways. One method is on the basis of the market
value of the mine stock. Producing mines are generally valued on the basis of operating
profit which is obtained from mining the ores and marketing the recoverable metallic
15
content.
13.5.2 Information Necessary for valuing a Mine.
14
In order to determine the present value of a mine the following factors need to be
evaluated: -
1. Recoverable Contents of the ore.
2. Future price of mineral products.
3. Cost of production.
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CHAPTER-14
14.2
15
Management Duties and Responsibilities
The management consists of Owner, Agent and Manager. The Manager generally has
absolute control of the business of the Company/Corporation and is in control of the
company in which lease is situated. The Manager should not do too much administrative
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work himself. It is preferable to delegate his detailed work to subordinates and to give
them freedom of operation, judging them by results.
The duties and responsibilities of Managers are the efficient handling of labour and the
infusion of morale into the working force, the following of proper legal and social
procedure in the transaction of business, the applying of new discoveries in physical
science that would improve the technical work of the organization, the efficient marketing
of products, the maintaining of adequate finances and coordinating of all departments of
the organizations.
14.3
15
Safety and Welfare Aspects
16
Importance of safety and welfare aspects in the mines can be summarized as follows: -
14.3.1 Care of Employees
The safety and welfare of employees are integral part of mine administration. Under this
category are included:
a) Physical examination of all staff/miners who are employed in and around the mines;
b) Provision of safety informations through bulletins;
c) Display of safety posters;
d) Provision of proper residential, water and sanitation facilities;
e) Timely payment of compensation, insurance and all other dues which
are enforced by the state.
f) Committee meetings and personal instructions;
Large mines may maintain an emergency hospital. The training in First Aid and Mine
Rescue and Safety Work should be available for all mine workers. An applicant for work is
interviewed and must pass a physical examination. A record is made of his previous
employment. Before going to work in the mine, he should be instructed in safety matters
by a Safety Instructor.
Often in industrial accidents the cause of the accident is not investigate in a logical and
orderly manner and a remedy applied. There should be a classification of terms the first
step in this direction is to note the difference between cause and effect. Basic accident
causes may be divided into two general classes with a number of sub-divisions as
follows;
Supervisory
Faulty instruction
ix)
a) None
b) Not enforced
c) Incomplete
x)
d) Erroneous;
Inability of Employee
iii)
a) Inexperience
b) Unskilled
c) Ignorant
iv)
d) Poor Judgment
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Poor Discipline
iv)
a) Disobedience of Rules
b) Interference by others
v)
c) Folling
10.
Lack of Concentration
a) Attention Distracted
11.
b) Inattention
Unsafe Practice
a) Chance taking
b) Short cuts
d)
c) Haste
Mentally Unfit
a) Sluggish or fatigued
b) Violent temper
d)
c) Excitability
Physical Unfit
a) Defective
b) Fatigued
c) Weak
Physical
Physical hazards (include mechanical, electrical, steam, chemical conditions etc.)
a) Ineffectively guarded
b) Un-guarded
c)
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Improper Planning
a) Layout of Operation
b) Layout of Machinery
d)
c) Unsafe Processes
Improper Dress or Apparel
a) No goggles, gloves, masks etc.
b) Unsuitable long sleeves
c) High heels defective etc.
Both Supervisory and Physical causes may also be controlled by the employer. It is
apparent that in the last analysis the employee may avoid accidents, even though he is
exposed to unsafe conditions.
Accidents due to mechanical or physical exposures should be assigned to causes in the
supervisory group, where the foreman has the authority to install or maintain guards. In
such cases the chief cause is generally laxity in supervision. By following this line of
reasoning the accidents can be reduced.
The value of analysis by the causes listed above, as compared to the existing method of
allocation as slips and falls eye injuries and others is apparent. It directly needs attention
of supervisory staff.
Carelessness, poor supervision and improper selection of employees have deliberately
been omitted because of ambiguity.
14.4
15
Factors of Accident in Underground Mining
The factors causing accidents in underground work may be as caving of the roof, fall of
side, emission of noxious gases such as fire damp, black damp, white damp, stink damp
etc. fires, breakage of ropes, derailment of tubs and improper alignment of rail line.
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Accident statistics reveal that transport operations are the main source of industrial
injuries. Hence the need of strictly observing the safety regulations concerning trains in
pits and waste dumps.
It has been proved statistically that conveyors in open pits are as a rule extremely heavy
and bulky and for this reason, one must strictly observe safety rule in setting up and
repairing them.
Since electric power is widely used in open-pit work, particular attention should be paid to
safety measures against injuries caused by electric current.
The lightening of open pits at night is not only necessary for efficient operations but also
for safety. Working places and machines should be provided with ordinary powerful
electric lamps or special stationary or portable floodlights. Portable lighting mains should
be used at the sites of blasting operations.
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