Module 2

The Sociology of Crime and Deviance

Concepts

 Social order- A set of systems, social structures, institutions, customs, values,

practices which conserve maintain and enforce certain patterns of behaviour.
Functionalists see this as “needs” of society. Social order creates an avenue
whereby, society seeks to encourage consensus(agreement) and discourage
dissent(hold opinion). This leads to social control.
 Social control- The way or process by which norms, rules, laws and institutional
structure regulate human behavior.
 Deviance- An action or behavior that violates social norms. Deviance can take the
form of criminal or non-criminal. Whether deviant behavior is perceived as good or
bad depends on the society or culture and the time and place.
 Crime- is a category of deviance that is forbidden by law and exists in all societies.

Agents of social control include the process of primary and secondary socialization.

 Primary socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values and actions
appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture.
 Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is the appropriate
behavior as a member of a smaller group within a larger society.
 Positive and negative sanctions are employed to exert social pressure on groups and
individuals to conform to society.
 Institutions such as family, religion, education, justice system and media act as
powerful agents of control.
Positive and Negative Sanctions pg 352
 Deviance
Deviance is an action or behaviour that violates social norms. Deviance can take the
form of criminal or non-criminal. Whether deviant behaviour is perceived as good or
bad depends on the society or culture and the time and place.
Norms are social constructs prescribing behaviours, so they may be peculiar to a
specific society or culture.
 Primary deviance refers to acts of law-breaking that everyone commits- a variety of
acts in all manner.
 Secondary deviance occurs when persons take on the mantle of the label attached
to them and persists in deviant behaviors using the label.
 Legal deviance refers to an act which breaks social norms and standards, but is not
against the law e.g. Divorce.
 Illegal deviance describes an act which breaks society’s norms and standards and is
also against the law e.g. Murder.

Durkheim believed that deviance play an important role in maintaining social order. He
noted the punishment given for such behaviour acts as a lesson to the public to observe
consensus. This helps to strengthen social solidarity.

Crime
Crime is a category of deviance that is forbidden by law and exists in all societies.

 Delinquency refers to wrongdoing (or deviance) and therefore to all acts in social life
where an office has been committed.
 Recidivism is the habitual relapse of an offender who, once released from prison
continues to commit crimes and returns to prison.
 Profiling refers to procedures used by crime detection officers to record and analyse
how criminals behave, so that they are better able to predict, with some degree of
certainty, that persons with those traits are likely to commit certain crimes.

1. To what extent is there a difficulty in applying Gottfredson and Hirschi’s definition to

a crime such as euthanasia?
2. Explain aspects of crime put forward by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990)
  Gender
 Generational
 Social status

Sociological Perspectives on Crime and Deviance

Biological Perspective
This perspective sought to show that criminals were biologically different from the rest of
the population and that hereditary explained their behaviour. This view is called the
pathological perspective in criminality.

 Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)

 Thomas Kelly
 Diana Fishbein
Pg 358-359

Functionalist

Functionalist emphasizes a macro-outlook in dealing with crime and deviance. They look at
group behaviour in how the social system is structured. If institutional structures fall into
disequilibrium or deemed as not functional, something deviant is at work. Therefore, crime
is not seen in terms of the individual, rather in terms of society not working as it should.
Anomie and Strain Theory
Emile Durkheim
In his writing, said that social stability is dependent on the set of shared beliefs, ideas and
moral attitudes which operate as a unifying force within society ( collective consciousness).
He believed that modern society traditional ties, bonds and community networks were
being eroded by the conditions of urban living. Individuals more operate at an individual
level and this leads to a weaken collective consciousness. Anomie is the term he used to
describe this sense o f normlessness in urban life- when persons felt that there were few
rules, norms and standards to guide them. This, according to Durkheim was a precondition
for crime and deviance because individuals no longer felt integrated into society.

Robert Merton
Adopting the term anomie, Merton describe the strain felt by those members who could not
conform to the norms expected of them. Merton’s strain theory of crime and deviance
states that those who could not achieve success through legitimate means experienced
social strain which encouraged and sometimes leading to deviant and criminal behaviours.
Merton tended to focus on members of the lower social classes who were experiencing
strain because of unequal opportunities.
Control Theory
Travis Hirschi control theory asserts that ties to family, school and other aspects of society
serve to diminish one’s propensity for deviant behaviour. As such, social control theory
posits that crime occurs when such bonds are weakened or are not well established.
Later the theory was modified to become self-control theory (Gottrfredson &Hirschi) based
on empirical evidence that most crime are unplanned and depend a great deal on
opportunity and circumstance.

Marxism
Conflict Theory
Conflict Theory is separated into Traditional Marxist and Neo- Marxism.

Karl Marx’s traditional analysis of capitalism and how the system exploited workers showed
that capitalism was the source of crime – it is criminogenic ( crime is the source of the
exploitative system).
Neo- Marxism went beyond the Marx’s view that the cause of crime was one of economic in
nature. They try to evaluate the laws and state institutions that reinforce inequality. Conflict
theorist regard groups in society as being in competition and conflict for rights, goods and
freedom, thus result in criminal activity.

Traditional Marxism Neo Marxism

Workers are exploited David Gordon- He is of the view that crime in inevitable under a
and impoverished. capitalist system and can be found among both the working and
 Theft becomes a means affluent groups. However, the majority of persons charged or
of survival held before the court are from the working class. There is a
systematic attempt criminalize the working class.
Frustration at the William Chamblis and Milton Mankoff are conflict theorist who
powerless system leads specifically focus on the inequalities arising out of selective
workers to periodic enforcement or reluctance of police or justice system to
instances of violence. maintain the law especially if it will run afoul of powerful
cooperation. Protection of private property plays an important
role in the capitalist system.

Social institutions Laureen Snider points to the fact that capitalist emphasis is on
(superstructure) profit-making and lures even the higher class into criminal
support elites who activity. E.g., insider trading and fraud. The legal system and
dominate the media continues to treat murder break-ins and theft as more
economy(the serious crimes in society. Her critics however point to
substructure). communist societies where similar acts occurred.
Box 11.4
Contrary to
Functionalism, Marxism
says that laws are not
based on values
consensus, but on
social control. Laws
preserve the
inequalities in society.

Interpretive Theory
Interpretive sociology is an approach developed by Max Weber that centers on the
importance of meaning and action when studying social trends and problems.

 Charles Horton Cooley put forward that individuals develop their concept of self by
observing how they are perceived by others, a concept Cooley coined as “looking-
glass self’. This process particularly when applied to the digital age, raises questions
about the nature of identity, socialization and the changing landscape of self.
 Edwin Lemert was the first to make the distinction between the concepts of primary
and secondary deviance.
 Howard Becker put forward the Labelling Theory which states that the behaviour of
human beings is influenced significantly by the way other members in society label
them. It has been used to explain a variety of social behaviour among groups,
 including deviant criminal behaviour. ( There is a relationship between deviants and
those who label them)
 David Matza was critical of Neo- Marxist and Functionalist perspectives. His study
indicated that deviance was not permanent and behaviour can drift back into
conformist and was skeptical of findings suggesting that delinquents had a distinct
subculture.

Subcultural Approaches

Functionalist Approach
Mainstream structural- functionalist thinking on anomie and crime and deviance
changed direction when sociologist recognized the existence of subcultures, and the
difference of values within a population. They also noted that certain subcultures
within socio-economic groups were more likely to be involved in crime than other
groups.

Edwin Sutherland in White Collar Crime (1949) proposed the Differential Association
Theory which proposed that through interaction with others, individuals learn the
values, attitudes, techniques and motive for criminal behaviour.
 In response to strain, persons who lived among deviants would most likely learn the
skills that allowed them to become fully fledged members of the deviant subculture.
 Critics believed that the matter was unresolved because there were persons in
delinquent subcultures who did not become delinquent.
 He was one of the first to reject the notion that criminal subcultures were only to be
found among the poor and pioneered the study of white-collar crime.
 Although he belonged to the Functionalist perspective, his work included aspects of
Interpretivist perspective in his use of ethnographic methods and how deviance was
learnt.

Albert Cohen studies in Delinquent boys (1955) basing his theory on status frustration, he
found that lower-class boys felt looked down at by society and being judged by middle class
standards. A consequence of this was anomie and development of a subculture. Subcultures
earn respect through violence and delinquent acts. Cohen’s work was done in schools and
showed how delinquency served as a means not only to attain status by group but to hit
back at schools, teachers, and wider society. His theory showed how crime could be
committed as a group collectively.
Walter Miller agreed with Cohen that there was a delinquent subculture among the lower
class, but was fuel from the particular norms and values into which they were socialized. He
identified six focal concerns or typical value positions of the working class:

 Smartness- being street wise, shrewd

 Toughness- masculine or macho qualities dictated your survival.
 Autonomy- resentful of any authority figures
 Excitement- not interested in differed gratification
 Trouble- violence and aggression and forms part of life
 Fate- life is what you get, make the most of it ; luck determines life chances

This mix of concerns, led to a culture that accepts deviance and crime as normal.
Critics, however point out that many middle class individuals hold some of these
focal concerns while some members of the lower class do not.

Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin

Both theorist was critical of Merton who suggested that crime and deviance was as a
result of anomie. They instead suggested the delinquency occur from criminal
subcultures existing and providing a means whereby disenchanted youth could learn
about crime and attain a career in crime. In working -class communities, successful
criminals may become local heroes and role models. Cloward and Ohlin also
critiqued Cohen’s contribution that the school played a role in creating juvenile
delinquency.

Neo- Marxist Approach

The neo-Marxist approach sought to correct the Marxist tendency to focus on

capitalism ignoring the role of individual interaction in social life.
Paul Cohen (1972)
Paul Willis (1977)

 Research the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS)

 New Criminology Movement

Feminist Perspectives

Feminist approaches differ in how they address social issues but all have their roots in the
Marxist or Interpretive Perspectives. All feminist sociologist share the view that social order
is achieved through male domination in society. However, each feminist group explains this
differently.
Liberal Feminist
Liberal feminist argue that male domination start innocently during the early years of
socialization, when boys and girls are prepared for their gender roles. In a variety of ways,
boy are prepared for their roles of husband and father whereas girls are introduced into
their expected roles of wife and mother. Once both sexes have accepted their culturally
defined positions in society, the male- in his role as the breadwinner- automatically assumes
dominance by virtue of his control over family’s finances. Crime is a rational response to lack
of opportunities in education and employment. Liberals focus on why women commit crime,
theorizing greater participation of women in the work place and rejecting traditional
patriarchy which they argue led to criminal activity.

Radical Feminist
Radical Feminist comes out more strongly on the issue of patriarchy in society. They believe
that an oppressive and unequal relationship between men and women originates in the
wider society but in the intimacy of personal relationship, sexual partnership and families
and domestic household of various kinds. They argue that women are seen as the property
of men and must always respond to men’s desires.
Socialist Feminism
Socialist feminist focuses on capitalism which dominated by men and the prevailing gender
system of patriarchy which directs women into lower-paying jobs with fewer economic
resources. This in turn led to Crime and deviance. This perspective combines ideas from
both Marxist and Radical feminist to the effect that women are exploited by capitalist and
patriarchy.
Refer to page 367 ( Sociological theories on crime and deviance)

Issues related to Crime and Deviance.

Drug Use and Trafficking

1. What is a drug?
2. What is drug-trafficking?
3. What are the different types of illegal drug trafficked in the Caribbean region?
4. What are some sociological explanations for illegal drug use?
 Travis Hirschi( social control theory)
 Edwin Sutherland (social learning theory)
  Conflict theory
5. What is the impact of drug use of the region and who are most affected?

Juvenile delinquency
1. Distinguish between juvenile and juvenile delinquency.
2. What are some possible effects of juvenile delinquency in the Caribbean?
3. What are some possible explanations for juvenile delinquency in the Caribbean?

Domestic Violence

1. Provide an understanding of the issue of Domestic Violence in the Caribbean.

2. Identify possible causes of domestic violence.
3. Explain possible ways to preventive or solve the issue in the Caribbean
Pages 372-384
Corporate Crime
Effects of Crime and Deviance