Understanding philosophical perspectives on the self

Republic of the Philippines
Camarines Norte School of Law

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
Talisay, Camarines Norte
The Self from Various Philosophical Perspective

Lesson 1
1. Socrates (469 – 399 BCE)

He believed that it is the duty of the philosopher to know oneself.
To live without knowing who you are and what virtues you can attain is the worst that can
happen to a person. Thus, he noted that an “unexamined life is not worth living”
For him, every man is composed of body and soul. This means that every human person is
dualistic, that is, he is composed of two important aspects of his personhood. This means
all individuals have an imperfect, impermanent aspect to him, and the body, while
maintaining that there is also a soul that is perfect and permanent.
2. Plato (428-347 BCE)

Supported the idea of Socrates that man is a dual nature of body and soul. He expounded
on the idea of the soul by stating that the soul has three components: and appetitive soul,
rational soul, and spirited soul.
• The appetitive soul in charge of base desires and cravings of person like eating,
drinking, sleeping, and having sex are controlled as well.
• The rational soul forge by reason and intellect has to govern the affairs of the human
person. It is the thinking, reasoning, and judging aspect.
• The spirited soul is accountable for emotions and also makes sure that the rules of
reason is followed in order to attain victory and/or honor.
In his magnum opus, “The Republic”, He emphasizes that the three parts of the soul must
work harmoniously to attain justice and virtue in a person.
For Plato, when this ideal state is attained, then the human person’s soul becomes just
and virtuous.
3. Augustine’s (354-430 CE)

His view of the human person reflects the entire spirit of the medieval world when it comes
to man.
Following the ancient view of Plato and infusing it with the newfound doctrine of
Christianity, Augustine agreed that man is of a bifurcated nature.
An aspect of man dwells in the world and is imperfect and continuously yearns to be with
the divine and the other is capable of reaching immortality.
The body is bound to die on earth and the soul is to anticipate living eternally in a realm
of spiritual bliss in communion with God.
This is because the body can only thrive in the imperfect, physical reality that is the world,
whereas the soul can also stay after death in an eternal realm with all-transcendent God.
The goal of every human person is to attain this communion and bliss with the divine by
living his/her life on earth in virtue.
4. Thomas Aquinas (13th century) the most eminent 13th century scholar and stalwart of
the medieval philosophy appended something to this Christian view.
He adopt some ideas and philosophical thoughts of Aristotle, Aquinas said that indeed,
man is composed of two parts: Matter and form.
• Matter, or hyle in Greek, refers to the “common stuff that makes up everything in
the universe.” Man’s body is part of this matter.
• Form on the other hand, or morphe in Greek refers to the “essence of a substance of
thing.” It is what makes it what it is.
In the case of the human person, the body of the human person is something that he shares
even with animals. The cells in man’s body are more or less akin to the cells of any other
living, organic being in the world.
What makes a human person a human person and not a dog, or a tiger is his soul, his
essence.
For Aquinas, just as in Aristotle, the soul is what animates the body, it is what makes us
humans.
5. Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650)
He was the father of the modern philosophy conceived of the human person as having a
body and a mind. In his famous treatise, the meditations of first philosophy, he claims
that there is so much that we should doubt. In fact, he says that since much of what we
think and believe are not infallible, they may turn out to be false. One should only believe
that since which can pass the test of doubt. If something is so clear and lucid as not to be
even doubted, then that is the only time when one should buy a proposition. In the end,
Descartes thought that the only thing that one cannot doubt is the existence of the self, for
even if one doubts oneself, that only proves that there is a doubting self, a thing that thinks
and therefore, that cannot be doubted. Thus, his famous quote “Cogito ergo sum” (I think
therefore, I am.)
For Descartes, the self is a combination of two distinct entities:
1. The cogito - the thing that thinks, which is the mind.

2. The extenza - extension of the mind, which is the body
In Descartes’ viewpoint, the body is nothing else but a machine that is attached to the
mind. The human person has it but it is not what makes man a man. Descartes says, “but
what then, am I? A thinking thing. It has been said. But what is thinking thing? It is a
thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, refuses; that imagines also, and
perceives.”
6. John Locke (1632 – 1704)
He was an English philosopher, political theorist, and physician. His works as a physician
provided him with an idea that deviated from the duality of the body and soul.
A person’s mind is a blank slate or tabula rasa at birth. It is through experiences that this
blank slate is filled, and a personal identity or “self” is formed. This “self” cannot be found
in the soul nor the body but in one’s consciousness.
However, this consciousness is not the brain itself. It is something that goes beyond the
brain, and thus, for Locke, the consciousness and the “self” that comes with it can be
transferred from one person or body to another.
7. David Hume (1711-1776)

He was Scottish philosopher, has a very unique way of looking at man. As an empiricist
who believes that one can know only what comes from senses and experience, Hume
argues that the self is nothing like what his predecessors thought of it. The self is not an
entity over and beyond the physical body. Empiricism is the school of thought that espouses
the idea that knowledge can only be possible if it is sensed and experienced. Men can only
attain knowledge by experiencing.
The self is nothing else but a bundle of impressions. Impressions is defined as “if one
tries to examine his experiences, he finds that they can all be categorized into two:
Impressions and Ideas.
• Impressions are basic objects of our experience or sensation. They therefore form
the core of our thoughts. Impressions therefore are vivid because they are products
of our direct experience with the world.
• Ideas, on the other hand, are copies of impressions. Because of this, they are not as
lively and vivid as our impressions. When one imagines the feeling of being in love
for the first time, that still is an idea.
Self is “a bundle or collection of different perceptions, which succeed each other with an
inconceivable rapidity, and are in a perpetual flux and movement.”
8. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
One of the most influential philosophers in Western Philosophy. He contributed in the

fields of metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics among others.
Thinking of the “self” as a mere combination of impressions was problematic for him. He
recognizes the veracity of Hume’s account that everything starts with perception and
sensation of impressions. He thinks that the things that men perceive around them are not
just randomly infused into the human person without an organizing principle that regulates
the relationship of all these impressions.
To Kant, there is necessarily a mind that organizes the impressions that men get from the
external world. Time and space, for example, are ideas that one cannot find in the world
but is built in our minds. Kant calls these the apparatuses of mind.
Along with the difference apparatuses of the mind goes the “self.” Without the self, one
cannot organize the different impressions that one gets in relation to his own existence.
Kant suggest that it is an actively engaged intelligence in man that synthesizes all
knowledge and experience. Thus, the self is not just what gives one his personality. In
addition, it also the seat of knowledge acquisition for all human persons. It can do such
thing because it is independent from sensory experience. It is something that transcends or
is above even our consciousness.
9. Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976)

A British philosopher mainly associated with Ordinary Language Philosophy Movement.
He proposed that we should instead focus on the observable behavior of a person in
defining the “self.”
One of the thing that the duality approach seems to state is that there can be a private,
unobservable aspect of a person, and a different public and observable part. One can
describe one’s self as good but do otherwise in real life.
Ryle do not adhere to this idea and sees the self as an entirety of thoughts, emotions,
and actions of a person that relates to observable behavior. We get to know other by
observing their behavior and inferring about their “selves.” We can apply the same
observation and reflection on ourselves.
10. Maurice Jean Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)

A leading French existentialist and phenomenologist, contributes to the idea by stating that
mind and body are interconnected with each other and therefore cannot be separated.
Our body is our connection to the external world, including other people, thus all
experiences are embodied. This also includes the thoughts and emotions of a person.
11. Paul Churchland (1942- )

He utilized knowledge from other academic and research fields to talk about the self as
well as the mind. He was one of those who proposed the use of “eliminative materialism”
or “eliminativism,” which claims that the old terms we use to describe the mind are
outdated, if not mere “folk psychology,” thus the need to use more accurate and
scientifically proven terms, especially based on neuroscience research.
Neuroscience somehow shows a connection of what we call mental states to that of the
physical activities of the brain, and that the actions of the mind or the self are processes of
the brain.
Thus, the dual perspective of the “self” continues to exist, perhaps because our brains are
programmed to think of dualities. Our religious beliefs, that of mortal body and an
immortal soul, also affects such continuity. However, new ideas from other academic
fields as well as findings from technological advances are being considered and
incorporated in this debate and the discovery of the self. Being open to such new ideas
may help us know more about our own “self”.
The Self, Society, and Culture

Lesson 2
WHAT IS THE SELF?

The self, in contemporary literature and even common sense, is commonly defined by
the following characteristics: “separate, self-contained, independent, consistent,
unitary, and private.”
• By Separate, it is meant that the self is distinct from other selves. The self is
always unique and has its own identity. One cannot be another person. Even twins
(identical or not) are distinct from each other.
• Self is also Self-contained and Independent with its own thoughts,
characteristics, and volition. The self does not require any other self for it to exist.
• Self is consistent because it has personality that is enduring and therefore can be
expected to persist for quite some time. Its consistency allows it to be studied,
described, and measured. This also means that particular self’s traits,
characteristics, and tendencies, and potentialities are more or less the same.
• Self is unitary in that it is the center of all experiences and thoughts that run
through a certain person. It is like the chief command post in an individual where
all processes, emotions, and thoughts converge.
• Finally, the self is Private. Each person sorts out information, feelings and
emotions, and thoughts processes within the self. This whole process is never
accessible to anyone but the self.
The last characteristics of the self being private suggests that the self is isolated
from the external world. The self-lives within its own world. And it is very evident to the
self – to us, however, we also see that this potential clash between the self and the external
reality is the reason for the self to have a clear understanding of what it might be, what it
can be, and what it will be. This perspective is known as the social constructionist
perspective. “Social Constructionists argue for a merged view of ‘the person’ and ‘their
social context’ where the boundaries of one cannot easily be separated from the
boundaries of the other.”
THE SELF AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIAL WORLD
For George Herbert Mead, this takes place as a child assumes the “other” through
language and role-play. A child conceptualizes his notion of “self” through this. It is
through this that a child delineates the ‘I” from the rest.
For Lev Vygotsky, a child internalizes real-life dialogues that he/she has had with others,
with his family, his primary caregiver, or his playmates. They apply this to their mental
and practical problems along with social and cultural infusions brought about by the said
dialogue.
Mead and Vygotsky
• The way that human persons develop is with the use of language acquisition and
interaction with others.
• The way that we process information is normally a form of an internal dialogue
in our head.
• They treat the human mind as something that is made, constituted through
language as experienced in the external world and as encountered in dialogue with
others.
Social Institutions
Social institutions are organized to address the needs of a society and they, too,
have a profound effect on our concept of "self." Five sample of social institutions.
1. Kinship/FamiIy — This is the most basic social institution of a society that
organizes us based on our familial ties. It can be based on blood-relations, like
sibling relations (consanguineal), by marriage, like a husband and a wife (affinal),
or social, which are relationships not falling under the first two but you still
consider them as family (Crossman 2019).
2. Economics/Market — This system aims to regulate the flow of resources and
services. Ideally, this should ensure that everyone gets a fair share of goods or
that a person in need will get the service he or she needs in order to address a
necessity.
3. Politics/Government — This is usually composed of various organizations
ensuring peace and order by legitimizing the use of power of curtain people or
groups.
4. Education/School — The basic function of schools is to ensure that the
knowledge of the past and the culture of the society gets transmitted from one
generation to another. It safeguards continuity or brings about changes to the
other social institutions. It aims to produce people who can live in the given
social environment as well as able to be productive citizens for the economy.
5. Religion/Church — This is an organized set of practices, symbols, and artifacts
regarding the belief of the supernatural. There are several reasons why people
believe in the supernatural: a) explanation of the unexplainable; b) meaning and
purpose of life; and c) continuity of relationship with the people that we care
about even after death among others.
If you will reflect on it, most of the things we use to describe our "self" came from these
social institutions. Other social institutions include mass media, community service
organizations, health services, and recreation.
However, as pointed by Geertz, a person can still choose what to adapt, reject, or change.
The self, or our identity if we want to call it, is a result of the interaction and discourse
between a person and the society. We are introduced and socialized into our groups,
teaching us all the status, roles, values, and norms that we need to live in this society
which became a part of our description of ourselves. In return, the way we collectively
live, express, and recreate this imbibed culture reinforces and transforms our society and
culture (Berger and Luckmann 1991).
Anthropological Perspective of the Self

Lesson 3
The Self and the Person in Contemporary Anthropology
Anthropology and Its Subdisciplines

The academic discipline of anthropology, or “four-field” anthropology, studies human species
and its immediate ancestors includes four main sub disciplines or subfields - sociocultural,
archeological, biological and linguistic anthropology. Each sub discipline studies adaptation,
the process which organisms cope with the environmental. Anthropology is a systematic
exploration of human biological and cultural diversity.
The Subdisciplines of Anthropology
1. Cultural Anthropology
Cultural anthropology is the study of human society and culture which describes,
analyzes, interprets and explains social and cultural similarities and differences. It
explores the diversity of the present and the past. Ethnography and ethnology are two
different activities which can study and interpret cultural diversity.
Ethnography
(based on field work) Ethnology
(based on cross-cultural comparison)
Ethnography requires fieldwork to collect data, often descriptive and specific to group.
On the other hand, ethnology uses data collected by a series of researches, usually
synthetic and comparative.
2. Archeological Anthropology
Archeological anthropology reconstructs, describes and interprets human
behavior and cultural patterns through material remains. These materials remain
such as plant, animal and ancient garbage provides stories about utilization and actions.
3. Biological, or Physical Anthropology

Biological, or Physical Anthropology focuses on these special interest, human
evolution as revealed by the fossil, human genetics, human growth and
development, human biological plasticity and the biology, evolution, behavior and
social life of monkeys, apes and other nonhuman primates.
4. Linguistic Anthropology
Linguistic anthropology studies language in its social and cultural context across
space and over time. Universal features of language are analyzed and association
between language and culture are evaluated. It also studies how speech changes in
social situations and over time.
The Self Embedded in the Culture
Culture refers to customary behavior and beliefs that are passed on through
enculturation (Kottak, 2008), wherein enculturation is the social process which culture is
learned and transmitted.
Culture is a social process that is learned and passes from generation to the next.
Culture depends on images, which have a specific significance and incentive forindividuals
who share a culture. Cultural traditions take regular marvels, including organic desires, and
transforming them specifically headings. Everybody is cultured. Social orders are coordinated
and designed through predominant monetary powers, social examples, key images and core
values. Cultural mean of adjustment have been urgent in human evolution. Cultures oblige
people, yet the activities of people can change cultures.
Culture defined: Culture is shared, symbolic, natural, learned, integrated,

encompassingand maladaptive and adaptive.
Csordas (1999) elaborated that the human body is not essential for anthropological
study but the paradigm of embodiment can be explored in the understanding culture
and the self. The body is not an object to be studied in relation to culture, but is to be considered
as the subject of culture, or in other words as the existential ground of culture. On the other
hand, Geertz (1973) described culture as "a system of inherited conceptions expressed in
symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their
knowledge about and attitudes toward life"
The interpretation of the symbols in each culture is essential which gives meaning to
one’s action. Each culture has its own symbols and has its own meaning; one must need to
comprehend those meanings keeping in mind the end goal to understand the culture. One must
disconnect the components of culture, discover the relationship among those components, and
portray the entire framework in some broad way.
Psychological Perspective of the Self

Lesson 4
Psychology
Psychology has various ways of understanding a person and the therapist way of helping people
understand themselves. Self is a reference by an individual to the same individual person.
Having its own or single character as a person, referring to the person as same individual.
The psychology of studying self is about either the cognitive and affective representation of
one's identity or the subject of experience. The earliest formulation of the self in modern
psychology forms the distinction between the self as I, the person knower, and the self as Me,
the person that is known.
“The Self and It Selves”

William James, a psychologist, has introduced in his document The Principles of Psychology
(1890) a numerous concepts and distinction of self. For James, his main concepts of self are
the “me-self” and the “I-self”. The “me-self” is the phenomenal self, the experienced self or
the self as known. It is the self that has experience the phenomena and who had known the
situation. The “I-self” is the self-thought or the self-knower. James had claimed that the
understanding of Self can be separated into three categories: “1. Its constituents; 2. The
feeling and emotions they arouse – Self-feelings; 3. The actions to which they prompt –
Self-seeking and self-preservation (James, 1890, p162)
Also, James wrote sub-categories of self, which are the ff:
The Material Self is constituted by our bodies, clothes, immediate family and home. It is
in this that we attached more deeply into and therefore we are most affected by because of the
investment we give to these things.
The Social Self is based on our interactions with society and the reaction of people towards
us. It is our social self that thought to have multiple divergence or different version of ourselves.
It varies as to how we present ourselves to a particular social group.
The most intimate self, the spiritual self. It is the most intimate because it is more satisfying
for the person that they have the ability to argue and discriminate one’s moral sensibility,
conscience and indomitable will.
Conception of Self
Carl Rogers, had come up with his conception of self through the intervention he used for his
client, the Person-centered therapy. It is a non-directive intervention because it believes
that all people have the potential to solve their own problems. Rogers believe that people
must be fully honest with themselves in order to have personal discovery on oneself. In this
concept of self, he had come up with three sides of a triangle.
The Perceived Self (self-worth - how the person sees self & others sees them)
The Real Self (self-image - how the person really is)

The Ideal Self (how the person would like to be)
Concept of Unified and Multiple Self
As Daniel CW (2016) wrote in his article “Psychoanalysis vs Postmodern Psychology” he has
emphasized how Freud perceived person as a unified beings and Gergens concept of multiple
“selves”
In Freud’s concept, he argued that mind is divided into three connected but distinct parts. The
Id, Ego and Super Ego.
Id as the center of primitive, animalistic impulses (sex, food & comfort) following the
pleasure principle.
Superego as the center for ethical imperative. The one that reminds the self of what is
right of wrong following morality principle.
Ego as the moderator between these two which was driven by rationality principle.
And then also, Freud has stated two important division of mind, the conscious and
unconscious. Conscious are the thoughts that we are aware of. And Unconscious as
thoughts that we are not aware of. (Daniel CW, 2016)
Although, Freud has argued that self has a multiple parts, he still believed that ultimately we
are a Unified beings (at least, when we are healthy). Ego remains at the helm of mind,
guiding the Id and Superego and staying at the center. Thus Gergen argued that having
a flexible sense of self allows for multiple “selves”. That it is up to the the self to define
himself as warm or cold, dominant or submissive, sexy or plain.
According to Kenneth Gergen, proponent of Post modern Psychology, The individual has
many potential selves. He carries within him the capacity to identify himself, whether warm
or cold, dominant or submissive, sexy or plain. How we bring ourselves in every situation will
held him get through for a day. Therefore, maybe it is healthy to have many mask. Multiple
selfhood is part of what it means to be human, and forcing oneself to stick to one self-
concept maybe unhealthy.
True Self and Fake Self

True Self, as rooted from early infancy is called the simple being. The sense of self based on
spontaneous authentic experience and feeling of being alive, having “real self”. Example, as
a baby we react base on our sense of reality. The baby reacted spontaneously based on our
instinctual sense.
Fake Self, is our defense facade. Overlaying or contradicting the original sense of self.
Problem would be we might build false set of relationship through concealing a barren
emptiness behind an independent-seeming facade.
THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC BY ALBERT BANDURA

Humans have this “Agency” which embodies natural ability, belief system & self-regulatory
capabilities and functions through which personal influence is exercised, rather than reside
as discrete entity. (Albert Bandura)
Bandura believes that through our agency we humans are perceived as proactive agents of
experiences. Through this agents or agency we humans play a big role in our self development,
adaptation and self renewal. It is said that the human agency have four features. This features
are intentionally, forethought, self – reactiveness and self – relflectiveness.
He views people as agents (originators) of experience; not just reactive
HUMAN AGENCY:
• Intentionality – enables us to behave with purpose

• Forethought – allows us to anticipate outcomes
• Self-reactiveness – we can be motivated to regulate our actions
• Self-reflectiveness – we can reflect on our thoughts and behaviors and make needed
modifications
We humans plan things intentionally or we do things intentionally, with doing this we wait for
possible outcomes. We make our plans, actions and decision with the basis of our intention in
life. We as humans are interested in different things, we make our self-interested in the things
we do therefore acting with our intentions. Forethought, on the other hand enables us to
anticipate the consequences of the things we do. We expect different expectations therefore we
likely think better before we do or make decisions in the future. Self-reactiveness involves
making choices. We make different choices, and we make choices after thinking about the
consequences. Self-reflectiveness gives us the ability to reflect on our decisions, choices, and
consequences.
The Self in Western and Eastern Thought

Lesson 5
Western culture basically is about the focus on oneself and personal needs; Eastern
culture is about focus on others and the feeling of others. Western culture is predicated on
putting egoism first while Eastern culture is about collectivism. Conceptually, there is a vast
of difference between egoism and collectivism. While egoism is focused on oneself,
collectivism is all about focus on others. While the Western culture is inclined in more
acquisition of material things, the Eastern culture is tilted towards less assets (thus the mantra
less is more). Western culture is obsessed with being successful, the eastern culture is more
inclined towards long life; for the Eastern culture, long life is equated with wealth.
In the Eastern culture, wealth and poverty is the result of fortune and luck, for the
Western culture, wealth and poverty is the result of enterprise and hard work. The Eastern
culture values the wisdom of years and seniority, while the Western culture celebrates the youth
and being young. Philosophically, the Eastern culture subscribe to concept of reincarnation
while Western culture subscribe to the idea of evolution. Taken as a whole, these basic and
subtle differences between the Eastern culture and the Western culture are taking its toll on
Filipinos on which culture to adopt. The dilemma is whether to follow and subscribe to the
Western influences or subscribe to Eastern ideas.
Concept of Self Western and Eastern Thought
Western Eastern
• Self is a social construction which • A gentleman by following the moralway
is symbolically and signally created consisting of the virtues of love,
between andamong social beings righteousness, wisdom, propriety and
• Phenomenological object whichcan loyalty in order to promote harmony in
be productively studied through a society (Confucianism) (Theravada)
series of evanscentactionss, self is detachment anddesirelessness to reach
multi-dimensional entity nirvana; reciprocal
• Self is an interpersonal unit relationship;(Mahayana)compassion to
other humans for belief that we are part
• Self takes form in communication of the same ever-changing universe
• Self is intimately connected to bodily (Buddhism)
experience bothontogenetically and here • Attainment of liberation in the
and now awareness identification of Atman (the spiritual
• Self is both phenomenaland essence of all individual human beings)
non-phenomenal and Brahman (the spiritual essence of the
• Self acquires substance accordingto universe) through theFour Yogas
semantic, syntactic and pragmatic (Hinduism)
∙ • Attainment of liberation in the
identification of Atman (the spiritual
essence of all individual human beings)
and Brahman (the spiritual essence of the
universe) through theFour Yogas
(Taoism)
• Concept of Kapwa, recognition ofshared
identity, an inner self shared with others;
Two levels ormodes of social interaction
– ibang-tao or “outsider” and hindi
ibang-tao or “one-of-us” (Filipino
Psychology)
Individualism versus Collectivism
Individualism Collectivism
• People are autonomous and • Interdependent within theirin-groups
independent from their in- • Give priority to the goals of theirin-
groups groups
• Give priority to their personal goals • In-groups primarily shapetheir
of their in-groups behavior
• Behave in a communal way
• Behave on their basis of attitudes
rather than norms • Concerned in maintaining
relationship with others
Western and Eastern Differences
Western referred as the school of thought from Greek Philosophy. It is rooted from Rome and
Christianity. Laws are the ones that govern the behavior. It in individualist in culture. It is all
about 'I'. Tries to find self as it is the given part of the divine. Logical, scientific, rational, and
focus on ethics.
Eastern roots are from Asia. They believe that natural world does not follow laws, it simply
'is'. It is collectivist in culture. It is all about 'We'. Drawn on people's actions and thought as
one. Trying to get rid of the false 'me' concept and find meaning in discovering the true 'me'.
Life is all about unity. The inner self must be freed.
Western and Eastern Similarities
Similarities: Both approach share a concept that a deeper understanding of reality is possible.
Influenced by the notion that there is a supreme being who guides the mankind and provides
for all he created. Believes in the concept of "god as the king of universe”.
Compiled by:
CARLO A. RAZONABLE
Instructor

Understanding philosophical perspectives on the self

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Republic of the Philippines

Camarines Norte School of Law

The Self from Various Philosophical Perspective

1. Socrates (469 – 399 BCE)

2. Plato (428-347 BCE)

3. Augustine’s (354-430 CE)

5. Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650)

For Descartes, the self is a combination of two distinct entities:

1. The cogito - the thing that thinks, which is the mind.

6. John Locke (1632 – 1704)

7. David Hume (1711-1776)

8. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

One of the most influential philosophers in Western Philosophy. He contributed in the

9. Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976)

10. Maurice Jean Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)

11. Paul Churchland (1942- )

The Self, Society, and Culture

WHAT IS THE SELF?

Anthropological Perspective of the Self

The Self and the Person in Contemporary Anthropology

Anthropology and Its Subdisciplines

The Subdisciplines of Anthropology

3. Biological, or Physical Anthropology

The Self Embedded in the Culture

Culture defined: Culture is shared, symbolic, natural, learned, integrated,

Psychological Perspective of the Self

“The Self and It Selves”

The Real Self (self-image - how the person really is)

True Self and Fake Self

THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC BY ALBERT BANDURA

• Intentionality – enables us to behave with purpose

The Self in Western and Eastern Thought

Concept of Self Western and Eastern Thought

Individualism versus Collectivism

Western and Eastern Differences

Western and Eastern Similarities

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