Electrical Properties of Particles Rad Nima A-Mohajer Aerosol Mechanics Spring 2012Acharged particle is acted upon Coulomb force due to: 1) Existence on other charged particles F,=K, ne 2) Existence of an external electrostatic field F, =Eq, F,: Coulomb force (N) gy: Charge of particles (C) K. -—b-=9.0x10°Nn K,: Electric constant (Nm?/C?) Fre, R: The distance between the charged particles Unit conversion between SI and cgs units: Statcoulomb (stC): the charge that causes a A=C/s repulsive force of 1 dyne V=Nm/C when 2 equal charges are - —_=> separated by 1. cm N=K,C’/m* (3.33x107°C) V=K,C/m Unit charge: 4.8 x107°stC (1.6x1049C) stA =stC/s stV = dyn.cm/stC dyn = stC* /em* stV =stC/em UF iin ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:TABLE 15.1 Conversion Factors and Constants for SI and cgs Electrostatic Units Quantity SI cgs Charge 1c 3.0 x 10° stC Current 1A 3.0 x 10? st Potential difference Iv 0.0033 stV Kr 9.0 x 10? N+ mi/C? 1 Charge on an electron, ¢ 1.60 x 10°C 4.80 x 10-19 st Electrons per unit charge 6.3 x 10'%C 2d x 1O%StC Electrical mobility Im/V+s 3.0 x 108 cm/stV +s Field strength INIC of Vin 3.3 x 10° dynistC or stW/om Electric Fields + An electric field exists in the space around a charged object and causes a charged particle to be acted upon the force. i! The direction of electric field vector is the same as F, 5 Its strength is obtained from Coulomb force equation The location & magnitudes of all charges on a surface are difficult to kno UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Potential difference :': Defined as the work required to move a unit charge between 2 points (AW) Assuming the distance between the points to be Ax, it is written as: AW = RAx Alternative equation for the magnitude of electric field: § E= x Field strength between two Field strength inside a oppositely charged parallel plates cylindrical tube pi Rin AW: Voltage difference between the wire and tubeV) R: Radius of the cylinder (m) dj: Diameter of the tube (m) AW: Electric potential (V) d,; Diameter of the wire (m) D: Distance between the plates (m) UF iin ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Terminal velocity in Stokes regime The terminal velocity of a charged particle inside an electric field is obtained by equating electrostatic field and Stokes drag force. F, =q,E =neE “4 “1 r EC, m 3nuVd, |B >V,, =e " V,_ =neEB >= 3apd, ; _neEC, c Vie 3nd, Terminal velocity in Non-Stokes regime , F, =q,E =neE , SneE = Cy g Pedy Vie mp, > Vre mH Then from Figure 3.4 or Viz = la using these equations, we ep ; 2 2 4 d, have: J=In[C,(Re)"]= by see [emt stianietisessie ama) UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Millikan oil-drop experiment Iniet © Robert Millikan, (1868-1953) Winner of Nobel Prize in 1923 for Light source Microscope his work on FIGURE 15.1 Apparatus for Millikan oil-drop experiment. photoelectric Aerosol Technology by William Hinds (1998), Edition 2 page 321. effect UNIVERSITY of ; sce UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Electrical mobility expresses the ability of a particle to move in an electric field; and it is symbolized by Z. 35 The electrical mobility is the velocity of a particle with gp = ne in an electric field of unit strength. For Stokes regime the electrical mobility is obtained from: ae for Re<1 E 3nd, Zz 3'£ Electrical mobility is usually appears in m?/V.s [cm2/st V.s]. 3: The true value of electrical mobility in non-Stokes regime is greater. Relationship between electrical and mechanical mobility Z=q,B=neB 35 Acceleration and deceleration in electric field is expressed by relaxation time and follows relationships in section 5.2 of the textbook. UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Principal mechanisms are: 1) Flame charging 2) Static electrification = Electrolytic charging, Satay electrification, Contact charging 3) Diffusion charging 4) Field charging Diffusion charging: 3/5 Due to random collisions of ions with particles following Brownian motion 2't No external electric field No dependence on the particle material Charge accumulation creates an electric field which tends to repel later ions UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #::': Rate of charge accumulation decreases with time lons have Boltzmann distribution of velocities Approximate equation for number of diffused charge: , C;; Mean thermal speed of the ions (240 m/s @ STP) d,kT aK, d ce Nyt e: Unit charge of an electron (1.6 x 107° C) a In Ln Nj: Concentration of the ions (#/m?) one Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 1073 /K) Ke: Electric constant (9 x 10° Nm?/C2) n(t)= for N,t > 10” = is accurate for d, = 0.07 to 1.Sum for N;t > 10 5 is accurate for d, = 0.05 to 40pm In conclusion, Even in the presence of an electrostatic field, diffusion charging is the predominant mechanism for d, < 0.2 um. UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:2\¢ The process of charging by unipolar ions in existence of a strong E-field Rapid motion of ions inside the e-field to be collided with particles Distortion of E-field lines lons move on E-field lines and collide particles Presence of charge reduces the converging lines + There is no converging line at q = q, at) -( 3e \ Ed,” aK eZNit e+2) 4Kye \ 1+ nKzeZ,Nit Z;: lon mobility (about 0.00015 m?/V.s) Nj: lon number concentration (#/m?) n, -(35) Ed, €+2)} 4K,e UF FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics ‘Slide #:Sensitivity analysis on ion concentration 108 : T r 7 E = 500 kVim [6 kViom] d= 10 ym 3 2 5 = ' 3 3 a 5 2 0.1 ym to L 10 . 1 : 1 10° 40" 10% 108 10% 108 Nt (ion-sim*) UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Number of elementary charges ity analysis on electrostatic field Nt = 10" ion-s/m? [10 ion:s/cm*] 0.01 OA 10 UF |FLORIDA Particle diameter, ym ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics 10 100 Slide #:Vacuum 1 Air 1.00059 Quartz 43 Pure water 80 Conducting materials Infinite Most materials 1 1 um and diffusion charging is dominant for d, < 1 pm. UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:The surface charge equation is no longer explicit. Estimation of the surface charge required numerical computation. Number of Charges vs dp —*— Dittusion charging = id Chargi 3 = & i a oot or i dp (um) Particle diameter (um) # of electrons vs d, for diffusion & field Electrical mobility vs particle size for diffusion, field and charging at E = 500 kV/m and Nit= 10" s/m? combined charging at E = S00 kV/m and Nyt = 10°? s/m? UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Example: Plot shows the fly ash size distribution — of typical fly ash emission. ESP is particle-laden flow. How does size distribution looks like at the ESP outlet? applied on UF |FLORIDA So bats - kSIDI AS gnsle § oo Or 7.00 16.00 50ae [pym) Typical size distribution of Fly Ash ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics 10000 Slide #:Methods of lon generation in air: 3/5 Radioactive discharge 35 UV radiation Flame Only Corona discharge can make Corona discharge = high enough concentration of ions. A thin layer at the surface of the wire is the only region with sufficient field strength with air conductivity (breakdown). Required breakdown field strength inside a cylinder: 12.7 dy: wire diameter (cm) E, =30+ “Tq. Sx: tube diameter (em) lie AV AV: Electrical potential a difference between wire E= Field strength inside a cylinder: rin(4t) and tube d ‘wr: Tube radius UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Definition Production of dense cloud of Tube wall free electrons and positive 100 ions around wire Types of Corona discharge: ‘s Negative corona |+ Positive corona Field strength (kV/om) Applied difference: Negative corona comes with lower energy but higher electrons concentration. SSS yi XUUEqT SS iii UH IO IM nop 05 r) © o 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 Rodial position (cm) UNIVERSITY of . UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Positive Corona . Negative Corona - + Step1 | @+e | --@ | eS = . + is *—@ sep? ae | |-s | 1% = - + Step 3 ® ©6@ | | 2 O | + - 1 - + Step 4 @ — | © -| a Electrode Collection Plate —_ Electrode Collection Plate, © electron @@ molecule particle UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Positively charged ticle Electric field lines Particle trajectory Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) Drift velocity of particles between the ESP plates = ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Ui eae este} Moric to electrostatic force, is the particle migration velocity is the slip correction factor, is the electric field strength in the collection region is gas viscosity is the total surface of the collecting plates, and is the volumetric gas flow through the precipitator Slide #:Assumptions for turbulent flow with lateral mixing in wire-and- tube geometry 1) Particle concentration is uniformly distributed at each section of the ESP 2) Negligibility of the gravitational force 3) No bouncing and re-entrainment Residence time aR?L t= Q Q: Flow rate of particle “laden stream L: Length of the ESP R: Radius of the cylinder-shaped ESP UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Derivation in wire-and-tube ESP AN __2nRV,dt__ 2V .dt N mR” R rc AN p= 2Vip NM N * R N(t) _ ex —2V pt } No R UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) Types of ESPs in terms of shape :'+ Cylindrical type Plate type Types of ESPs in terms of flow direction Vertical gas-flow $'+ Horizontal gas-flow Types of ESPs in terms performance One stage or two stages “¢ Dry or wet Plate type, horizontal gas-flow, one stage and dry ESPs are the most common ESP type in industrial application. JUNIVERSITY of : 5 UF FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:z aig me Colon oe rr | HY. a +) | o a a at) HD iy. cH v. Ss One-stage ESP Two-stage ESP St E 99.9, Collecting g cS Sa = 99.8-—-—] Cj electrodes FR Z\ 2 98 Ls iw The observed z minimum is because 7% of Cunningham i» factor in calculation f 0-0250.06 0.1 . 0 of drift velocity. Pauticle diameter d (tin) e ¢ Discharge electrodes UF iia ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:General advantages of ESPs Effectively collection of fine particles Working under wide range of temperature and pressure Experiencing relatively a low pressure drop (typically 1 to 2 kPa) General disadvantages of ESPs 35 Not suitable for explosive and flammable dusts High investment cost Other considerations Electrode robustness to avoid vibration Electrode material to avoid erosion Separation between the discharging electrodes is usually 20 ~ 25 cm Taking the right angle for the hoppers 2‘: Frequent mechanical rapping to clean the collecting plates UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Selecting the right ESP 315 One-stage ESP is good for avoiding re-entrainment of collected particles 3's One-stage ESP working conditions maintain between 10? to 10° Qm 2's Two-stage ESP provides more collecting area for the same size of ESP i/5 Two-stage ESP is good for low dust concentration, adhesive dusts and mists Two-stage ESP is good for coagulating the fine particles Wet ESP eliminates particle re-entrainment and collects gaseous pollutants 3's Wet ESP has the highest collection efficiency but higher operating cost Wet ESP is good for particles with very low or high resistivity Wet ESP removes NO,, SO,, HCI and NH. 21+ Wet ESP may be used in the downstream of a dry ESP UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Re-entrainment Re-entry of collected dust into inter-electrode spacing. Due to rapping . ney ai Due to increase in stream ~ Discharge electrode (-) -“~ velocity near the collecting electrodes x Due to poor charging of the collected particles Dust resistivity less than ‘Abnormal re-entrainment 10?Qm Injection of adhesive agents (like Ammonia, Ammonium sulfate or oil mists may reduce the entrainment. UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Back corona Establishment of an electric field, Ey = Puig 5 108m ls Corona current density (A/mm?) Happens in negative corona Positive streamers head to discharge electrodes, the flashover voltage reduces sparking occurs Using scraping or brushing is effective in avoiding back corona Varying temperature and humidity to change py Generally, back corona is reduced at lower temperatures but this increases re-entrainment UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Negatively charged particles Spontaneous emission of electrons from the particle + Corona discharge of particles due to reaching charge upper limit Charge limit is proportional to particle surface area Positively charged particles Spontaneous emission of positive ions from the particle Higher E, is needed compared to negatively charged particles Charge limit for solid and spherical particles: ny: Maximum number of electrons E,: Required surface field strength n= dy EL 9 x 10° (V/m) for negatively charged particles and + 4Kze 2.1 x 10" v/m for positively charged particles Rayleigh limit for liquid droplets: Y: Surface tension UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:10" 108 108 108 10° 102 Number of elementary charges 10° 10° UF |FLORIDA Particle diameter, um Particle charge limits (Y = 0.073 N/m) ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:2’: lons concentration in air: 103 #/cm? Initially neutral particles acquire charge due to impact with air ions This leads to Boltzmann Equilibrium charge distribution Initially charged particles lose charge attracting opposite air ions For particles larger than 0.5 jum it is practically normal distribution: d, Average Jo of icles carrying the indic: number of chars tum) Charges “<-3 3-2 0.01 0.007 03.993. 03 0.02 0.104 5.2 89.6 5.2 0.05 0411 0.6 19.30 60.2 19.3 0.6 0.1 0.672 03 44 241 426 241 44 03 0.2 1.00 03°23 96 226 30.1 226 96 23 03 05 1.64 46 68 121 170 190 170 121 68 46 10 2.34 8 81 107 127 135 127 107 81 18 20 3.33 20.1 74 85 9.3 95 93 8.5 74 20.1 5.0 5.28 28 54 58 60 60 60 58 S54 298 10.07.47 35.4 4.0 42 42 43 42 42 4.0 35.4 UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Equilibrium charge distribution 2, Number of charges on a particle after getting exposed to bipolar ions: n(t) =n, xexp(—47K,eZ,N,T) 2/5 Rapid discharge of a highly charged aerosol is done with mixing with a high concentration of bipolar ions. £ Soft X-Ray or Radioactive sources (Kr-85, Po-210) |Charged plate Clean air ——» Ve, ee al ‘Aerosol —> == Ve —+> ——— ——__! — —~— Charged plate 2uh* Za= VL AV: Potential difference between the plates (V) u: Mean flow velocity (m/s) h: Half of the inter-plate distance (m) L: Inlet to exit distance (m) Q: If monodisperse aerosols are introduced, what information can we obtain using this instrument? UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:= 2S. = te Impactor Ditton charging rein lee + = Clean air in Tay reat obity anya con . IHL +4) 0% [outer tube ign votage power PD) | conta! ot — DMA . = cena cat roa ene = ne one UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #:Criteria for EAA Prescribed conditions must be met (T, P and ion concentration) Stable concentration and size distribution during measurement Only for solid or non-volatile liquids Below 0.02 yum, a fraction of particles is uncharged Above 0.3 um, mobility curves becomes flat Q: If two DMAs are connected in series/tandem (TDMA), what kind of information can be obtained? UF |FLORIDA ENV 6130 - Aerosol Mechanics Slide #: