E01

Deforestation by Cash Crop Farming Distributed in Teknaf?

Maiko Sakamoto1 and Masakazu Tani2
1University of Tokyo, e-mail: m-sakamoto@k.u-tokyo.ac.jp,
2Kyushu University, e-mail: tani@design.kyushu-u.ac.jp
Abstract
Serious deforestation is reported in the Teknaf peninsula in Bangladesh. Betel leaf cultivation is considered as one of the
factors of forest degradation. This paper aims to examine an effective counter measure. First, questionnaire survey about the
consciousness and individual attributes of the local population is conducted. Second, by using the survey data, economic
and social factors for betel leaf cultivation are statistically analyzed. Third, the distribution of betel leaf cultivation is
revealed in time series aspect, which is helpful to understand how characteristics of households that cultivate betel leaf have
been changing. Based on the results of the analysis, effective measures for mitigating deforestation are examined.

INTRODUCTION
Serious deforestation is observed in the Teknaf
peninsula in Bangladesh. However, measures to
mitigate deforestation have not been conducted
sufficiently. Several factors for deforestation have
been pointed out, including firewood collection by
locals, migration into forest areas, and betel leaf
cultivation.
Betel leaf is a cash crop, which has been cultivated
widely in the Teknaf peninsula. It requires the use of
pan boroz, a facility that offers shade and protection
for leaves against sunshine. Tani et al. [1] revealed
that consuming forest resource for pan boroz
Fig.1 Location of study site [2]
construction has a certain impact on deforestation.
To propose effective measures to mitigate
deforestation caused by betel leaf cultivation, an
essential step is to understand the living environment
and attitude toward environmental conservation
among locals.
One village in Teknaf peninsula is selected as case
study site. The location is shown in Fig. 1. First,
questionnaire survey regarding consciousness and
individual attributes of locals is conducted. Second,
by using the survey data, economic and social factors
for betel leaf cultivation are statistically analyzed.
Third, the distribution of betel leaf cultivation is
revealed in time series aspect, which is helpful to
understand how characteristics of households that Fig. 2 Occupation
cultivate betel leaf have been changing. Based on
results of the analysis, effective measures for Fig.2 shows that 45% of households are farmers.
mitigating deforestation are examined. Fig.3 shows that the annual income in this region is
severely low; for comparison, income of non-
MATERIALS AND METHODS manufacturing workers in urban areas is, on average,
A. Questionnaire survey 20,000 taka/month, and hence, 240,000 taka/year [3].
The questionnaire survey was conducted in In Fig.4, all of the households are plotted
September 2010 for all 207 households in the case corresponding to the year when they started betel leaf
village. The survey was conducted by face-to-face cultivation. If a household does not cultivate betel
meetings with the residents, based on prepared leaf, then its plot is zero in the y-axis. At the time of
questions. The questions required “yes” or “no” the survey in 2010, 104 households have started betel
answers as well as concrete digits and names. leaf cultivation, whereas 103 households have not.
Fig. 2, Fig. 3, and Fig. 4 shows the occupation of Fig.3 shows that betel leaf cultivation has rapidly
household residents, the annual income of expanded since about 30 years ago, around 1980.
households, and the year when each household A summary of the answers to the questions related
started betel leaf cultivation, respectively. to environmental attitude is shown in Fig. 5 and 6.

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 of trees. The implication of these responses is that
degradation has been underway in the past 10 years.
As presented in Fig. 6, population increase is thought
as a major cause of environmental change. Half of
the households point to illegal logging as a cause of
environmental change; thus, aside from natural
factors, intentional activity is recognized as a cause
of deforestation. These results contradict the current
trend of increasing number of pan boroz and
continuing deforestation.
B. Statistical method
Fig. 3 Annual income In this study, economic and social factors behind
betel leaf cultivation are statistically analyzed by
using data collected by the questionnaire survey. A
t-test is used to evaluate if the means from the two
groups have a significant difference. The groups are
identified as those households that cultivate betel leaf
or not at the time of the survey (Note: identification
of betel leaf cultivation was conducted separately
from the questionnaire survey in March 2012). Table
1 lists the variables considered for the t-test.
Table 1 Considered Variables
Classification Variables
Fig. 4 Involvement period with betel leaf cultivation Personal - Number of family members
property - Annual income
- Annual income/number of family
Fig. 5 shows the answers to the question,
members
“Comparing 10 years ago, what kind of change do - Amount of loan
you notice in the natural/physical environment?” - Numbers of cows
Fig.6 shows the answers to the question, “What is the - Number of goats
cause of that environmental change?” - Number of chickens
Attitude to - Attitude to improving environment
environment - Complaint about actual situation
- Recognition of environmental change
Table 2. Questions for Variables Related to Attitude to
Environment
Variable Questions
Attitude to - Access to forest should be regulated
improving - Trees should be planted
environment - Local people should act for
reforestation
- Illegal deforestation is a cause of
Fig. 5 Answers on environmental change environmental change
Complaint - Less grass, more cost of housing
about actual materials
situation - Need to buy wood from teknaf
- Feel unwll because of environmental
degradation
- Insufficient food
Recognition - Decreasing fish, in terms of catch
of - Developed roads
environment - Death of wild animals
change - Less yield of crops
- Increased temperature (climate)

The variables classified as attitude to environment

Fig. 6 Answers on causes of environmental change are composed of answers to several questions. That is,
t-test variables should be continuous ones; answers to
As shown in Fig. 5, 194 out of 207 households these variables are either “yes” or “no” which are
responded that they notice a decrease in the number discrete answers. Therefore, the summation of the

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answer “yes” to several questions composing each
variable related to attitude to environment is used as
data for each variable. Table 2 shows the questions
for each variable classified under attitude to
environment.
The questions are composed to indicate that more
“yes” answers to each variable in Table 2 can be
interpreted as increased willingness among
respondents to improve the environment, increased
complaints about the actual situation, and increased
severity of environmental change.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Relationship of personal attributes and choice of
betel leaf cultivation at present time
The difference in means of the variables listed in
Table 1 between the two groups (betel leaf
cultivators/non-cultivators) at the time of survey
(2010) is tested by t-test. Table 3 shows the variables
relationship of the starting period of cultivation and
the condition of the households in 2010. This
connection reveals the distribution of betel leaf
cultivation in time series aspect, which is helpful to
understand how characteristics of households that
started betel leaf cultivation have been changing.
The periods are classified into four. The first
period is before 1975, namely, more than 35 years
ago; the second period is from 1980 to 1985, namely,
around 25 to 30 years ago; the third period is from
1990 to 1995, namely, around 15 to 20 years ago;
and the fourth period is from 2000 to 2010, namely,
around 10 years ago. Because the dwellers’ answers
are basically 5 years step, we have adopted those
classification periods by just clustering their answers.
This does not mean that there is a missing period in
analysis.
Table 4 Significant variables by t-test (each period)
Mean Sample

Significance
with significant difference in means between the two size
groups. For abbreviation, “with” represents
Variable
Period

cultivators group and “without” represents

non-cultivators group in the following tables.
Table 3 Significant variables by t-test (2010) W 15
1st N.A. N.A. N.A.
WO 192
Variable Significance Mean W 26
Number of family With 7.3269 2nd N.A. N.A. N.A.
0.027 WO 181
members Without 5.1650 Number W 0.3200 W 25
Complaint about With 2.0385 3rd of goats 0.084 WO 0.6978 182
0.071 WO
actual situation Without 1.7476
4th Number W 1.1842
0.066
As shown in Table 3, the means of number of of goats WO 0.5325
family members is significantly different between the Annual W 128.73 W 38
0.075
two groups, where the significant level is p < 0.005. income WO 354.68 WO 169
The mean for the group of betel leaf cultivators is Annual
income/ W 19.739
higher than that for the other group (non-cultivators). 0.059
Number WO 49.075
This result might be because betel leaf cultivation
of family
requires intensive labor such that starting betel leaf NB: W, with; WO, without; N.A., not applicable
cultivation is practically easier for households with
more members. Table 4 shows the variables whose means are
The means of complaint about the actual situation significantly different between the two groups in
is significantly different between the two groups at each period. None of the variables are significantly
the level of p < 0.010. The mean for the group of different in the first and second periods. In the third
betel leaf cultivators is higher than that for the other period, the number of goats is evaluated as
group. This finding might be due to deforestation; significant at significance level of p < 0.005. The
those who have cultivated betel leaf are recently mean of the group of households that started betel leaf
obliged to obtain trees and thatch from the market, cultivation in this period is smaller than that of the
not from the forest at no cost. Therefore, they group of households that do not cultivate betel leaf.
actually have to pay more to keep their living In the fourth period, the number of goats, annual
environment. As such, they tend to have more income, and annual income/number of family members
complaints about the actual situation. are evaluated as significant variables (p < 0.010). The
mean of the number of goats for the group of betel
B. Relationship of personal attributes and choice of
leaf cultivators is higher than that for the group of
betel leaf cultivation during four periods
non-cultivators, whereas the means of the annual
Based on observation of the trend in the years income and annual income/number of family member
when the households started betel leaf cultivation are smaller in the former group. Based on these results,
(Fig. 4), we classified the periods into four clusters, the actual situation of households that started betel
and conducted a t-test on the means of the variables leaf cultivation in the fourth period is significantly
in Table 1 between the two groups during the different from that of the group that started before the
classified four periods. The analysis shows the fourth period and has not started yet.

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 DISCUSSION
Based on the mean of the variable “Annual
income” between “with” and “without” in Table 4,
the income of households that started betel leaf
cultivation in the fourth period (“with”) is
significantly lower than the income of those that
started cultivation in the first, second, and third
periods, and that has not started yet (“without”).
Betel leaf leaf is a cash crop, and its cultivation has
rapidly spread, as seen in Fig. 4, such that betel leaf
cultivation can be expected to increase the income.
However, why does the group that started cultivation
last have a significantly small income?
To answer the question, the relationship between
betel leaf cultivation and increase in income must be
examined.
First, households that started betel leaf cultivation
in the fourth period are excluded from the sample to
compare income of those that started cultivation by
the third period and that have not started yet. Second,
the remaining groups are classified into two based on
the condition that households have adopted betel leaf
cultivation by 2010. Although a t-test was conducted
for the means of the variables in Table 1, no
variables were evaluated as significant. Therefore,
the annual income and income/number of family
members has no significant difference between the
group that started cultivation during the first period
to the third period and the group that did not
cultivate betel leaf by 2010.
Two hypotheses are assumed regarding the
relationship between betel leaf cultivation and
income increase.
Hypothesis 1: Betel leaf cultivation has not
contributed to income increase of households
that started betel leaf cultivation during the first
period to the third period.
Hypothesis 2: Betel leaf cultivation has contributed
to income increase of households that started
betel leaf cultivation during the first period to
the third period.
If hypothesis 2 is true, the income of betel leaf
cultivating households has increased, and as a result,
the income between the groups of cultivators and
non-cultivators has no difference. In other words,
households that started cultivation during the first
period to the third period were relatively poor. Given
that betel leaf is a cash crop and those who have
started cultivation during the first period to the third
period could use forest resources to construct a pan
boroz for free, hypothesis 1 is not likely to be true.
Therefore, hypothesis 2 may be true, and betel leaf
cultivation must have been related to income
increase.
Then, why is the income of households that
started cultivation in the fourth period significantly
lower than that of the other households? Is it because
some of those households started recently, that is,
earlier than a year ago, such that cultivation has not
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contributed to income increase? To answer these
questions, we classified the households into any
possible combination of two groups divided by the
periods according to the answers about starting year
of cultivation given by the households. Comparisons
were made between households that started cultivation
a year ago and the others, between households that
started cultivation about 5 to 10 years ago and the
others, between households that started cultivation
about 15 to 10 years ago and the others, and so on. A
t-test is applied on the means of the variables in
Table 1 between any possible clustering of the two
groups (betel leaf cultivators/ non-cultivators) under
every possible period. As a result, annual income and
annual income/number of households are not
evaluated as significant for any possible clustering
except the clustering of households that started
cultivation about 1 to 10 years ago into one group
and the others into another group. This is because
income of households that started cultivation from a
few years ago to around 10 years ago is so low among
the entire sample that only the clustering in the way
of the fourth clustering makes the variables of annual
income and annual income/number of family
member significant. Therefore, it can be concluded
that income of the households that started cultivation
10 years ago has not increased yet. This finding may
be because forest resource around this village started
to decrease about 10 years ago seriously enough to
oblige local people to obtain trees and thatch from
the market, thereby shouldering a certain cost that
was not needed more than 10 years ago.
Another finding supports this hypothesis. Some
other variables were evaluated as significant in the
analysis of the clustering of any possible group
combination mentioned above. That is, “attitude to
improving environment,” “complaint to the actual
situation,” and “recognition of environmental
change” were evaluated as significant at p < 0.005
for the clustering of 10 to 15 years and the others. At
the same time, “complaint to actual situation” is
significant at p < 0.005, and the other two variables
are significant at p < 0.010 for the clustering of 1 to
15 years and the others. These findings may be
because 10 to 15 years ago indicate the beginning
period when households were obliged to buy trees
and thatch from the market, although cultivation had
not provided sufficient benefit to those who started
cultivation in the same period. The points discussed
above are summarized in Fig.7.
Thus, betel leaf cultivation cannot necessarily
contribute to recent income increase. Meanwhile, the
number of households that started betel leaf
cultivation recently is still increasing. These
households may be those that still think betel leaf
cultivation contributes to income increase, which was
the case when people could utilize sufficient forest
resources for free; these households are unaware that
this case no longer applies.
 1st Period 2nd period 3rd period 4th period ACKNOWLEDGMENT
before 1980- 1990- 2000- This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI

Turing point of forest resource

1975 1985 1995 12010 Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B), Grant
Betel leaf Betel leaf Betel leaf Betel leaf Number 24401040.
cultivation cultivation cultivation cultivation
was started was was was REFERENCES
experiment rapidly disseminat disseminate [1] Asahiro, K., Rahman, M.A., Tani, M. 2011. Land use
ally disseminat ed among d among nad vegetation type in West coast of Teknaf Peninsula
ed among the poor. It the poor. It in Bangladesh: a case study of short transect research
the poor. It contributed did not in local village. Proceedings of ICEAB2011. 76-79.
contributed to income contributed
to income increase to income [2] Tani, M., Zulfikar, R.M., and Asahiro, K. 2013. The
increase increase Study of the Influence of Betel leaf Leaf Cultivation
on Forest Loss in the Teknaf Peninsula, Bangladesh.
Fig.7. Process of distribution of betel leaf cultivation Kyushu University Institutional Repository. 16: 1-10.
(in Japanese)
Based on the considerations above, some measures
[3] Japan External Trade Organization. 2010. Survey of
to mitigate deforestation are discussed hereinafter. Japanese-Affiliated Firms in Asia and Oceania.
As betel leaf cultivation does not produce much [Online]. JETRO. Available: http://www.jetro.go.jp/
benefit and it consumes forest resources, starting world/asia/bd/reports/07000173 [Accessed 30April
betel leaf cultivation should be prohibited. However, 2013].
based on the hypothesis shown in Fig.7, households
that decided to cultivate betel leaf were poor when
they started cultivation. As such, if betel leaf
cultivation is prohibited, these poor households will
suffer as their conceived option to earn added income
is taken away. Some other options may provide more
or less the same benefit as betel leaf cultivation,
which is not as high at present. Possible measures
include taxation for use of forest resource and
reallocation of tax revenues to the poor through
employment that contribute to reforestation, such as
patrolling the forest, planting trees, and so on. After
locals appreciate the forest condition through
environmental education via workshops, they may
become willing to donate to forest conservation. This
fund can be used as budget for employment creation
for the poor.
CONCLUSION
This study has focused on betel leaf cultivation as
a factor of deforestation in the Teknaf peninsula, and
revealed the distribution process of betel leaf
cultivation as well as the differences in
characteristics of households that started cultivation
under different starting periods. The major
differences have been revealed between households
that started betel leaf cultivation before 1995 and
those that started in the last 10 years. Furthermore,
we found that betel leaf cultivation is not necessarily
related to income increase for those that started
cultivation in the last 10 years, and that 1995-2000
indicates the turning period of forest resource. If
certain counter measures had been adopted before the
turning period, reforestation may have been
conducted more efficiently. The number of
households that start betel leaf cultivation is still
increasing, and forest resources around which betel
leaf cultivation is not adopted may undergo damage
as buying and selling through the market continue.
Counter measures should be enforced immediately.

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 E02
Use of Information Sources in Maintaining Livelihoods by
Rohingya Refugees around Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary
M Zulfikar Rahman1, M Tani2, AZM Mosleh Uddin3, and SM Asik Ullah4
1Professor,
Dept of Agric Extension Edu, Bangladesh Agril University; e-mail: zulfikar64@yahoo.com
2Associate Professor, Faculty of Design, Kyushu University; e-mail: mt18916@gmail.com
3Professor, Dept of Soil Science, Bangladesh Agril University; e-mail: abunazia@yahoo.com
4Lecturer, Dept of Agric Extension Edu, Bangladesh Agril University; e-mail: asiksm@gmail.com

Abstract
This study attempts to investigate mainly the undocumented Rohingyas refugees' extent of use of information sources in
maintaining their livelihoods. A cluster of such Rohingyas was chosen for the study who live along coast line of Bay of
Bengal of Shaplapur village in Teknaf upazila of Cox’s Bazaar district. A randomly selected 125 household heads were
sampled from a total of 980 households. Mainly interview and FGDs were conducted to generate data for the study. Most of
the Rohingyas were in very low level of livelihoods status and their adopted for livelihoods lead to natural resources
destruction. They mostly used localite and interpersonal information sources in maintaining such destructive livelihoods.
Their age, schooling and fishing lengths were significantly related to their extent of use of information sources. Use of
information sources was influenced mainly by their fear to be caught and credibility, nearness and easiness of access to
sources. The analysis of issues of any concern of the Rohingyas can be resolved effectively only when Bangladesh and
Myanmar want to mitigate it cordially.

INTRODUCTION schools as they do not possess the national ID card of

Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary (TWS), previously
known as Teknaf Game Reserve (TGR), is located
within the Teknaf peninsula in the south eastern part
of Bangladesh. The reserve measures roughly 28 km
north to south and 3 to 5 km east to west, and lies
between 20°52'–21°09'N latitude and 92°08'–92°18'E
longitude [1]. The reserve was established purposively
to preserve habitat for large diversity of wildlife [2].
Rohingyas are the people who migrated mainly
from Rakhine State of Myanmar to Bangladesh.
Their migration started in early 1960s [3]. It is
estimated that there are about 0.4 million Rohingyas
(listed and unlisted) in Bangladesh although the
Bangladesh government has restricted their entry in
the recent days. Those who entered Bangladesh
during 1990s have been sheltered at various camps in
the southern district Cox’s Bazar concentrating
mainly in Teknaf and Ukhia Upazilas (sub-districts).
These refugees have been always blamed for forests,
sea and other natural resource destruction [4, 5]. In
recent days, natural resource obliteration for
livelihoods maintenance by Rohingya refugees has
become a relentless dilemma in Teknaf peninsula of
Bangladesh. And, probably, these resource
destruction activities are much more prominent for
refugees who have been staying outside camps and
not recognized by the government. Because, they are
devoid of government support and face some undue
harassment by the law enforcing agency and local
people. This study considered a cluster of such
undocumented Rohingyas lived within a buffer forest
of the government near the sea.
Some service delivery indicators of human capital
indicate that public expenditure per capita was zero
as they are not the listed as refugee of the country.
Their access is denied to government primary
Bangladesh. Having a high birth rate and very low
level of humanitarian standards they pass their days
very localite depending mostly on the dwindling
natural resource bases. Under this grave scenario
how do they come in contact to what information
source and for what reason to maintain their
livelihoods were the major concerns of the study.
Because, the type and extent of contact to
information sources lead people to decide any matter
of livelihoods of their own. Anyway, the study
intends specifically to reveal the present livelihoods
standard of the Rohingya, extent of use of
information sources by them in maintaining
livelihoods, and exploring the reasons for choosing
the sources in adopting livelihoods.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Shaplapur village of Teknaf upazila under Cox’s
Bazar district in Bangladesh was the study area
located near the western side of the TWS. A cluster
of undocumented Rohingya people live in buffer
forest of coastal belt of this Shaplapur buffer zone.
Shaplapur is a local marketplace and plays an
important role in the locality since this market is far
away from both Teknaf main market and the Cox’s
Bazaar town. Moreover, TWS splits the east and west
sides’ communication longitudinally. The total
number of Rohingya households and population are
about 980 and 5,880 respectively in and around the
buffer forest of Shaplapur. Randomly selected 125
household heads (about 13%) were interviewed
through structured schedule in order to assess their
livelihoods status and explore their extent of use of
information sources. Secondary data on different
community and service oriented information were
collected from different official documents of GOs

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and NGOs of the locality. Data were collected during there is meager chance for fair income generation the
March 2012. Focus group discussion (FGD) was also annual household income was very pitiable. There
conducted to assess some of their social and natural social mobility is very low and asset they possessed
facility and service delivery issues of livelihoods. was significantly less. All these indicate a miserable
Two FGDs were also conducted to explore condition of the Rohingyas in the locality.
influences of information sources in choosing
livelihoods. Outcome of these two FGDs were Table 1. Selected individual characteristics of
Rohingya household heads
merged together to achieve a comprehensive result.
At first, the list of livelihood issues was prepared Characteristics Observed Mean
by asking the respondents through face to face (unit of measurement) range
Age (years) 22~70 42
interview. Then, livelihoods status was measured
based on the extent of possession of livelihoods Education
0~10 02
(years of schooling)
assets. Assets referred to the resource base of people. Household size
Assets are often represented as a pentagon in the 3~10 06
(no. of members)
sustainable livelihoods framework, consisting of the No. of labor/household 1-4 1.25
following five categories: natural resources (also % labor force of the
called ‘natural capital’), physical reproducible goods household
16.66-66 20.83
(‘physical capital’), monetary resources (‘financial Annual household income
29.20~109.50 33.58
capital’), manpower with different skills (‘human (‘000’ Taka)
capital’), social networks of various kinds (‘social Length of migration to
2~13 3.56
capital’) [6]. τbviously, selected indicators were Bangladesh (years)
chosen to measure each of the five capitals. Length of fishing
1~11 4.67
experience (years)
Consolidated score from labor power, health and
Social mobility (rated score,
nutritional status, skills and knowledge of human 0~8 04
possible score 0~24)
capital constituted the human capital score. For Asset possession (rated
natural capital the indicators were access to land, 15~30 21
score, possible score 0~100)
water, wildlife, marine resources, forest and storm
protection; for social capital they were trust in A. Livelihoods options adopted by Rohingyas
government, memberships in civic organizations,
Table 2 reveals that about one-third of the
hours spent volunteering, voter turnout, newspaper
Rohingya family heads were engaged in fishing in
readership, access to basic services; for physical
sea. Cumulatively, 43% of them were directly related
capital these were houses, vehicles, equipment,
to the destructive activities of the hill forests. Various
livestock, access to information, adequate water
studies found out almost similar findings of forest
supply and sanitation and for financial capital they
destruction by the Rohingyas in and around the
were savings, gold/jewellery, access to regular
Teknaf hill forest [5, 10, 11]. Interpretation of
income, net accesses to credit and insurance.
findings demonstrates that about 80% of them are
However, the core score of selected indicators for
engaged in resource depletion either in sea or hills.
Human capital was 4 to12, Natural capital 6 to 18,
Social capital 6 to18, Physical capital 7 to 21, and Table 2. Livelihoods adopted by the Rohingyas
Financial capital 5 to15.The overall livelihoods score Livelihoods options Respondents
for selected core indicators was thus from 28 to 84. adopted No. % Rank
The extent of use of information sources for Fishing in sea 46 36.80 1
livelihoods adopted by Rohingyas was measured Cutting fuel woods from
through rating scale against 15 selected sources. The 20 16.00 2
hills
scale was ‘not at all’, ‘rarely used’, ‘occasionally used’ Cultivating sun grass on
18 14.40 3
and ‘frequently used’ with corresponding scores of 0, hills
1, 2 and 3. The factions of sources were individual, Collecting small
16 12.80 4
group and mass [7-9]. The relationship between the tree-trunk from hill
Day labor 11 08.80 5
socio-demographic characteristics of the Rohingya
Small grocery/hawking 05 04.00 6
and their extent of use of information sources was
Fishing boat renting 03 02.40 7
explored through computation of Pearson’s Product- Others (not ranked as it
Moment Correlation Co-efficient (r). The influence 06 04.80 -
is assorted)
of information sources in choosing the livelihoods Total 125 100.00 -
was revealed through conducting FGDs.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION a) Overall status of livelihoods
Investigation on the selected characteristics of the Comprising of all the scores of all the capitals of
Rohingya household heads shows that their average livelihoods assets, the overall livelihoods score for
educational achievements was very poor and number selected core indicators could range from 28-84. The
of members in the family was high (Table 1). As observed score ranged from 28-34 with an average of

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30.2 (Table 3). This indicates the low level of Table 5: The overall use of information sources
livelihoods status of the respondents in the study area. Categories of use of Respondents
communication media Number Percent SD
Table 3. Overall livelihoods status of the Rohingya (score)
Status of Respondents Mean No use at all (0) 0 0
livelihoods (score) Number Percent score Rarely use (1-16) 72 57.60
11.25
Low (28-47) 125 100 Occasionally use (17-32) 32 25.60
Medium (48-65) 0 0 30.2 Frequently use (33-48) 21 16.80
High (66-84) 0 0 Total 125 100

The details of capital-wise levels of livelihoods are

shown in Table 4. It portrays that the level of all
capitals in livelihoods standards are far below the
acceptable norm. Rohingyas live in a very wretched
condition.

Table 4. Level of capitals in livelihoods standard

Livelihoods Scores
capitals Possible Observed Mean
Human 4-12 4-6 4.15
Natural 6-18 6-7 6.25
Social 6-18 6-7 6.30
Fig. 1. Type-wise use of information sources
Physical 7-21 7-8 7.60
Financial 5-15 5-6 5.50
Table 6 indicates that the mostly used information
source was their Rohingya friend. The next sources
In order to identify the consequences of livelihoods were their Bangladeshi friend, neighbor, other
adopted by the refugee Rohingyas FGDs were member of their family and so on. The findings show
conducted. It has been revealed that undue pressure is the major use of interpersonal sources to adopt their
increasingly mounted on the natural resources around livelihoods.
the areas they live. Most of them fish in the sea and
catch the fish mindlessly without any consideration Table 6. Mostly used ten information sources
of subsequent species degradation. Similarly cutting irrespective of livelihoods adopted
fuel woods and trunk of small trees has been
Information sources Score Rank
identified and recognized as the major way to forest
Rohingya friend 300 1
destruction in TWS. Cultivation of sun grass on the
Bangladeshi friend 291 2
cleared slope of hills is adding further devastation to Neighbor 283 3
hills. More soil erosion on the slope and top of hills, Other members of family 251 4
there creates less scope for forest regeneration and Relatives in Bangladesh (BD) 227 5
increased deposition of soil and gravels to the down Group discussion 200 6
streams. This soil deposition has been degrading the Local leader 165 7
fertile farmland and poise a severe threat to food Sub-Assistant Agric Officer 127 8
security of dwellers having scarce farm land. (SAAO)
Television 121 9
B. Use of information sources Agricultural exhibition 129 10
a) Overall extent of use of information sources
The overall extent of use of information sources for Use of information sources related to recognize
adopting livelihoods options, the Rohingyas mostly livelihoods is presented in following Table 7. It
were in ‘rarely use’ category (Table 5). However, the represents that almost for all the livelihoods
overall extent of use of information sources was not Rohingyas utilized the individual information sources
satisfactory at all. i.e. neighbors, Rohingya or Bangladeshi friends and
family members.
b) Type-wise use of information sources Data in Table 8 reveal that out of selected 10
All the information sources were grouped into individual characteristics of the respondents only
three main types – individual, group and mass. The their age, years of schooling and length of fishing
level of use of all the three categories illustrates that experience were positively correlated to their extent
habitually they used to use the individual sources of use of information sources. It simply indicated that
(Fig. 1). Use of other two groups was not so the more they were aged, more educated and more
significant at all. It indicates their localite behavior of experienced in fishing, more they used the
communication. information sources for maintaining livelihoods. The

~ 29 ~
other characteristics did not show any significant C. Reasons for choosing information sources in
relationship. adopting livelihoods
Information seekers use different sources for their
Table 7. Use of information sources related to identified
intended information considering their own personal
livelihoods
and social settings [12]. The Rohingyas in Bangladesh
Livelihoods Rank of sources used
are treated as refugees and thus, their movement and
options adopted 1 2 3
contacts are restricted. Especially, the cluster of
Neighbor, Rohingya Group
Fishing in sea Rohingyas under investigation is illegal dweller and
BD friends friends discussion
Cutting fuel Rohingya is not recognized by the Bangladesh government.
Neighbor BD friends Hence, their peep many issues and ideas behind such
woods from hills friends
Cultivating sun Rohingya contact and to whom is contacted. These sorts of
Neighbor BD friends
grass on hills friends ideas are revealed in the Table 9, why the Rohingyas
Collecting small
Rohingya Relative
use a specific source of information or not.
tree-trunk from BD friends The findings in Table 9 reveal that the Rohingyas
friends in BD
hills had been in a state of suspended psychology that they
Group Local were not safe in contacting a source even deemed
Day labor BD friends
discussion leader
useful. Because, they might be caught by concerned
Small Family Rohingya Group
grocery/hawking member friends discussion authority of Bangladesh government if informed by
Fishing boat Rohingya anybody. Thus, the Rohingyas were found to remain
Local leader Television mostly confined to their near peers to receive
renting friends
information in maintaining livelihoods. They were
Table 8. Relationship of the characteristics of Rohingyas not a good user of institutional sources and the mass
and their extent of use of information sources media.
Individual characteristics ‘r’ value(df=123) CONCLUSION
Age 0.150*
Most of the Rohingya refugees had been adopting
Years of schooling 0.148*
livelihoods which are natural resources depleting if
Household size 0.111
no care is taken. On the other hand, their status of
No. of labor/household 0.100
living was very dreadful as they possessed very low
% labor force of the household 0.112
Annual household income 0.110
level of all livelihoods capitals. Under this grave
Length of migration to Bangladesh -0.128
condition, it is very much necessary for the
Length of fishing experience 0.156*
government of Bangladesh to take instant care to
Social mobility 0.130 document the scattered refugees not yet listed. This
Asset possession 0.127 should be done either to recognize them as refugees
*significant at .05 level of probability of the country or to repatriate them through
negotiation with Myanmar. Otherwise it would be
very difficult to keep the Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary
Table 9. Reasons for choosing information sources and coastal resource base sustained.
Information sources Reasons for The study also interestingly revealed that the
Livelihoods
mostly used choosing sources Rohingyas mostly used the localite interpersonal
Fishing in Neighbor, BD and No fear to be
information sources in maintaining their livelihoods.
sea Rohingya friends caught, safe and
helpful Fear to be caught while contact, personal safety, idea
Cutting fuel Rohingya and BD Relevant, safe of getting easy access to and credibility of sources
woods from friends, Neighbor and no fear to were the major reasons behind their unusual
hills be caught communication behavior. Use of only such
Cultivating Neighbor, Easily available, compelled communication may lead to further
sun grass on Rohingya and BD safe and resource depletion as they are not receiving any
hills friends dependable responsiveness information to conserve the natural
Collecting Rohingya and BD Experienced resources. Some generous support from Bangladesh
small friends, Relative and no fear to
government and its people may help Rohingyas
tree-trunk in BD be caught
from hills substantially in choosing the right sources for taking
Day labor BD friends, Credible, safe right decisions. Thus, fear to be caught illegally
Group discussion, and helpful should be removed, basic food and shelter supports,
Local leader and assurance of access to credible source may be
Small Family member, No fear to be adopted as some parts of concern. Finally, the
grocery/ Rohingya friends, caught, safe and study believes in cordial and effectual bilateral
hawking Group discussion helpful negotiation between the two neighboring countries,
Fishing boat Rohingya friends, Easily available, Bangladesh and Myanmar, to resolve the concerned
renting Local leader, TV safe and helpful critiques.

~ 30 ~
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The study is a part of research activities conducted
under the project entitled “The Political Ecology of
the Poverty and Deforestation in the Teknaf
Peninsula”, Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology of the Japanese Govt. through Faculty of
Design, Kyushu University, Japan.

REFERENCES
[1] EA Rosario. 1997. The conservation management
plan of the protected areas other than those in the
Sundarban forests in Bangladesh. GOB/WB Forest
Management Project: Bangladesh. Dhaka. 39p.
[2] A Bari and U Dutta. 2004. Co-management of
protected forest resources in Bangladesh: Teknaf
Game Reserve. USAID –Bangladesh and Ministry of
Environment and Forestry, Dhaka. 40P.
[3] AR Mollah. MM Rahman, MS Rahman. 2004.
Site-level field appraisal for protected area
co-management: Teknaf Game Reserve (Draft).
Nature Conservation Management (NACOM):
Bangladesh. 68p.
[4] MASA Kahn, SA Mukul, MA Uddin, MG Kibria and
F Sulatna. 2009. The use of medicinal palnts in
healthcare practices by Rohingya refugees in a
degraded forest and conservation area of Bangladesh.
Intl J. Bio. Sc. and Mangt. 5(2): 76-82.
[5] D Chattarjee. 2011. Ecological consequences due to
subsistence activities of the people in a hill forest area.
MS thesis, Dept of Agric Extension Education,
Bangladesh Agricultural University. 30-31 pp.
[6] Anonymous. 2009. The Livelihoods Assessment
Tool-kit: Analysing and responding to the impact of
disasters on the livelihoods of people. FAO, Rome
and ILO, Geneva. 11 p.
[7] S Alamin. 1997. Communication exposure of the farm
women in receiving homestead farm information. MS
thesis, Dept of Agric Extension Education,
Bangladesh Agricultural University, 41-44 pp.
[8] MK Hossain. 2010. Use of communication media by
the famers in practicing rice-cum-fish culture. MS
thesis, Dept of Agric Extension Education,
Bangladesh Agricultural University, 28-29 pp.
[9] MS Karim. 2005. Farmers’ use of communication
sources in receiving agricultural information. MS
thesis, Dept of Agric Extension Education,
Bangladesh Agricultural University, 32-33 pp.
[10] M Tani, MZ Rahman, MA Rahman, K Asahiro, S
Akther. 2011. Deforestation by daily activities in the
Teknaf Peninsula, Bangladesh. Proceedings of ICEAB
2011. 29-30pp.
[11] C Lewa. 2010. Unregistered Rohingya refugees in
Bangladesh: Crackdown, forced displacement and
hunger. The Arakan Project, Bangkok. 9p.
[12] EM Rogers. 1995. Diffusion of innovation, Fourth
edition. NY: Free Press. 182 p.

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 E03
Impacts of Climate Change and Land Use on
Forest Degradation in Teknaf Peninsula
Md. Abiar Rahman1, Masakazu Tani2, Kazuo Asahiro2,
Abu Zofar Md. Moslehuddin3 and Md. Zulfikar Rahman4
1Department
of Agroforestry and Environment, BSMRAU, Gazipu, Bangladesh
2Department
of Environment and Heritage Design, Kyushu University, Japan
3Department of Soil Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Bangladesh
4Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Bangladesh

Abstract
Teknaf peninsula was very rich in natural resources, which is under threat due to climate change and human activities.
Various land uses are degrading the forest resources. The aim of this study was to examine the impacts of climate change
and land use on forest resources in Teknaf peninsula of Bangladesh. Long-term climatic data were used to understand the
trend of climatic parameters. A survey was conducted to know the impacts of climate and land use changes on forest
resources degradation. Climatic data showed that minimum temperature did not vary much over time, while maximum
temperature has increased slightly in recent years compared to 30 years back. Rainfall was not well distributed over month,
although it showed an increasing trend. The monsoon rainfall was increased by 66%, while dry season rainfall was
decreased by 29%. Forest area and settlement showed reverse trend, particularly the period between 1972 and 1990, while
agriculture was widely started after 1990. Currently, the area for pan cultivation has increased tremendously and farmers
mostly collect shading materials from forest area. Climate change along with improper land use has created huge pressure
on forest resources. Appropriate adaptation, mitigation and conservation measures must be taken immediately to conserve
the forest resources in Teknaf peninsula.

INTRODUCTION The aim of this study is to understand the trend of

Teknaf upazila, under Cox`s Bazaar district, is
located at the southeast corner of Bangladesh where
hill and coastal ecosystems are dominated. Once
upon a time, this area was rich in various forest and
marine resources. Recently, however, most of the
resources are degraded due to climate change and
human activities. Various climatic hazards such as
increasing temperature, uncertainty of rainfall,
increasing salinity and frequent cyclones are common
throughout the coast of Bangladesh [6]. On the other
hand, land use has been changed in this area due to
increasing pressure of population [4]. Poor people are
dependent on local ecosystems for their livelihood,
which is responsible for loss of biodiversity. Various
livelihood activities have been destroying forests as
they do not think and know about the conservation
strategies. Moreover, poor people are also the primary
agent of environmental destruction. People are
destroying the hills and cutting the trees for living
and food production [7]. Deforestation is responsible
for environmental degradation, which is a big concern.
Expansion of agricultural land has been eroding the
natural environment; therefore the sustainability of
agriculture itself is in a critical situation [3]. In the
recent years, betel leaf (Piper betle) became one of
the most important crops in Teknaf peninsula and the
area coverage has been increased tremendously.
Shading is a must for betel leaf cultivation, which
ensures high production and quality. Farmers use to
go forest to collect shading materials, which is one of
the major causes of forest degradation. It is very
urgent to address the problem and take necessary
steps to conserve the forest as well as the environment.
climate and land use changes; and their impacts on
forest degradation in Teknaf peninsula.
METHODOLOGY
A. Study area and climate
The study was conducted at Baharchara union of
Teknaf upazila (Fig. 1), which has been declared as
ecologically critical area by Bangladesh Government
because of reduction of biodiversity at an alarming
rate. The study area is located along the west coast of
the peninsula and about 30 km far from the upazila
headquarter. The area is characterized by subtropical
climate with 15 and 33°C minimum (January) and
maximum (May) temperatures, respectively. Total
annual rainfall is appreciable (around 5000 mm), but
it is not well distributed. Significant amount of
rainfall occurs during the months of June, July and
August. However, negligible rainfall occurs from
December through March.
B. Dataset
The long-term monthly temperature and rainfall
data series for the study area was collected from
Bangladesh Meteorology Department (BMD). Data
of monthly mean, maximum and minimum surface
air temperatures were used in this study. The mean
monthly maximum and minimum temperatures are
derived by averaging the daily maximum and
minimum temperatures.
C. Survey
A survey on pan (battle leaf) cultivation was done
during December 2012 to know the impact of pan
cultivation on forest resource degradation. A

~ 32 ~
structured questionnaire was used to survey 50 pan
farmers for data collection.
30.5 and 30.7°C in 1997-06 and recent year (2008),
respectively. Rainfall showed an interesting trend of
variation at different decades. The data showed that
rainfall was increased by 66% during monsoon (June
to August), while it was decreased by 29% during
dry season (November to March) in recent year
compared to base decade (1977-86).

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area

D. Secondary information
Secondary information on forest resources and
land use were collected from Department of
Agricultural Extension (DAE), Bangladesh Space
Research & Remote Sensing Organization c
(SPARRSO), Bangladesh Meteorological
Department (BMD) and Forest Department (FD).
E. Data analyses
Climatic data were analyzed by MS Excel, while
survey data were analyzed by SPSS computer
software.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. Climate change
The decadal changes in temperature and rainfall
have been shown in Fig. 2 (a, b and c). Decadal
change of monthly minimum temperature was not so
distinct. However, minimum temperature showed
slightly increasing trend in recent year (2008) during
hot months and decreased in winter (February). In
case of maximum temperature, it showed increasing
trend throughout the year. The maximum temperature
was 30°C in 1977-86 decade, which was increased to
d
Fig. 2. Month wise decadal change of (a) maximum
temperature, (b) minimum temperature, (c) rainfall; and
trend of climate in the study area.
Long-term trend showed an increasing trend of
maximum temperature, minimum temperature and
rainfall. The regression equations indicated that

~ 33 ~
increasing trend of maximum temperature (R2 = 0.31)
was rapid than minimum temperature (R2 = 0.22).
The annual increment rates of temperature for
maximum and minimum temperatures were 0.022
and 0.019°C, respectively. The increment rate,
however, for rainfall was more sharp than temperature
(R2 = 0.30). The rainfall was increased annually by
42.08 mm, which is quite appreciable (Fig. 2d).
However, although the annual rainfall showed
increasing trend but it was not well distributed over
months. In the recent year, it was observed prolong
drought during dry season and high rainfall during
monsoon [4]. Therefore, this patchy rainfall is not
good for resource conservation and agriculture
production. Rainfall anomalies and high fluctuation
of temperature were observed in coastal area which
were responsible for reduce crop yield productivity
(19%) despite the technological development [5].
B. Land use change
Land use change over time in the study area has
been shown Fig. 3 and Table 1. It was observed that
forest area decreased sharply between 1972 and 1990,
while settlement was increased dramatically during
the same period. Forest area was decreased by 39%
and settlement was increased by 50% during 2006
compared to 1972. Before 1990, people were not
interested in agriculture as other resources (forest and
marine) were abundant. Agricultural practice, however,
was increased tremendously after 1990 [1].
Fig. 3. Trend of land use change in Baharchara.
Table 1. Area coverage change of major crops in 2012
compared to five years back
Crop % Area change
Rice 12
Pan 56
Corn 8
Tomato 13
Brinjal 22
Chili 25
Rice was the only major crop during 1990 and
other crops were not popular at that time. However,
due to human pressure and commercialization of
agriculture, various crops are being cultivated at
present. Still now crop area is increasing as fallow
~ 34 ~
lands are being brought under cultivation. The rate of
increase was more prominent in case of betel leaf
cultivation, which was increased by 56% in 2012
compared to five years back followed by chili (25%),
brinjal (22%), tomato (13%) and rice (12%).
Although the cropping area and intensity are
increasing, but the production per unit area is under
the national average [2], might be due to climate
change. On the other hand, expansion of agriculture
is creating tremendous pressure on forest as the
expansion is mainly occurring in forest area.
C. Betel leaf cultivation and resource use
The cutting of betel leaf is usually planted after
rain (August-October). It is a shade loving crop and
the production and quality are largely dependent on
the shade imposition. On the other hand, rainfall is
scarce during its vegetative growth stage (November
through March); therefore irrigation is indispensible
for better production. Most of the farmers (36%)
used to apply irrigation once a week followed by
3-day interval (28%), while few farmers (8%) also
applied irrigation every alternative day (Fig. 4).
Source of irrigation is very limited. Many farmers
carry water from canal or water catchment near by
the hill), while in some cases they use irrigation pipe.
However, due to prolonged drought most of the
canals and catchments contain no water during dry
season. On the other hand, due to over utilization of
water for betel leaf and other crop cultivation, most
of the canals and water catchments remain waterless
in most of the months of the year, which ultimately
affects biodiversity and resources of forests. Farmers
are cultivating betel leaf intensively for higher
income without considering the resource
conservation. Climate change along with improper
betel leaf cultivation is making the ecosystem more
vulnerable in terms of resources. Suitable production
technique should be introduced for pan cultivation so
that farmers may reduce their dependency on forest
for material collection. Introduction of trees inside
the betel leaf field may be one of the options.
Fig. 4. Frequency of irrigation for pan cultivation
Farmers usally use various materails to provide
shade for betel leaf cultivation. Forest is the prime
source of materails (46%) followed by market (22%),
own (18%) and market+forest (14%) (Fig. 5a).
Mostly farmers use bamboo, sungrass, forest pole
(from different species) and grassess as shading
materials and structure (5b). Many villagers got
mountain area from forest department for their
subsistance and sustainable production. Surprisingly,
most of the villagers cultivate bettele leaf and sun
grass in those land without keeping conservation
issue in mind. They are interested in sungrass
cultivation as it is used for shading and house making.
Along with sungrass other shading materials come
from forests. It inidicates that farmers largely depend
on forest for shading materials. Over exploitation of
resources is responsible for hamparing the forest
growth and enentually degrading the forest
ecosystem.
a Climate Center, Busan, Republic of Korea.
conservation measures must be taken immediately to
conserve the forest resources in Teknaf peninsula.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was supported by JSPS grant for
scientific research (Grant # 24401040), Japan.
REFERENCES
[1] Anonymous. 2010. Satellite images and baseline
information of Marisbunia village of Teknaf Peninsula.
Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization
(SPARRSO), Dhaka, Bangladesh.
[2] Anonymous. 2013. Upazila Report. Department of
Agricultural Extension (DAE), Teknaf Upazila, Cox`s
Bazaar, Bangladesh.
[3] K Yaoita, M Nagano and N Nishiyama. 2011. Cultural
Landscape of Teknaf Peninsula. In: Proceedings of the
International Conference on Environmental Aspects of
Bangladesh (ICEAB 2011), 70-71.
[4] MA Rahman, K Asahiro and M Tani. 2011. Land use
Change in Teknaf Peninsula: Farmer`s Experience. In:
Proceedings of the International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh (ICEAB 2011),
95-97.
[5] MA Rahman. 201. Assessment of climate change and
its impact on major food crops in Bangladesh. Final
Report on Young Scientist Support Program, APEC
[6] MG Miah, MN Bari and MA Rahman. 2010. Resource
degradation and livelihood in the coastal region of
Bangladesh. Front. Earth Sci. China, 4(4):427-437.
[7] MZ Rahman, M Tani, D Chattarjee and S Akhter.
2011. Ecological Consequences Due to Subsistance
Activities of the People in a Hill Forest Area of
Bangladesh. In: Proceedings of the International
Conference on Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh
(ICEAB 2011), 98-101.

b
Fig. 5. Shading materials (a) and their sources (b) for betel
leaf cultivation

CONCLUSION
Long-term climatic data showed that minimum
temperature did not change over decade, while
maximum temperature showed slightly increasing
trend. Annual rainfall showed an increasing trend,
which was not well distributed over month. It was
observed that monsoon rainfall was increased by
66%, while dry season rainfall was decreased by
29%. Forest area was decreased very fast between
1972 and 1990 due to huge settlement. However,
agriculture was widely started after 1990. At initial
stage of settlement, rice was the major crop, but
recently pan cultivation became the most preferable
farming among the settlers. The trend of climate
change and improper land uses have been degrading
the forest resources and making the agriculture
difficult. Appropriate adaptation, mitigation and

~ 35 ~
 E04
Tree Census and Household Lifestyle in Homestead
of Bangladesh – A Case Study in the West Coast of Teknaf
Kazuo Asahiro1*, Mayu Takada2, Md. Abiar Rahman3 and Masakazu Tani1
1Department
of Environment and Heritage Design, Kyushu University, Japan
2Nihon SokuchiSekkri CO.,Ltd, Japan
3Department of Agroforestry and Environment, Bangabandhsu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural

University, Bangladesh
*e-mail: asahiro@design.kyushu-u.ac.jp
Abstract
In the Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary, the forest area was reduced by 45.7% from 1989 to 2009. On the other hand, local people
are own homesteads and the conservation of biodiversity has been pointed out as an important indicator to improve local
life. This paper reports a case study of homesteads at Marish Bunia (MB) village in the west coast of Teknaf peninsula. To
understand homestead lifestyle and plant environment, 7 homestead s were selected to know social aspects, vegetation and
the number of tree more than 5cm diameter at breast height (DBH) through survey. A total of 193 species were identified
and 44 species that existed more than 4 homesteads were counted in 7 homesteads. Household head who does not have
more than 9,000m2 land are tend to have other income sources such as side business, migrant work and betel leaf
cultivation. Because betel nut planting seems to increase, therefore more diverse tree plantation should be given emphasize.

INTRODUCTION Under these situations, homestead may play roles for

In the past, hill forests spread from Myanmar to
Teknaf peninsula. Those forests were degraded by
clearing activities. IPAC (2011) reported that the
‘Forest’ area coverage within the Teknaf Wildlife
Sanctuary was about 3,304 hectare (28.4%) in 1989;
and 1,794 hectare (15.4%) in 2009. It was reduced by
45.7% of the forest area during the same period [1].
To tackle the problem, two different sets of strategic
priorities were thought by Iftekhar (2006). One is
maintaining the environmental and ecological
services of the forests through multi-stakeholder
-based holistic management. The other set is meeting
the forest product demand from homestead and
private forests through massive forest extension and
social forestry activities [2]. Kabir and Webb (2008)
pointed out the importance of a homestead for
biodiversity conservation. A total 419 species have
been identified in 402 homesteads in south-western
Bangladesh, but 60% of all tree and shrub species
had 50 or fewer individuals each. Thus, serious effort
must be made to increase the populations of most
species [3].
In Teknaf, that type of study has not yet carried
out. Teknaf wildlife sanctuary has been explored to
assess angiosperm diversity using traditional
taxonomic techniques from 2010 to 2011 by
Mohammad (2012). The assessment has resulted in
recording of total 535 angiosperm species under 370
genera and 103 families [4]. In Teknaf Peninsula
Ecologically Critical Areas (ECA), 249 species under
84 families has confirmed at 65 spots by Mannan
(2006) [5].
In this our study, sustainable conservation of local
life and biodiversity is set as an overall goal.
Although traditional agroforestry is being practiced
in Teknaf peninsula, even population is increasing,
but production area for cash crops is expanding too.
production, biodiversity conservation and life of
quality (LQ) maintenance. Mannan (2006) pointed
out the decreasing trend of homestead plant
biodiversity in the ECA in recent years [5].
This paper reports a study of homesteads’
biodiversity at MB village in the west coast of
Teknaf peninsula as a series of collaboration studies,
started from 2009. To understand homestead lifestyle
and homestead plants environment, social aspects,
vegetation and tree composition were surveyed.
Following three points were set as the purpose of this
study.
i. To clarify selected 7 households’ settlement year,
occupation and properties by comparing with MB
village whole household (HH) research data.
ii. To survey plants and their usages in these 7 HHs.
Extracting the species exists of more than 4
homesteads (about 50%).
iii. To survey trees whose diameter at breast height
(DBH) is bigger than 5cm in all of 7 homesteads
and discuss to know the ecological issue.
We think 7 homesteads as samples are too small to
conclude anything. However, the selected
homesteads are good representation of the locality
and we believe this study give an important
perspective to next step for the future.
SITE AND METHODS
A. Site selection
For this study, MB village was selected as the
research site [Fig. 1.] because the distance from
seashore to hilltop is short. The survey was carried
out from 14 to 21 September 2010. Shupari (Areca
catechu) is widely planted around thatched-roofing
houses. The main occupation in this village is
agriculture, and many HH in this village cultivate
betel leaf vine Piper betle .

~ 36 ~
 Table 1. The year of initial settlement, occupation and the
area size of homestead & farmland

No. of homestead
and rate*
a b c d e f g

Year
Fig. 1. MB village survey homestead site in Teknaf
<1950s 14
B. Survey of 7 selected homesteads (7 %) ■ ■
1950s 1
To understand the composition of trees and its
(0 %)
structure, 7 homesteads were selected. For selecting 1960s 5
homesteads, we considered the following aspects: the (2 %) ■
settlement period; 3 of the selected homesteads (a, b, 1970s 11
& c.) were located on the western side of the main (5%)
road (a comparatively old settlement area), while the 1980 35

History
other 4 homesteads (d, e, f, & g.) were located on the (17%)
eastern side of the main road (a new area, that is a 1990s 67
part of the national forest) [Fig. 1]. As an additional (33%) ■ ○
character, homestead located near a stream 2000s 64
(31%) ○ ■
homestead c, a homestead located in a hilly region
2010s 7
homestead d, and a homestead owned by person who (3 %)
had received training on planting from a NGO Unkn 3
homestead g, were selected as habitat interest. own
C. Research method Total 207
Research composed of three methods as follows. Farming
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
(PB: Farm
Occupation

i. Survey for area maps drawing: homestead PB PB PB

Business
boundary, house, forest, crop field and tree Side
(DBH>5cm) positions were recorded. Business
○ ○
ii. Interview survey: farming area size and activities Migrant
were recorded by interviews. worker
○
iii. Vegetation and tree census: Tree layer areas were Homestead
1452 3024 552 952 2070 480 4448
(m2)
Area

surveyed by Braun ‐ Blanquet method. Species

and diameter of the breast height (DBH) Farm land
5320 7980 1882 1330 3990 2660 4655
measurement carried out with trees of more than (m2)
■：σew establishment, ○：Moved from other places,
5cm DBH covering all trees except for Shupari in *: No. of homesteads in MB village
a homestead area. Shupari were counted and their
density within 5m radius area was recorded.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Social aspect of householder
The time of initial settlement of homesteads a, to g,
are shown in Table 1. Homesteads a, b, & c, were
settled before the 70s. After 80s, homesteads d, e, f &
g, placed on the west side of the main road and
encroached to the national forest for family new
home and refugee from sea storm. Hence, homesteads
a, to g, were sampled from each typical decade.
B. Occupation and owning area
Farming land owning proportion was yes/no:
20/80% in MB village. In this study, 7 HHs’ heads Fig. 2. Area of homestead and farming land
own farm lands and it has been shown in Tab.1 and
Fig.2. As an extra feature, HH a, f, run on side i. homestead b, (Total land: 11,004m2) and g,
business, head of HH e is a migrant worker and HH c, (9,103m2), owning much more land than the
d & f, cultivated betel leaf. Average of farm lands average. The main income source was agriculture.
and homesteads were 550m2 and 1700m2 in MB ii. Cultivate betel leaf’s HH head tends to own small
village, respectively. Next two features are able to homestead such as the homestead c, (552m2), d,
point out by comparing with these data. (952m2) and f, (480m2).

~ 37 ~
 As a trend in the relationship between HH occupation
and land ownership of own homestead, HH heads
who own less than 9,000m2 of land tend to have
other income sources such as side business, migrant
work and betel leaf cultivation. Increasing population
in these limited areas seems force residents to
produce high-income cash crops and other business.
Encroaching to the national forest land would have
caused for the same reason.
C. Results of vegetation research
The number of confirmed species in homestead is
193, and 164 of them were identified under 68
families. Table 2. shows 44 species that confirmed in
more than 4 homesteads (exist degree > 50%), and its
scientific name, Bengal name, type of tree layer,
utilization, co-listed with references [4], [5] and exist
degree. Shupari (Areca catechu), Billimbi (Averrhoa
bilimbi) and Am (Mangifera indica) were confirmed
in 7 homesteads, followed by Kathal (Artocarpus
heterophyllus), and Finagura (Flacourita jangomas).
These fruit species were exist 26%, and medicinal
plants, ornamental plants, woody plants and
vegetable plants were followed.
D. Result of tree census
Fig. 3. shows results of tree census, the number of
tree by DBH interval of each species. Difference in
trend of across homesteads seems to have a strong
relation with the year of homestead settlement. The
following description can be made:
i. homesteads b, c, where trees of most DBH
intervals exist settled before 1λ50’s. Both
homesteads own three Am trees of more than
40cm DBH and other fruit species such as Kathal,
Narikel and so on.
ii. homestead a. which settled in the 1λ70’s, owns
three of the Narikel of more than 30cm DBH.
iii. homesteads d, e, f & g, mainly owns trees of
around less than 15cm DBH, and more small
trees exist rather than larger one. These
homesteads can to be said as an earlier stage of
growing those trees. Especially, homestead d,
owns Pepe (Carica papaya) and Sazina (Moringa
olefera), these are trees that can yield within a
few years.

Fig. 4. Shupari and the other number of the trees and

Fig. 3. The number of trees by the diameter of
homesteads area size
breast height (DBH) of each homestead

~ 38 ~
Table 2. Species list of more than 50% of plant existence
in 7 home gardens
Fig. 4. shows all the number of trees including
Shupari (density by area) and homestead area size of
these 7 homesteads. Shupari is the most dominant
tree species compared to the other species in each
of homesteads. As mentioned above, homesteads c, d
& f, cultivate betel leaf. homestead d, would plant
around sixty Shupari in the future. As a comparative
discussion, homestead a, doing side business and
homestead g, agricultural HH head are picked up
here. Their difference is interesting. The proportion
of the number of Shupari and the other trees were for
homestead a, (98.4%, 1.4%) and g, (71.2%, 28.8%).
homestead a, are planted more Shupari than g. On
the other hand, trees in homestead g, are still young,
but many kinds of fruit trees were planted. The head
of homestead g, is the farmer who had received
training on planting method by a NGO, Nature
~ 39 ~
Conservation Management (NACOM) and who
practiced it. These trends are similar in a case
reported by Rahman (2006) that was related to tree
diversity, land size and education [6].
Table 3. 24 selected plant species need to take more
attention for management in the ECA [5].
Bakul Champa Babla Boilam
Chapalish Jarul Jilapi Pit Raj
Shal Shegun Sonalu Telshur
Amloki Aor Barai Chalta Jolpai
Kaju Kamranga Karamja Sarifa
Badam
Akanda Arjun Bsak Tulsi
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The overall goal of this study is to assess the
compatibility of sustainable production and
biodiversity. In spite of 7 homesteads and having
identification difficulties on the survey, the following
conclusions can be drawn from this study.
i. HH heads who have area size larger than 9,000 m2
is mainly earning from agriculture.
ii. HH heads who have less than 9,000m2 land are
tend to have the other income sources such as side
business, migrant working and betel leaf
cultivation.
iii. This research confirmed a total of 193 species of
which 44 species had more than 50% of existing
rate.
iv. Four tree species namely Am, Kathal, Narikel and
Garjan have more than 30cm DBH. These species
provide fruit and other necessities of livelihood,
but Garjan is kept for the purpose of conservation.
v. Most of the homesteads were dominated by
Shupari, but 12 trees species still remained. These
trees were planted or grew from seed, which have
been remained for householder usage in year by
year. The proportion of Shupari seems to have the
relationship among homestead area size, side
business and education.
For a future perspective beyond the increase in the
biodiversity in the homesteads, it would be desirable
that the other species set the conditions of growing
longer year with diverse feature and ensures
economical aspect as well. For example, the usages
of species, Billimbi, Fainagura, Amra (Spondias
mangifera), Goranim (Melia azedarach) and Gamari
(Gmelina arborea) can be extracted from Tab.2.
Plant species as reported by Mannan (2006) need to
pay more attention for management in the ECA,
which is shown in Tab.3.
In terms of the shrub and herb layer, lots of areas
of the homesteads were shaded by dense Shupari
canopy. However, many species were found around
sunny front yard, vegetable garden and pond area in
those limited spaces. There would be potential that
local farmer designed planting and growing many
kinds of species in the homestead. Especially,
homesteads d, and g, that settled after 1990s showed
multiple production activities.
As a current issue derived from the above
mentioned discussion, a Shupari expansion demand
seems to increase. Especially there is high demand
from the farmer who has side business. This trend
will decrease the biodiversity of shrub and herb layer
as there is limited space under tree layer. Those
double income lifestyle and occupations are
estimating increase near future. It is important that
developing production value used by many sorts of
plants so that conserving those both balance
homestead production and biodiversity conservation.
This case study analyzed only 7 homesteads in
MB village in the west coast of Teknaf peninsula.
There would be another type of homestead such as
the villager who doesn’t own farming land. It is
necessary that further research conducting to know
those homesteads capabilities in future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study is in part supported by JSPS grant for
scientific research to the senior author (#24401040).

REFERENCES
[1] IPAC. 2011. Landuse change trend analysis in seven
protected areas in Bangladesh under IPAC through
application of LANDSAT imageries. Integrated
Protected Area Co-Management (IPAC), 23
[2] MS Iftekhar. 2006. Forestry in Bangladesh. In: An
Overview Journal of Forestry. 104(3): 148-153
[3] ME Kabir and EL Webb. 2008. Can Homegardens
Conserve Biodiversity in Bangladesh?. In:
Biotropica. 40(1), 95-103
[4] M.Z. Uddin, M.F. Alam, and M.A. Hassan. 2012.
Diversity in angiosperm flora of Teknaf Wildlife
Sanctuary, Bangladesh.
[5] MA Mannan. 2006. Plant Biodiversity Management
at Teknaf Peninsula ECA. Coastal & Wetland
Biodiversity Management Project, Cox’s Bazar Site
Office. 7-8, 41
[6] MM Rahman, Y Furukawa, I Kawata, MM Rahman,
M Alam. 2006. Role of homestead forests in
household economy and factors affecting forest
production: a case study in southwest Bangladesh.
Journal of Forest Research. 11(2): 89-97.

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 E05
The Process of Betel leaf Cultivation and
Shipment in the Teknaf Peninsula
Hiroshi Tsuruta1, Masakazu Tani2, M Zulfikar Rahman3
1Graduate school of Design, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan; e-mail: 2ds12062y@s.kyushu-u.ac.jp
2Faculty of Design, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
3Dept of Agricultural Extension Education, Mymensingh, Bangladesh

Abstract
This paper examines the process of cultivation and shipment of betel leaves based on data collected by field surveys in
Jahajpura village in Baharcharra Union, Teknaf Upazila. We collected the data in the village through interviews to actors of
betel leaf cultivation and shipment to local market; farmers, day laborers, middlemen and wholesalers. We analyzed the
employment generated through the process. We found that the 65.6% of day laborer in the village, and 52.4 % of
households in the village were supported by betel leaf cultivation. We concluded that betel leaves highly contributed to
generation of employment in the village.

INTRODUCTION economy is supported by the leaves.

Deforestation is a crucial issue in the Teknaf
Peninsula, located in the south eastern region of
Bangladesh. USAID reported the half of the forest
area in the Teknaf Peninsula has decreased during the
past 20 years [1]. The deforestation seems be caused
by local people, since they highly depend on forest
resources in their daily lives. Mohammad et al.[2]
listed 14 livelihood activities by the local people in
the peninsula which risk the forest. The list consists
of 14 daily activities which include fuel wood
collection, housing materials and betel leaf
cultivation. Among those daily activities, betel leaf
cultivation is one of important factors of
deforestation, since it consumes a large amount of
wood for the construction of pan boroj, which is a
facility to provide shade for betel leaves. Tsuruta et
al. [3] documented that a pan boroj measuring
22m×23m required 920kg of wooden material. There
were 1653 pan borojs in the study area of this paper,
Bharchhara Union, Teknaf Upazila. They estimated
total wood consumption by betel leaf cultivation in
the union was 1500ton which equals to 8.7% of the
annual production of the local forest in the union.
Betel leaf is widely popular among people in
Bangladesh as a favorite item. The leaf is an
important income source for local people in the
Teknaf Peninsula, since it generates better income
than other crops [4]. Even though the betel leaf
cultivation contributes to the deforestation, it seems
to be difficult for the local people to quit the
cultivation totally. As for betel leaf cultivation,
trade-offs must be made between reduction of the
wood consumption through construction of pan boroj
and security of financial stability of local people.
This requires detail analysis of betel leaf cultivation.
Previous studies take up betel leaf cultivation in
the Teknaf Peninsula, as a factor of the deforestation
[3, 4]. However, in those studies, little is discuss on
the betel leaf cultivation itself and how local
Therefore, in this paper, we are going to examine
the process of betel leaf cultivation and shipment in
Jahajpura village in the Teknaf Peninsula and
analyze generation of employment through the
process.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
We conducted surveys in Jahajpura village in
Baharcharra Union, Teknaf Upazila, Cox’s Bazar
District.
Jahajpura village is surrounded by sea and mountain.
The western side of the village faces the Bay of
Bengal and many people engage in fishing. The
eastern side faces mountain and betel leaf cultivation
is popular among people. There are 349 households
in the village. 84 households are betel leaf farmers,
24 percent of all households. The average size of
land for betel leaf cultivation in the village is 1.44
kuni (580 m2). Kuni is a local measurement unit of
area equals to approximately 400 m2.
We conducted surveys 2 times in the village in
September 2011 and March 2012. Through those
surveys, we collected data of the process of betel leaf
cultivation and shipment in the village. As for
cultivation, we interviewed a betel leaf farmer who
lives in Jahajpura village in September 2011 and
again March 2012 to supplement the first interview.
As for shipment, we interviewed 6 farmers, 2
middlemen and 3 wholesalers in Jahajpura Bazar on
a market day in March 2012. Based on information
collected by those interviews, process of betel leaf
cultivation and shipment in Jahajpura village is
reconstructed as we describe in the following section.
RESULTS
The following description shows (1) the process of
betel cultivation of one farmer we interviewed in
Jahajpura village and (2) that of shipment of betel
leaves in Jahajpura bazar based on the interviewers in
the bazar.

~ 41 ~
A. Process of betel leaf cultivation
We interviewed a farmer owns a pan boroj
measuring 16m ×37.5m, which equals to 1.5 kuni
(600m2) (Fig.1).He engages in betel leaf cultivation
for 10 months in a year. The first process, land
preparation, starts from middle of August. His
activities for betel leaf cultivation are as follows:
(1) Land preparation: The farmer and 3 laborers
plow soil and make 16 ridges in the land (Fig. 1). Fig. 5. Pan boroj
Each ridge is made to be 55cm wide. The interval
between two ridges is also 55cm (Fig. 2). (4) Construction of temporary shading: Soon after
(2) Purchase of sapling: After the land preparation, the planting, the farmer and 10 laborers prepare
the farmer and 3 laborers go to Lohagara Upazila in temporary shading within the day so that the leaves
Chittagong District to purchase sapling, young betel won’t be exposed to sunshine which makes the
vine. The vine costs 1 BDT per gheet, which is a leaves bitter. The temporary shading is made of small
local unit meaning 1 meter length of vine (Fig. 3). wood stick and dried grass. The height of the
(3) Planting: In October to November, the farmer temporary shading is about 30cm (Fig.4).
and 10 community members plant the saplings. The (5) Construction of pan boroj: As soon as they
community members help planting for free. The finish the temporary shading, the farmer and 10
saplings are planted in two lines in one ridge, and laborers start constructing a larger shading called pan
each leaf of the vine is tied with supporting sticks by boroj (Fig.5). The construction takes 4 days. To
a piece of jute rope. The interval between two sticks construct a pan boroj requires structural materials,
is 14cm (Fig.2). In each ridge, 510 saplings are supporting sticks and covering materials as we show
planted. in fig. 6 (Fig. 6). Thick woods and bamboos are used
for structural materials such as posts and poles and
thin bamboos are used for supporting sticks.
Sungrass is used for covering material. The size of
each part is shown in Table 1 (Table 1).
(6) Care activity: According to the farmer, betel
plants need regular care; watering, weeding,
application of fertilizer, pesticides and insecticides
during the whole cultivation period. He hires a
laborer for those care activities and harvesting for 6
Fig. 1. Size of a pan boroj months. He pays 5000 BDT for the labor per season.
Table 1. Materials used in a pan boroj in Jahajpura village
Part Material Diameter Length Quantity
(cm) (cm)
Structural material
a : Post Wood,
3.5 235 490
Bamboo
b : Pole Wood,
2.5 120 520
Bamboo
c : Bar Wood,
2.5 260 410
Bamboo
d : Rafter Wood,
2.7 100 125
Fig. 2. Diagram of a ridge Bamboo
e : Purine Wood,
1.5 250 115
Bamboo
f : beam Bamboo 3.0 300 155
g : beam Bamboo 3.0 300 680
Supporting
Bamboo 1.0 225 816
Material
Covering
Sungrass - 200 -
material

(7) Harvesting: The harvesting starts from

December and continues up to May, end of dry
season. During the period, the laborer picks the
leaves every other week. The labor harvests the
Fig. 3. A gheet of Fig. 4. Temporary shading leaves in the morning on Tuesday or Saturday which
betel vine is the market day in the Jahajpura Bazar.

~ 42 ~

Fig. 6. Materials for pan boroj
B. Process of betel leaf shipment
In order to analyze the process of betel leaf
shipment, we conducted survey about the trading on
Tuesday of 13rd March in 2012. On that day, 95
persons gathered for the trading at the Jahajpura
Bazar. At the bazar, trading of betel leaves is taken
place on every Tuesday and Saturday. The number of
the participants of the day is shown below (Table 2.).
Table 2. The number of participants on the market day
(2012/3/13)
Participant Number Interviewed
number
Farmer 84 6
Middleman 10 2
Wholesaler 5 3
(1) Channels of transactions: There are 2 actors
besides farmers in the trading of betel leaves in
Jahajpura village; middlemen and wholesalers. A
middleman is person who visits some farmers’ house
to buy the leaves and carries them to bazar to resell
them to wholesalers. A wholesaler is person who buys
the leaves from farmers and middlemen at bazar and
carries them to the big cities such as Dhaka, Chittagong
and Cox’s Bazar. Fig. 6 summarizes the flow of betel
leaves to and from the Jahajpura bazar (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Flow of betel leaves in the Jahajpura village
(2) Trade Unit, Unit price, and carrying baskets:
The leaves were traded in a unit called bera which
equals to approx. 150 betel leaves. The price of the
leaves is determined through negotiation based on
the size and quality of the leaves. A farmer in the
bazar told us unit price of different sizes of betel
leaves, when he trades with a wholesaler (Table 3).
~ 43 ~
The leaves are carried into the bazar using
different sizes of basket. Farmers carried their leaves
using small basket called kharang (S) each of which
holds 50 bera (Fig.8). Middlemen use kharang (M),
which carries 100 bera at 1 time. Since wholesaler
deals a large amount of betel leaves, they used still
larger baskets called khasi, each of which carries 600
bera at 1 time. (Table 4).
Table 3. Unit price of betel leaves in trading between a
farmer and a wholesaler in the Jahjpura Bazar
Unit price Size
Betel leaf
(BDT/bera) (cm×cm)
Small 20 7×10
Medium 100 12×16
Large 150 15×20
Table 4. The basket used for carrying betel leaves
Capacity
Basket Capacity (ℓ)
(bera)
Kharang S 50 3.3
Kharang M 100 7.5
Khasi 600 62
Fig. 8. Kharang (s)
DISCUSSION
Sayan et al. [5] stated betel leaf cultivation is
highly labor intensive. Here, we analyzed generation
of employment through the process of betel leaf
cultivation and shipment. Tasks in the process of
cultivation and shipment of betel leaves described in
the previous section can be summarized as in Table 5.
As shown in the table, there are many actors
involved in the process. Betel leaves themselves
generate a large amount of cash income for farmers,
and middlemen and wholesalers are also benefitted
from trading the leaves. Along with them, the table
shows that a large number of day laborers are hired
for cultivating betel leaves.
At the pan boroj mesuring 600m2, described in the
previous section, the number of man-days spent by
day laborers for one season can be calculated by
multiplying the number of persons for each task by
the length of the labor in days; it is 245 man-days.
Sayan et al. also revealed the number of man-days
spent by day laborers for one season in 2 villages in
Nadia district, West Bengal, India. He reported a pan
boroj measuring 1335 square meters generates 301
man-days’ employment for one season [5].
Table 5. The process of betel leaf cultivation and shipment of a farmer in Jahajpura village
Month Process Labor force Period Actor Labor cost
Middle Farmer, 300BDT/
Land preparation 3 persons 2 days
of August Day labor day
October- Farmer, 300BDT/
Purchase of saplings 3 persons 3 days
November Day labor day
Planting 10 persons 1 day Community group Free
October-
Farmer, 300BDT/
Cultivation

November Making shading 10 persons 1 day

Day labor day
November- Construction of Farmer, 300BDT/
10 persons 4 days
December pan boroj Day labor day
Care activities
November- Farmer,
(Watering, Weeding, Application 5000BDT/
May Day labor
of fertilizer, pesticides, insecticides) 1 person 6 months season
December- Farmer,
Harvesting
May Day labor
245man- Labor cost 24500
Labor requirement in a season
days in a season BDT
Middleman
Shipment

- Trading - - Wholesaler -
Day labor
- Transportation - - Wholesaler -
- Retailing - - Retailor -

The number in Nadia is bigger than that in the
Jahajpura village. This is because the difference of
the standard size of pan borojs between 2 areas.
However, in both areas, betel leaf cultivation
generates almost 1 year’s employment from one pan
boroj. This means one pan boroj would provide the
labor opportunity for one person for almost the entire
year. Because the pan boroj measuring 600m2 is an
average size in Jahajpura village and because there
are 84 betel farmers in the village, the whole betel
leaf cultivation of the village may provide 84 persons
with employment for one year. There are 349
households in the village, and the main occupation of
128 households is day labor. That means 65.6% of
day labor is offered by betel leaf cultivation,
confirming the importance of this activity.
Another way to measure the importance of betel leaf
cultivation in local economy is the number of actors
of all kinds. There are 84 betel leaf farmers, 84 day
laborers employed by them, 10 middlemen, and 5
wholesalers, a total of 183 persons. Assuming each
of the 183 is the household head, 183 households of
the 349 village households (52.4%) are supported by
betel leaf cultivation. Other than them, there are
people who are involved in betel leaf cultivation,
such as providers of materials for constructing pan
boroj. Therefore, the contribution of betel leaf
cultivation to the local economy may be even bigger
than that.
CONCLUSION
In Jahajpura village, we confirmed that farmers
cultivated betel leaves as labor intensive crop. Since
there are a lot of betel leaf farmers in the village,
plenty of working opportunities are generated
through the process of cultivation and shipment.
Therefore, we conclude that betel leaves highly
contribute to generation of employment in the
village.
ACKNOWLEDMENT
This study was supported by a research grant by
JSPS-MEXT of Japanese government.
REFERENCES
[1] USAID. 2010. Land use change trend analysis in
seven protected areas in Bangladesh under IPAC
through application of Landsat imageries. USAID.
[2] Mohammed Salim Uddin, Mohammed Abu Sayed
Arfin Khan. 2007. Compering the Impacts of Local
people and Rohingya Refugees on Teknaf Game
Reserve. Making Conservation Work : Linking Rural
Livelihoods and Protected Area Management in
Bangladesh. pp.150-175.
[3] Asahiro Kazuo, Tani Masakazu, Rahman M. Zulfikar.
2012. The Study on the Influence of Betel Leaf
Cultivation on Forest Loss in the Teknaf Peninsula,
Bangladesh. the Journal of Design, Kyushu
University, 16 : 1-10. Available at:
http://hdl.handle.net/2324/21844
[4] Tsuruta Hiroshi, Tani Masakazu, M Zulfikar Rahman,
2012. The study on the impact of betel leaf
cultivation on the local forest in the Teknaf Peninsula.
Proceeding of 3rd International Conference on
Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh. pp.51-53.
[5] Sayan Ghosh, Asit Maiti. 2011. Betel leaf cultivation
– A Potential Crop for Sustainable Income. An
In-depth Study on Economy of Betel leaf Cultivation
and Marketing with reference to Nadia District, West
Bengal, India. 120p.

~ 44 ~
 E06
Simple Method for Isolation and Identification of Two New
Phlorotannins from Ecklonia cava and their Antioxidant Activities
MTH Chowdhury1,2, T Shahrin2, MR Islam3,4, ZP Sukhan5, JY Kang1, P Gatachow1,
MA Hannan1, MM Far1 AT Siddique5 and YK Hong1
1Department
of Biotechnology, Pukyong National University, Busan 608-737, South Korea
2Departmentof Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries & Livestock, People’s Republic of Bangladesh
3Energy & Mineral Resources Division; Ministry of Power, Energy & Mineral Resources; Govt. of Bangladesh
4Department of Imaging System Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan 608-737, South Korea
5Sharnalata Agro Fisheries Ltd., Radhakanai, Fulbaria, Mymensingh, Bangladesh.

Corresponding Author: YK Hong, Phone: +82-51-629-5862, e-mail: ykhong@pknu.ac.kr

Abstract
A simple isolation method was developed for two new phlorotannins with molecular weight of 974, and two known
phlorotannins, dieckol and phlorofucofuroeckol-A from the brown seaweed Ecklonia cava. The chemical structures of
isolated phlorotannins were identified by spectrometric analysis including two dimensional NMR. Antioxidant activity of
the phlorotannins was assessed in vitro by measuring the DPPH radical scavenging activity. Isolated two new phlorotannins
exhibit stronger antioxidant activity compared with already known phlorotannins dieckol and phorofucofuroeckol-A, and
are more potent than commercial antioxidant BHT and L-Ascorbic acid. This result suggests a beneficial role of these
isolated phlorotannins in the medicinal as well as food industries as antioxidant rich functional food ingredients.

INTRODUCTION phloroglucinol (1,3,5-trihydroxybenzene) [10]. In the

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced by
all aerobic organisms and known to cause oxidative
modification of DNA, proteins, lipids and small
cellular molecules. ROS are associated with tissue
damage and are the prime contributing factors for
various diseases such as inflammation, various
cancer, hypertension, diabetes and degenerative
process associated with aging [1-3]. Antioxidants
are important inhibitors of lipid peroxidation for food
production and act as a defense mechanism of living
cell against ROS-causing oxidative damage [4-5].
Antioxidants intercept the free radical chain of
oxidation by donating hydrogen from the phenolic
hydrogen groups, forming a stable end product which
do not initiate or propagate oxidation of lipids. So,
antioxidant regulates various oxidative reactions
naturally occurring in tissues. The most extensively
used synthetic antioxidants are propylgallate (PG),
butylated hydroxylanisol (BHA), bytylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT) and tart-butylhydroquinone
(TBHQ), most of them have, however, been reported
to be toxic, carcinogenic and responsible for liver
damage [6-7]. Therefore, much attention of
consumers and food producers are focusing on
natural substances to replace synthetic antioxidant.
Ecklonia cava Kjellman is brown seaweed
distributed only in the coast of Japan and Korea [8]
and is utilized as food ingredient, animal feed,
fertilizer and medicine [9]. E. cava contains variety
of compounds including carotenoids, fucoidans and
phlorotannins, playing diverse biological and
ecological roles. Marine algal polyphenols, known as
phlorotannins as major metabolites of Ecklonia
species, which have only been found to exist within
brown algae, are formed by the polymerization of
brown algae, phlorotannins function as defense
against herbivore [11-12], microbes [13-14],
allelopathic activity against epibionts [15], harmful
effects of UV radiation [16] or as structural
compounds in cell wall hardening [17-19]. During
the past decades, it has been reported that Ecklonia
species by virtue of its phlorotannin contents exhibits
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities [20],
radical scavenging activity [21], anti-allergic activity
[22], anti-plasmin activity [23], bactericidal activity
[24], HIV-1 reverse transcriptase and protease
inhibitory activity [25], acetyl cholinesterase
inhibitory activity [26-27] and tyrosinase inhibitory
activity [28]. These diverse biological activities
promoted us to isolate and identify the phlorotannin
compounds from the brown alga E. cava. Purpose of
the study was to develop a simple and easy method
for isolation of two new phorotannins from the
brown seaweed E. cava. Furthermore, the antioxidant
activities of the isolated compounds were examined
by electro spectrophotometer.
METHODS
A. Algal materials
Leafy thalli of the brown seaweed, E. cava, was
collected from Busan coast, Korea between
December, 2009 to December, 2010. Voucher
specimen has been deposited in our laboratory.
Epiphytes and salt were removed by washing the
seaweed with fresh water and 1 min sonication. Then
the seaweed tissues were dried completely for 1 week
at room temperature and ground to a fine powder
using a coffee grinder. Finally, the seaweed powder
was stored in a dark room at 20°C until use.

~ 45 ~
B. Chemicals
All solvents used in this study were high-purity
spectroscopic grade solvents (J.T. Baker, Avantor
Performance Materials, NJ, USA). DPPH (2, 2-
diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and NMR solvent
Methanol-d4 were purchased from Sigma
(Sigma-Aldrich, St. Luis, MO, USA).
C. Isolation of phlorotannin
Isolation of four phlorotannins from the algal
powder of E. cava was done according to Chowdhury
et al [29-30] with some modification. The dried
powder of E. cava (100 g) was mixed with methanol
(400 mL) and shaken at 180 rpm at 20°C by a rotary Fig. 1. Simple isolation and purification scheme of four
phlorotannins viz. dieckol, 974B, 974A and
shaker for 2 hours. Chloroform (800 mL) was added
phlorofucofuroeckol-A from brown seaweed E. cava.
and homogenized and filtered. The filtered methanol-
chloroform extract was partitioned with water (300
mL) and then the water layer was extracted with
diethyl ether (600 mL). Ethyl ether fraction was
evaporated in a rotary evaporator (EYELA MP-1000,
Tokyo Ri. Kakikai Co. Ltd, Japan) under vacuum at
37°C and the residue was again completely dried by
a nitrogen generator (G 4510E; Dominic Hunter Ltd.,
England) to prevent oxidation of polyphenol. The
diethyl ether fraction was than dissolved in 100%
methanol and Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) was
run on pre-coated ALUGRAM 0.15 mm kieselgel Fig. 2. HPLC chromatogram of the ethyl ether fraction of
C18 UV254 plate (MACHEREY-NAGEL GmbH & Ecklonia cava.. 1, 2, 3 and 4 represent the dieckol (Peak 32),
Co, Germany) and the spots of the TLC plate were purified new phlorotannin 1 (Peak 36, molecular weight
detected under UV lamp (254 and 365 nm). The TLC 974 B), purified new phlorotannin 2 (Peak 37, molecular
plates were activated at 120°C for 5 min before use, weight 974 A) and phlorofucofuroeckol-A (Peak 41). HPLC
using CHCl3:CH3OH:H2O:CH3COOH (65:25:4:3 system consist of a C18, 5 µm (10 mm i.d × 25 cm) column,
v/v) as a developing solvent. After removing the monitor at 290 nm wavelength with linear gradient solvent
system consisted of water and 100% methanol. The gradient
solvent, 50% H2SO4 was used as detecting agent.
was made from 30% to 100% methanol over 40 min and
Five spots were detected. After that the diethyl ether with isocratic 100% methanol over 10 min, at a flow rate of
fraction was directly subjected to reverse phase 1.0 mL/min.
HPLC (Waters 600 pump, Waters 2487 Dual
Absorbance Detector) purification on a preparative E. Determination of Antioxidant Activity
Altima C18, 5µ column (250 mm × 22 mm)
equipped with a Alltima C18 10µ preparatory guard The radical scavenging activities of the four
column (33×7 mm) (Alltech Associates, IL, USA) at purified phlorotannins were measured using the
a flow rate of 5.0 mL/min. Further purification was DPPH (2, 2- diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) method [31]
conducted by semi-preparative Altima C18, 5µ with some modification. Briefly, 1 mL of 0.2 mM
column (250 mm × 10 mm) equipped with a Alltima DPPH prepared freshly in ethanol was added to 1
C18 5µ guard column (7.5×4.6 mm) (Alltech mL of purified compounds at various concentrations
Associates, IL, USA). HPLC mobile phase was linear (5 to 50 µg/mL). The mixture was vortexed and
gradient solvent system consisted of water and 100% incubated at 25°C for 30 min in the dark, and the
methanol. The gradient was made from 30% to 100% absorbance at 517 nm was measured. Lower
methanol over 40 min and with isocratic 100% absorbance indicates higher free radical scavenging
methanol over 10 min, at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. activity. The percentage of scavenging activity was
The purity of the compound was >97%, based on the calculated using the following formula: scavenging
HPLC peak area of all components absorbed at 290 activity (%) = [1 – (A1–A2)/A0] × 100%, where A0 is
nm wavelength in the HPLC analysis. the absorbance of the control (water instead of test
D. Spectrometry sample solution), A1 is the absorbance of the sample,
and A2 is the absorbance of the sample with water
Isolated all phlorotannins were analyzed on a
instead of DPPH. The IC50 value, which is the
JNM-ECP 400 NMR spectrometer (JEOL, Tokyo,
concentration of the test material that reduces the
Japan), using methanol-d4 (CD3OD) for the 1H and
13C-NMR spectra. FABMS data were obtained from free radical concentration by 50%, was calculated as
g/mL and µM using a dose-response curve.
JMS-700 spectrometer (JEOL).

~ 46 ~
F. Statistical Analysis
All data were compiled as the mean ± SEM of at
least three independent determinations. Statistical
comparisons of mean values were performed with an
analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by a
Duncan’s multiple test using SPSS software, version
16 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, IL). P values <0.05 were
considered statistically significant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Isolation and structural determination of
phlorotannins
To isolate the phlorotannin compounds from E
cava, dried seaweed were extracted with methanol-
chloroform. The methanol-chloroform fraction was
partitioned with water. Water fraction was extracted
with diethyl ether. Then the diethyl ether fraction
was directly subjected to the RP-HPLC (Fig. 1).
Among the various peaks in the chromatograms,
elutes of four peaks with retention time 32, 36, 37
and 41 min, (Fig. 2) respectively were collected.
From FAB-MS spectrum of phlorotannin compounds
peak retention time 36 and 37 min, [M]+ ion at m/z
were 974.1183 and 974.1175, respectively. Their
1H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectral data were similar to
125.3 (C-4a), 124.7 (C-1''''), 124.0 (C-1, C-1'''''), 122.1
(C-8), 110.0 (C-13), 106.4 (C-12), 102.7 (C-2'''), 102.5
(C-2'), 99.6 (C-3), 99.5 (C-10), 98.6 (C-4'''), 98.4 (C-4'),
97.7 (C-3''''), 97.6 (C-4''), 96.5 (C-3''''', C-5'''''), 95.3 (C-2'',
C-6''), 95.2 (C-6'), 94.3 (C-5'''', C-6'''), 92.7 (C-6).
New phlorotannin 2 (Peak 37 (974 A): light brown
powder, FABMS m/z (%) Found: 974.1175 [M]+; bp),
matching the formula of C48H30O23. 1H-NMR (400 MHz,
CD3τD) δμ 6.63 (1H, s, H-13), 6.40 (1H, s, H-9), 6.25
(1H, s, H-3), 6.20 (2H, d, J =2.08 Hz, H-4"'), 6.19 (1H, d, J
=2.40 Hz, H-4'), 6.12 (1H, d, J =2.40 H-6"), 6.04 (1H, d, J
= 2.72 Hz, H-3''''), 5.93 (2H, s, H-3''''', H-5'''''), 5.91 (1H, t,
J = 2.04 Hz, H-4''), 5.90 (1H, d, J=2.04 Hz, H-6'''), 5.87 (2H,
d, J =2.04 Hz, H-2'', H-6''), 5.73 (1H, d, J =2.72 Hz, H-5'''');
13
C-NMR (100 MHz, CD3τD) δμ161.λ (C-1"), 160.2 (C-3",
C-5"), 159.9 (C-5"'), 159.8 (C-1"'), 159.5 (C-5'), 159.2
(C-1'), 156.7 (C-4''''), 156.6 (C-3', C-3''', C-3''''), 153.8
(C-6''''), 153.4 (C-12a), 152.2 (C-2''''', C-6'''''), 151.9 (C-2''''),
151.8 (C-10), 151.2 (C-11a), 148.2 (C-8), 147.8 (C-2),
145.8 (C-14), 144.3 (C-4), 138.1 (C-15a), 135.2 (C-5a),
127.7 (C-14a), 125.0 (C-1''''), 124.9 (C-4a), 124.3 (C-1),
124.2 (C-1'''''),122.4 (C-11), 105.3 (C-6, C-7), 102.7 (C-2'''),
102.4 (C-2'), 99.9 (C-9), 99.3 (C-3), 98.7 (C-4'''), 98.4
(C-4'), 97.8 (C-4''''), 97.6 (C-4''), 96.4 (C-3'''', C-5''''), 96.1
(C-13), 95.3 (C-2'', C-6', C-6''), 94.5 (C-5''''), 94.3 (C-6''').

the two new and novel phlorotannins 974B and 974A

respectively isolated from the brown seaweed
Ecklonia kurome [32]. In our previous study, we also
isolated these two new and novel phlorotannins from
brown seaweed E. cava [30]. Judging from these
results, phlorotannins compound of peak 36 and 37
were new and novel compounds (Fig. 2) and matched
the molecular weight and formula with 974 and
C48H30O23, respectively. It is also reported first time New Phlorotannin 1 New Phlorotannin 2
[Peak 36 (974 B)] [Peak 37 (974 A)]
that brown seaweed E. cava contains two new
phlorotannins compounds whose molecular weight HO
3'
4'

5'
OH HO
3'
4'
OH
5'

and formula are 974 and C48H30O23, respectively. 2'

1'
6' 2'
1'
6'

Another two phlorotannins (peak retention time 32 9

OH 10
O
1 OH
OH 15
O
9a O 10a 14 1 OH
O
and 41 min) were also isolated. From FAB-MS, 8

7
2

3
13
14a 15a
2

1H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectral data, phlorotannins O 6

5a O 4a 4 12a 3
4'''
5
6
5a O 4a 4
HO OH OH 12 O 5
OH
compounds of 32 and 41 min retention time were 5'''

6'''
3'''

2''' 11a
7
8
OH

confirmed as identical to the spectral data of dieckol OH O

1'''

6''
O
11
10
9

10''
HO
and phlorofucofuroeckol-A, (Fig. 2) respectively 8''
9''
9a'' O 10a''
1''

2''
OH 5'' 1'' OH

[20],[26]. The spectral data and structure of isolated HO 7''

6''
5a'' O
5''
4a'' 4''
3'' 4''
3''
2''

four phlorotannins were given below:
New phlorotannin 1 [Peak 36 (974 B)]: light brown
powder, FABMS m/z (%) Found: 974.1183 [M] +;
(bp), 997.1076 [M+Na], matching the formula of
C48H30O23. 1H-NMR (400 MHz, CD3τD) δμ 6.68 (1H, s,
H-6), 6.37 (1H, s, H-10), 6.21 (1H, d, J = 2.08 Hz, H-4'''),
6.20 (2H, d, J =2.40 Hz, H-4'), 6.16 (1H, s, H-3), 6.15 (1H,
d, J =2.40 H-6'), 6.05 (1H, d, J = 2.76 Hz, H-3''''), 5.99 (2H,
s, H-3''''', H-5'''''), 5.91 (1H, t, J=2.04 Hz, H-4''), 5.89 (2H,
d, J =2.40 Hz, H-6'''), 5.87 (1H, d, J =2.04 Hz, H-2'', H-6''),
5.75 (1H, d, J = 2.72 Hz, H-5''''); 13C-NMR (100 MHz,
CD3τD) δμ 161.λ (C-1"), 160.2 (C-3", C-5"), 159.7 (C-5"'),
159.6 (C-5'), 159.2 (C-1'''), 159.0 (C-1'), 157.5 (C-3'''),
156.9 (C-3'), 156.6 (C-4''''), 156.4 (C-4'''''), 153.8 (C-6''''),
152.7 (C-6a), 152.2 (C-2''''', C-6'''''), 152.0 (C-2''''), 151.6
(C-9), 150.9 (C-7a), 148.4 (C-11), 147.0 (C-2), 143.8 (C-4),
142.9 (C-5a), 138.3 (C-14), 138.0 (C-15a), 127.5 (C-14a),
OH OH
Dieckol Phlorofucofuroeckol-A
Fig. 3. Structures of New Phlorotannin 1 [Peak 36 (974
B)], New Phlorotannin 2 [Peak 37 (974 A)], dieckol and
phlorofucofuroeckol-A isolated from the edible brown alga
E. cava.
Dieckol: (Peak 32): light brown powder, FABMS
m/z (%) Found: 742.0811 (M+; bp), 743.0880 [M+1]+;
(64), 741.0726 [M-1]+; (18), Calcd for C36H22O18: 742.0806;
1
H-NMR (400 MHz, CD3τD) δ μ6.14 (1H, s, H-3"), 6.12
(1H, s, H-3), 6.08 (2H, s, H-2"', H-6), 6.06 (1H, d, J =
2.72 Hz, H-8), 6.04 (1H, d, J = 3.08 Hz, H-6"'), 5.98 (1H,
d, J = 2.72 Hz, H-6"), 5.95 (1H, d, J = 2.72 Hz, H-8"), 5.92
(3H, s, H-2',4',6'); 13C-NMR (100 MHz, CD3OD) δ μ161.λ
(C-1'), 160.1 (C-3',5'), 157.8 (C-7), 155.9 (C-7"), 154.5
(C-4a, 4a"), 152.4 (C-3"',5"'), 147.4 (C-9a"), 147.3 (C-2",
C-1"), 147.2 (C-2), 146.9 (C-9, 9"), 144.3 (C-5a"), 144.1

~ 47 ~
(C-5a, 4), 143.4 (C-4"), 143.3 (C-4"'), 138.6 (C-10a), 138.5 stronger antioxidant activity than the standard BHT
(C-10a"), 126.1 (C-1"'), 125.5 (C-9a), 124.5 (C-1), 99.8 (C-8"), (127.85 ± 1.46 µM) and six-fold greater than
99.6 (C-8), 99.4 (C-3), 99.3 (C-3"), 97.6 (C-4'), 96.1 L-Ascorbic acid (78.74 ± 1.79 µM) in a molar
(C-2"',6"'), 95.8 (C-6"), 95.7 (C-6'), 95.3 (C-2',6).
concentration. The multifunctional antioxidant
Phlorofucofuroeckol-A (Peak 41): light brown
activity of polyphenols is highly related to phenol
powder, FABMS m/z (%) Found: 603.0779 [M+1]+; bp,
rings which act as electron traps to scavenge peroxy,
602.0693 [M]+, (70), Calcd for C30H18O14: 602.0697;
1
H-NMR (400 MHz, CD3τD) δμ 6.64 (1H, s, H-9), 6.41 (1H, superoxide-anions and hydroxyl radicals.
s, H-13), 6.27 (1H, s, H-3), 5.97 (2H, d, J =2.04 Hz, H-2", Phlototannins from brown algae have up to eight
H-6"), 5.94 (1H, m, H-4'), 5.92 (1H, m, H-4"), 5.89 (2H, d, interconnected rings. So, they are more potent free
J = 2.04 Hz, H-2', H-6'), 13C-NMR (100 MHz, CD3OD) radical scavenger than other polyphenolics derived
δμ161.6 (C-1), 161.5 (C-1"), 160.0 (C-5"), 159.9 (C-3', C-5', from terrestrial plants, including green tea catechins,
C-3"), 152.9 (C-12a), 151.5 (C-10), 150.9 (C-11a), 148.1 which only have three to four rings [34].
(C-2, C-8), 145.7 (C-14), 143.7 (C-4), 138.1 (C-15a), 135.1
(C-5a), 127.9 (C-14a), 124.8 (C-4a), 124.5 (C-1'), 122.1 Table 2. The IC50 values of New Phlorotannin 1 [Peak 36
(C-11), 105.1 (C-6, C-7), 99.8 (C-9), 99.2 (C-3), 97.6 (974 B)], New Phlorotannin 2 [Peak 37 (974 A)], dieckol,
(C-4"), 97.4 (C-4'), 96.0 (C-13), 95.2 (C-2", C-6"), 95.2 and phlorofucofuroeckol-A for DPPH free radical
(C-2', C-6'). scavenging activity.
The composition of four phlorotannins in E. cava IC50
was determined by HPLC analysis (Table 1). Among Phlorotannins IC50 (µM)
(µg/mL)
the four phlorotannins highest amount was New New Phlorotannin 1 12.25 ± 12.58 ±
Phlorotannin 1 [Peak 36 (974 B)] (24.47%) and the lowest [Peak 36 (974 B)] 0.54b 0.55a
amount was New Phlorotannin 2[Peak 37 (974 A)] (8.88%). New Phlorotannin 2 12.92 ± 13.26 ±
respectively. The amount order of phlorotannins in E. [Peak 37 (974 A)] 0.36bc 0.37a
cava was 974B, dieckol, phlorofucofuroeckol-A and Dieckol
10.57 ± 14.24 ±
974A respectively. Shibata et al [33] also determined 0.30a 0.41a
the phlorotannins composition in E. cava where 11.15 ± 18.51 ±
Phlorofucofuroeckol-A
dieckol, phlorofucofuroeckol-A and unknown 0.18a 0.31b
28.14 ± 127.85 ±
compounds were 22.2%, 6.6% and 37% respectively, BHT
0.32d 1.46d
which were similar to our results. 13.87 ± 78.74 ±
L-Ascorbic acid
0.32c 1.79c
Table.1 Phlorotannins composition in brown seaweed E. *Results are mean ± SE. Letters of a, b, c, and d within the same
cava by RP-HPLC. column indicate significant differences by Duncan’s multiple test at
Phlorotannins Amount of p <0.05.
phlorotannins (%)
New Phlorotannin 1 [Peak 36 (974 B)] 24.47 CONCLUSION
New Phlorotannin 2[Peak 37 (974 A)] 8.84 Two new and novel phlorotannins compounds
Dieckol 19.56 matching the molecular weight and formula to 974
Phlorofucofuroeckol-A 14.72
and C48H30O23 were first time isolated from brown
Unknown compounds 32.39
seaweed E. cava in very simple and easy way and
*Unknown compounds were also polyphenol.
*HPLC conditions were described in Materials and methods section. their antioxidant activity was also determined. They
*All the analytical data in the table are presented as the mean of six exhibit stronger antioxidant activity compared with
determinations. already known phlorotannins dieckol and
B. DPPH Free Radical Scavenging Activity. phorofucofuroeckol-A, and are more potent than
commercial antioxidant BHT and L-Ascorbic acid.
In this study DPPH radical scavenging assay were
Therefore, the four phlorotannins isolated in this
chosen as one of methods to evaluate in vitro
study can be used as natural antioxidant in functional
antioxidant activities of the isolated phlorotannins.
food industry. In addition, our current method offers
DPPH is a free radical compound that has been
an easy and high-throughput isolation technique for
widely used to evaluate the free radical scavenging
phlorotannins from other similar natural resources.
activity of natural antioxidant. The degree of
reduction in absorbance is indicative of the radical ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
scavenging power of the extract and compound. The This work was supported by the National Research
DPPH radical scavenging activities of isolated Foundation of Korea Grant funded by the Korean
phlorotannins compounds were determined and Government (MEST) (NRF-M1A5A1-2013-044447).
compared with L–Ascorbic acid and BHT. The
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 E07
Estimation & Possible Reduction Techniques of CO2 Emission
from the Residential Building Construction of Bangladesh
Sushanta Roy, Md. Shahrior Alam, Syed Ishtiaq Ahmad*
Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
e-mail: roy.sushanta01@gmail.com, shahrioralam@yahoo.com, siahmad@ce.buet.ac.bd*
Abstract
The effect of CO2 is enormous in unpredictable climate changes as it absorbs heat from the atmosphere and increases the
temperature of the earth. The impact of global warming due to climate change is adverse for a river surrounded country like
Bangladesh. A lot of research has been conducted so far to identify the reasons of excess CO 2 emission in the industrial
arena throughout the world. The basic intent of this paper is to estimate the CO2 emission from the construction process of
two typical 06 storey residential building projects of Bangladesh. It has been found that, CO 2 emissions from these
buildings are 7139 and 8920 Ton respectively based on the construction materials used. This research also focuses on the
comparison of CO2 emission from different construction materials of same quantity and comes out with a conclusion that
use of bricks produces 3 times more emission than stones. This necessitates the using of alternate materials to achieve
environment friendly green building with lesser emission of greenhouse gas like CO 2.

INTRODUCTION used in Building-2 is of brick chips. Table 2 shows a

Concrete is the main ingredient of ever growing
construction industry of Bangladesh. The life cycle
assessment of concrete constituents like cement,
brick chips, stone chips, sand etc. shows that the
production or use of these materials involve emission
of CO2. Moreover production and use of essential
building materials like deformed rebar and some
decorative elements like tiles, glasses; false ceiling
elements etc. also require energy and result in
emission of greenhouse gasses [1].
Keeping the above as background, the present
scope of this paper is to estimate CO2 emission and
energy requirement for each type of building
materials. Furthermore, estimation of CO2 in
maintenance and operation phase is also required to
be added to the estimation of total energy
requirement and emission.
With these data in hand one can easily detect the
construction ingredient that requires more energy and
causes more emission. The prime objective is to
suggest feasible alternative so that overall
construction industry becomes sustainable, energy
efficient and environment friendly.
RESEARCH METHODS
In this research, detail construction data are
collected and analyzed from two different residential
building projects situated in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
The life cycle analysis (LCA) of building materials
show that the energy requirement and CO2 emission
happens mainly by two ways: active & passive.
Table 1 shows the summary of LCA of building
materials with the reasons of CO2 emission & energy
consumption from the preparation, transportation to
the site and uses of these materials.
The buildings under research are approximately
5,400 sft in plan and each of them is six storeys high.
Concrete used in Building-1 is of stone chips and that
brief summary of both the project with actual
materials required for construction. Standard values
[2, 3] for computing CO2 emission and energy
consumption for building materials is contained in
Table 2. Using these standard values and the actual
quantity of materials used, a quick estimation is
prepared for the energy requirement and emission of
harmful greenhouse gases which is contained in
Table 2 listed below.
OUTCOMES AND DISCUSSION
The last four column of Table 2 represents the
research outcomes. The CO2 emission for building 1
and building 2 is 7139 Ton and 8920 Ton which is
1.32 and 1.65 Tons/sft respectively. The energy
consumption for building 1 and building 2 is 34,407
GJ and 42,993 GJ which is 6.37 and 7.96 GJ/sft
respectively.
Using these data computation of CO2 emission
and energy consumption can be done based on the
total area of the buildings to be constructed
depending on the materials used.
It is apparent from the outcomes that both CO2
emission and energy consumption is lesser for
building 1 than those for building 2. Approximately
30% of the emission is due to the operation and
maintenance of the project when natural gas and
electricity were mostly used.
Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 shows the detail contribution of
construction materials in CO2 emission for building
1 and building 2 respectively.
For building 1, in terms of building materials are
used, the most CO2 emission and energy
consumption is due to the use of steel rebar (36%)
whereas for building 2, the significant emission is
due to the use of bricks (39%).
Emission of CO2 due to the use of brick chips in
place of stone chips for concrete production is found
3 times higher.

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Table 1. Reasons of CO2 Emission & Energy Consumption
Sl. Description of Construction Items Sources of CO2 Emission & Energy Consumption
No.
Wood Burning Electricity Plant Fuel Burning
Cutting of Wood/ for Machine Operation for
Gas/Coal Operation Transportation
1 Cement
i) Clinker Import √
ii) Gypsum Import √
iii) Mixing of Ingredients √
iv) Packing & Processing for Sale √
v) Transportation of Cement bags √
2 Brick
i) Cutting, Carrying & Mixing of Earth √ √
ii) Molding Works √
iii) Burning Sources:
Wood √ √
Gas √
Coal √
iv) Kiln Operation & Maintenance √
v) Brick Transportation to Construction √
Site
3 Stone
i) Collection of Boulder/Stone Sources √
ii) Crushing of Boulder √
iii) Transportation to Construction Site √
4 Sand
i) Collection of Sand from River Side √
ii) Transportation to Construction Site √
5 Rebar
i) Collection of Billets/ Raw Materials √
ii) Melting with proper Chemical √ √
Composition
iii) Molding of Rebar √
iv) Transportation to Construction Site √
6 Glass
i) Collection of Silica √
ii) Melting and Molding of Glasses √ √ √
iii) Transportation to Construction Site √

Fig. 1. Role of construction materials in CO2 emission Fig. 2. Role of construction materials in CO2 emission

~ 51 ~
Table 2. CO2 Emission & Energy Consumption for 02 Residential Buildings at Dhaka, Bangladesh
Sl. Item Description Collected Data Standard Value per Unit CO2 Emission Energy Consumption
No. [2,3] (Ton) (GJ)
Building Building CO2 Energy Building Building Building Building
1 2 Emission Consumption 1 2 1 2
(Ton) (GJ)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (3) x (5) (4) x (5) (3) x (6) (4) x (6)
1 Construction Materials
i) Cement (bags) 12440 11335 0.0194 0.0935 241.34 219.90 1,163.14 1,059.82
ii) Brick (nos.) 25530 177030 0.00054[4] 0.00575 495.28 3,434.38 2,387.06 16,552.31
iii) Stone (cft) 57258 0.00356 0.00483 1,110.81 - 5,353.62 -
iv) Sand (cft) 28580 26779 0.00138 0.02346 554.45 519.51 2,672.23 2,503.84
v) Rebar (kg) 131586 132079 0.0000624 1.365 2,552.77 2,562.33 12,303.29 12,349.39
vi) Glass (kg) 3500 3500 0.0013 0.0184 67.90 67.90 327.25 327.25
2 Operation & Maintenance
i) Natural Gas (days) 1100 1100 0.1336 0.01152 21.34 21.34 102.85 102.85
ii) Electricity (kWH) 108000 108000 0.000619 0.01128 2,095.20 2,095.20 10,098.00 10,098.00
Total = 7,139.08 8,920.57 34,407.44 42,993.45

Since bricks are the major producer of CO2 in its

life cycle, it is a concern for the construction industry
to find alternative of using bricks.
For concrete production, stones can be used as
they are more environment friendly, though their
prices are higher than bricks. In the overall scenario
considering the effect of brick in environment, use of
stone would be feasible. For external façade and
internal partition wall, use of hollow blocks would be
the suitable alternative.
CONCLUSION
For a developing country like Bangladesh
construction of buildings, bridges and other
infrastructures are common. The construction should
go in such a way that it eliminates the items of
materials i.e. bricks which cause more CO2 emission
and requires more energy during its production. It is
the call of the time to go with green technology
which in turn will be sustainable, feasible and safer
for the earth we live in.

REFERENCES
[1] Brown, H. “Energy Analysis of 108 Industrial
Processes", the Fairmont Press, Lilburn, GA, USA,
1996.
[2] Heijungs, R. et al., "Environmental Life Cycle
Assessment of Products, Guide-October 1992",
Centre of Environmental Science, Leiden,
Netherlands, 1992
[3] Boustead, I., Hancock, G.F., “Handbook of Industrial
Energy Analysis”, Ellis Horwood Publishers,
Chichester, UK, 1979
[4] σorsker, H., 1λλ4. ‘‘Energy saving brick kilns’’,
Swiss Development Cooperation, Bangladesh.

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 E08
Major Role of Biological Processes on the Dissolution of
Calcium carbonate under Ocean Acidification
MN Islam*, BE Casareto, and Y Suzuki
Graduate School of Science and Technology, Biogeochemistry Laboratory, Shizuoka University, Japan
*e-mail: mn_islamzoolru@yahoo.com

Abstract
To test the effects of biological processes on the dissolution of calcium carbonate under ocean acidification, we carried out
incubation experiments using coral rubble at Sesoko Island, Okinawa, Japan. Short incubations (24h under natural
illumination) and long incubations (4 days under dark condition) were carried out using white coral skeleton (no attachment
of living organism), natural rubble (with associated epilithic and endolithic communities) and natural rubble with addition
of organic matter (glucose and coral mucus) under elevated pCO2. During dark incubation experiment when photosynthesis
is inhibited, the respiration of coral rubble associated communities contributed around 80% of carbonate dissolution.
Conversely, very small amount of dissolution was observed from the control. In the short incubation experiment, addition
of bioavailable organic matter further increased carbonate dissolution by enhancing bacterial activity under ambient and
high pCO2 condition. These suggest that biological processes play a significant role in determining calcification and
dissolution.

INTRODUCTION matters to seawater. How will the prevailing

The acidification of the oceans is the ongoing biological processes and the organic matters in such
decrease in pH of the oceans, caused by the uptake of ecosystems affect carbonate dissolution? In the
anthropogenic CO2 from the atmosphere [1]. Since present study we investigate the importance of
the beginning of the industrial revolution, about biological processes (especially respiration) to the
30–40% of the carbon dioxide approximately 79 dissolution of calcium carbonate by examining the
million tons per day released in the atmosphere by response of coral rubble and its associated microbial
human activities has been absorbed by the oceans communities with addition of organic matter under
[2-4]. The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in elevated pCO2.
the atmosphere is 396 ppm [5] and increased 2.1 ppm MATERIALS AND METHOD
per year during past decade (2003-2012). However,
increase in atmospheric CO2 has decreased the A. Study area and collection of samples
world’s ocean pH about 0.001 to 0.002 pH units per The study area is located in a shallow fringing
year over the past several decades [6]. coral reef at Sesoko Island, Okinawa, Japan between
Ocean acidification induces fundamental changes 26°38′ σ and 127°51′ E (Fig. 1). Coral rubble
in seawater chemistry that could have dramatic effect samples were collected in the lagoon at about 1~2 m
on biological ecosystems as well as marine life [7, 8]. depth, and coral mucus was collected from Acropora
However, many studies have shown that a more acidic digitifera species using air exposure method [18].
environment has a devastating impact on some Seawater was collected by using Nalgene bottle and
calcifying organisms, such as corals [9, 10], oysters filtered by 0.2 m isopore membrane cartridge filter
[11], sea urchins [12], foraminiferans [13] and also before incubation.
photosynthetic plankton coccolithophorids [14-16]
that have shells or plates of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) and leads to dissolution of CaCO3
sediments in reef flats [15].
The acidification of the oceans could affect the
dissolution of carbonate skeleton of calcifying
organisms as well as coral rubble [17]. Dissolution of
carbonate based on the solubility (Ω) of calcite or
aragonite and the rate of dissolution is influenced by
the physico-chemical processes in the systems.
However, biological processes in the systems affect
the dissolution rate as well. Our understanding about
how the biological processes will contribute to the
dissolution rate of carbonate in the future acidic
oceans is not well developed. Particularly, coral reefs Fig. 1. Map showing the study area and the location of
have so much diversity, large variation of CO2 sample collection (○) at Sesoko Island, τkinawa, Japan
concentrations and also corals release lots of organic (Source: using Google map)

~ 53 ~
B. Preparation of incubation experiment mmol m-2d-1 in different level of pCO2 respectively.
Incubation experiments were carried out in natural In case of white coral skeleton (control) which has
illumination (24h short) and dark (4 day’s long) no any associated communities followed the effects
under different level of pCO2 (Ambient, 520, 720 and of increase CO2 (r=+0.95; p=0.04) and consequent
1120 ppm) conditions using natural rubble (NR: with dissolution of calcium carbonate due to low pH
associated epilithic and endolithic communities); (chemical effect). We observed very small amount
natural rubble with addition of different level of (0.00~0.03±0.5 mmol m-2d-1) of dissolution from the
glucose (NR+G) and natural rubble with coral mucus control (WCSk). Conversely, natural rubble did not
(NR+M) as source of organic matter to assess its role follow the effects of increasing pCO2 (r=+0.83;
on carbonate dissolution. Two small branches of p>0.05) and the resultant dissolution due to
coral rubble were placed into 1L Nalgene bottles respiration of rubble associated communities.
which were filled with filtered seawater. As control, Therefore, if compared white skeleton to natural
white coral skeleton (WCSk) was incubated in the rubble, it is possible to assess that 80% of dissolution
same manner. Different levels of pCO2 in the was due to the contribution of biological processes
incubation bottles were adjusted by injecting CO2 (Table 1).
saturated seawater into the bottles at different
volumes until pH values equivalent to the desired
pCO2 levels were obtained. CO2 saturated seawater
was prepared by bubbling pure CO2 gas into natural
seawater until pH was stable. Glucose stock solution
was prepared as 1.8 g l-1 and 1ml of this solution
were added to the incubation bottles (1L) to make
final concentration of 10µM. In case of coral mucus,
10% mucus solution was added to the incubation
bottles. Temperature and light intensity were
Fig. 2. Photograph of natural coral rubble (left) and a
monitored during the experiments using in situ
transverse section of it (right) showing the endolithic (green
sensors (MDS-MkV/T and MDS-MkV/L, Alec band) and epilithic algae [17]
electronics).
C. Measurement and analysis
Measurement of short incubation (natural
illumination) experiment was done 24 times per day
(1h interval) and 4 times per day (6h interval) for
long incubation experiment under dark condition. pH
and DO were measured using a pH meter ORION 4
STAR calibrated with NIST (NBS) scaled buffer
solutions (Mettler pH 9.228 and 6.880 buffers at
20°C). Alkalinity (AT) was measured by the total
alkalinity titrator (KIMOTO ATT-05).
Reproducibility of the AT measurement was ± 2 µmol
kg-1 (1 ; n = 10). Heterotrophic bacterial abundance Fig. 3. Photographs of epilithic microbial communities (a)
was assessed by counting bacteria cells (stained with coccoid green algae; (b) green algae; (c) red calcareous
DAPI) under an epifluorescence microscope (Nikon; algae; (d) algal colony; (e, f) diatoms; (g) nematode; (h, i)
ECLIPSE/E600), using a UV-filter. Carbonate foraminifers; (j) cyanobacteria [17].
dissolution rates were analyzed using the alkalinity
anomaly technique [19] and saturation state of
aragonite (Ωarg) were calculated with the program
CO2SYS [20].
RESULTS
A. Introducing third sector organizations
Natural rubble (NR) are colonized by epilithic and
endolithic algal communities and by other
heterotrophic organisms as bacteria, foraminifera,
nematodes, copepods, etc (Fig. 2, 3, 4).
During 4 day’s long incubation experiment under
dark condition; the bacterial abundance, net
respiration and dissolution rates varied from 1.82 to
2.39×106 cells ml–1, 56~95 ppm CO2 and 0.07~0.08 Fig. 4. Heterotrophic bacterial communities in coral rubble

~ 54 ~
Table 1. Summary result of 4 day’s long incubation dissolution rates gradually decreased with
experiment under dark condition decreasing level of CO2 concentration. In addition
Bac. Net Res. Dis. Rate Sat. of organic matter, this effect was more noticeable.
Abundance [∆Cτ2 ppm] [mmol m-2d-1] State There were strong negative correlation between
[Cells×103 ml-1] [Ωarg] carbonate dissolution rate and saturation state
WCSk (r=–0.99; p=0.0002)(Fig. 5).
Ambient 1.08 ± 0.014 03 ± 0.0 0.00 ± 0.0 1.53
520 ppm 1.17 ± 0.011 07 ± 0.0 0.01 ± 0.4 1.28
720 ppm 1.25 ± 0.015 12 ± 1.0 0.02 ± 0.4 1.06
1120 ppm 1.37 ± 0.010 16 ± 1.0 0.03 ± 0.5 0.88
NR
Ambient 1816 ± 0.001 56 ± 1.5 0.07 ± 0.2 1.82
520 ppm 2092 ± 0.002 80 ± 2.0 0.07 ± 0.1 1.53
720 ppm 2185 ± 0.001 84 ± 1.0 0.08 ± 0.1 1.34
1120 ppm 2391 ± 0.001 95 ± 1.0 0.08 ± 0.1 1.12
WCSk: White coral skeleton; NR: Natural rubbles with associated
epilithic and endolithic communities; Bac. Abundance: Bacterial
abundance; Net Res.: Net respiration [ΔCτ2 = CO2 final – CO2
initial]; Dis. Rate: Dissolution rate; Sat. State: Saturation state; Fig. 5. Relationship between aragonite saturation state
Mean ± SD (Ωarg) and carbonate dissolution rates
B. Addition of bioavailable organic matter
DISCUSSION
Bioavailable organic matter (glucose and coral
mucus), was added to the incubation bottles to Dissolution of calcium carbonate of calcifying
enhance bacterial growth and their physiological organisms and their skeletons occurs due to reduction
activities accelerates carbonate dissolution (Table 2). in CO32– saturation state by ocean acidification
During 24h natural illumination experiment, the [21-23]. It has been shown that carbonate dissolution
bacterial abundance (t-test; p=0.01) and net increases at 800~1000 ppm levels of pCO2 [24]. In
respiration (t-test; p=0.0001) increased significantly the dark experiment where photosynthesis was
with addition of bioavailable organic matter and also inhibited, dissolution of calcium carbonate increased
with increasing pCO2 levels (p<0.05). Consistent with increasing pCO2 levels in both of WCSk and
with increase in respiration, dissolution rates also NR. In case of NR, the effect was more noticeable
increased (r=+0.99; t-test; p=0.0001). In the organic due to the contribution (respiration) of associated
matter addition incubation bottles, bacterial communities. Therefore, experimental CO2
abundance and dissolution rates increased 5~6 times conditions did not have much contribution to
more than the control (NR) (Table 2). carbonate dissolution. But high CO2 enhanced
growth of primary producers and microbial
Table 2. Summary result of 24h natural illumination short communities, and their respiration (CO2) induced
incubation experiment carbonate dissolution. This suggests that CO2
Bac. Net Dis. Sat. produced by microbial respiration intensified
Abundance Res. Rate State carbonate dissolution. Moreover, when the
5 -1 -2 -1 -2 -1
[Cells×10 ml ] [mgCm d ] [mmol m d ] [Ωarg] abundance of bacteria was enhanced with addition of
Ambient condition bioavailable organic matter (glucose and coral
NR 4.5 ± 0.01 316 ± 1.5 0.14 ± 0.0 2.87 mucus), the rate of dissolution was further increased
NR+G 16.4 ± 0.01 527 ± 0.8 0.50 ± 0.0 1.54 (Table 2). Bacterial respiration can induce rapid
NR+M 22.3 ± 0.02 612 ± 1.6 0.60 ± 0.1 1.22 dissolution of carbonate in the sediments [25].
High pCO2 (1120 ppm) condition Therefore, these results suggest that the availability
NR 5.2 ± 0.02 354 ± 0.8 0.18 ± 0.1 2.42 of organic matter accelerates carbonate dissolution
NR+G 18.2 ± 0.00 564 ± 1.0 0.54 ± 0.0 1.32 by increasing bacterial respiration. In the high pCO2
NR+M 25.3 ± 0.01 683 ± 1.0 0.65 ± 0.1 1.13 conditions, photosynthesis of microalgae and
NR: Natural rubbles with associated epilithic and endolithic cyanobacteria is enhanced as well as primary
communities; NR+G: Natural rubbles with addition of organic
production [26, 27]. Photosynthesis plays an
matter (Glucose); NR+M: Natural rubbles with addition of organic
matter (10% Coral mucus); Bac. Abundance: Bacterial abundance; important role in calcification [28, 15]. Therefore,
Net Res.: Net respiration; Dis. Rate: Dissolution rate; Sat. state: calcification and dissolution of calcium carbonate is
Saturation state; Mean ± SD not only governed by chemical parameters but also
biological processes play an important role as
C. Carbonate dissolution vs. saturation state demonstrated in the “Bio-Chemical Dissolution
Calcium carbonate dissolution rates increased Processes (BCDP)” [17] (Fig. 6).
and saturation states (Ωarg) decreased with Carbonate dissolution occurs when saturation state
increasing pCO2 levels. But due to time series, with respect to carbonate minerals is less than one [9,

~ 55 ~
10, 29, 30]. However, in coral reefs, large variation
in CO2 concentration and Ω occur due to their high
diversity and productivity. The value of Ωarg < 1
(undersaturated) promotes dissolution [21, 22].
Conversely, others have shown that in coral reefs
dissolution occurred even when Ωarg remained at
supersaturated state 3~4 for aragonite in coral reefs
[21, 22]. In our experiment, dissolution occurred
when the saturation state (Ωarg) ranged from 2.87 to
0.88 in coral rubble.
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of “Bio-Chemical Dissolution
Processes” (BCDP) showing the relative importance of
biological vs. chemical processes to the dissolution of
calcium carbonate. Dotted arrow indicates minor
contribution for dissolution and solid arrow indicates major
contribution for dissolution [17]
CONCLUSION
Ocean acidification plays fundamental changes in
seawater chemistry and has devastating impacts on
some calcifying organisms. However, in coral rubble
microbial communities seems to play a crucial role as
primary producers and control mild dissolution of
calcium carbonate. Furthermore, bioavailable organic
matter has also important role for promoting
carbonate dissolution by enhancing heterotrophic
bacterial communities and their biological activities.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank to Environmental Leader
Program of Shizuoka University and the support of
Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative
Areas for “Coral reef science for symbiosis and
coexistence of human and ecosystem under
combined stresses” (20121003) of the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
(MEXT), Japan. Special thanks to Global Coral Reef
Conservation Project of Mitsubishi Corporation,
Japan for supporting research work. We are also
thankful to Tropical Biosphere Research Center of
the University of Ryukyus at Sesoko Island, Okinawa,
Japan for providing laboratory facilities.
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 E09
Influence of Enclosed Atriums in the Energy Consumption of
Retail Shopping Environments of Dhaka City: a Comparative
Study between Eastern Plaza and Basundhara City
Kumar Biswajit Debnath
Student of M. Arch Program, Department of Architecture, Bangladesh University of Engineering &
Technology, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh; e-mail: kumar.biswajit@gmail.com
Abstract
Dhaka city is expanding day by day. With the increase in the population, the numbers of retail shopping environments
are increasing. But these shopping environments are developing into high consumption areas of electricity. From previous
studies, it was found that the energy consumption is rising because of the minimum or no use of natural daylight and
ventilation. Most of the shopping environments are using large amount of energy for artificial lighting and ventilation. All
most all the recent developed shopping environments are introvert in design which is resulting in higher consumption of
electricity. Some of the retail shopping environments are designed with atriums. All of them are enclosed. This study
intends to investigate the influence of enclosed atriums in electricity consumptions of a retail shopping environment. For
this study two different retail shopping environments were selected. These are Basundhara city and the Eastern Plaza.
Basundhara City has a large atrium with a stained glass roof on it. On the other hand Eastern Plaza has no atrium. In the
study the electricity consumption is being analyzed thoroughly. The impact of atrium on cooling load and lighting condition
is being analyzed. The energy needed for lighting and artificial ventilation of the two shopping environments is going to be
compared to project the influence of enclosed atriums on the energy consumption. The comparison shows the adverse
influence of the enclosed atriums on the indoor air temperature, which contributes in the augmentation of the cooling load.
Thus influencing the energy consumption.

INTRODUCTION environments to gather some experience. But the

Dhaka city has an approximate 400 year old
history. The retail shopping environments of Dhaka
city evolved along the whole time period. Before
1λ50 ‘Chawk Bazar’, ‘Babu bazar’ etc were the
central place for retail shopping activities in Dhaka
city. Between 1950- 1960, to be specific in 1953
‘σew market’ was established as a retail shopping
market to serve the Dhanmondi area. After this the
government established some market in some parts
of the Dhaka city. Almost all of them were single or
double storied. In 1981- 1990 some multistoried
markets started to emerge. ‘Sharif Market’ is an
example of that period. Between 1990- 2000 more
multistoried retail markets were established with the
amenities like escalator and air conditioning.
‘Eastern Plaza’, ‘Karnaphuli garden city shopping
complex’, ‘Russel Square’ etc are some of the
examples of that period. After 2000 the construction
of retail markets boost up, between 2001-2010 lots of
such kind of markets were established throughout the
Dhaka city. ‘Plaza A R’, ‘Bosundhara City’, ‘Anam
Rangs Plaza’ etc are some of the example of this time.
These retail shopping environments has much more
other functions in them, for example- Cineplex,
Departmental store and Convention center etc. It is
found that in the evolution of retail shopping
environments the bazaar were turned into market
place. In the later period it is turned into plaza or
square or city. So the shopping environments are
more like an urban public space. Due to the lack of
public urban spaces these spaces are becoming more
than just a place of purchasing goods, these are
evolving into center of public activities of urban
population. People are coming to the shopping
design approach in the development of shopping
environments does not acknowledge the priority of
urban public space. The shopping environments are
developing as an introvert high energy consuming
area due to the ignorance in utilizing the daylight and
natural ventilation.
After oil embargo in 1973 energy crisis a global
issue was first brought to light. It grew concern among
professionals about the need to conserve fuel and
save energy and creating energy efficient systems [1].
Energy expended in building is about 30-40 percent
of total energy consumption in many countries.
The utilization of daylight will decrease the use of
energy during daytime in retail shopping
environment. As the shopping facilities are open until
8pm the use of electricity for the lighting would be
necessary for only 3-4 hours. But the use of enclosed
atriums in the context of Dhaka city has dual effect.
It not only increases the daylight use, on the other
hand it can elevate the energy consumption.
In the current stream of design approach of
shopping environments are not sustainable from the
point of view of the efficient usage of natural
resources. These types of designs are increasing the
use of excessive amount of electricity for lighting
and air conditioning. The architects are designing
more shopping environments with enclosed atriums
to ensure daylight. But the main questions arises
from this situation are, - Are the enclosed atriums of
retail shopping environments in Dhaka reinforcing
the energy consumption?
The main objective of this study is to find out the
influence of enclosed atriums in the energy
consumption of a shopping environment.

~ 58 ~
 From this study the positive or negative influence
of the enclosed atriums in the energy consumption of
a shopping environment in the context of Dhaka city
are going to be analyzed. This analysis is going to be
helpful for the future design of retail shopping
environments in Dhaka City.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
In this study, two retail shopping environments are
going to be analyzed. One is Eastern Plaza which has
no atrium. The other is Basundhara City which has a
large enclosed central atrium with a stain glass roof.
First the energy consumption of these two buildings
is going to be analyzed in watt/sft unit. The lighting
level and the air condition are the two main factors
which influence energy consumption mostly.
That’s why, the lighting levels of the shopping areas
in both shopping environments are going to be
analyzed and compared. As well as the air
temperature of the different levels of shopping areas
are going to be analyzed and compared in both of the
shopping environments. The air temperature in the
levels of atrium and the shopping areas are going to
be compared to find out the influence of atriums in
cooling load. Due to time limitation the shopping
areas are monitored in November 2012 only.
RELATIVE TERMINOLOGY
Shopping generally refers to the act of buying
products. Sometimes this is done to obtain necessities
such as food and clothing; sometimes it is done as a
recreational activity. Recreational shopping often
involves window shopping (just looking, not buying)
and browsing and does not always result in a purchase.
Shopping environments specially refers to the places
where shopping is conducted. In this study the shopping
environment refers to the retail shopping environments.
Atria: Historically, atria were uncovered,
internal patios within dwellings in southern Europe
[2]. With the emergence of new technologies for the
production of metal and glass in the 19th century,
glass covered atria were adopted for public building.
Today an atrium is a glazed courtyard on the side of
or within a building and considered as a commercial
amenity in offices, shopping malls and hotels. “…an
atrium (plural atria) is a large open space, often
several stories high and having a glazed roof and/or
large windows”[3].The most acceptable definition of
atrium is as follows- “An atrium is an enclosed
courtyard with a glazed roof structure for maximizing
daylight while controlling the indoor climate.”
CLIMATE OF BANGLADESH
In terms of ecological region or biomes described
by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization) [4] Bangladesh, lying
between 20º34′ σ to 26º33′ σ and 88º 01′E to λ2º
41′E, is in the Indo-Malayan Realm. Bangladesh has
a humid, warm, tropical climate. Its climate is
influenced primarily by monsoon and partly by
pre-monsoon and post-monsoon circulations. The
~ 59 ~
south-west monsoon originates over the Indian
Ocean and carries warm, moist, and unstable air. The
monsoon has its onset during the first week of June
and ends in the first week of October, with some
inter-annual variability in dates. Besides monsoon,
the easterly trade winds are also active, providing
warm and relatively drier circulation. In Bangladesh
there are four prominent seasons, namely, winter
(December to February), Pre-monsoon (March to
May), Monsoon (June to early-October), Post-
monsoon (late-October to November).
MICRO-CLIMATE OF DHAKA CITY
Dhaka experiences a hot, wet and humid tropical
climate. Under the Koppen climate classification,
Dhaka has a tropical savanna climate. The city has a
distinct monsoonal season, with an annual average
temperature of 27.5 °C (81.5 °F) and monthly means
varying between 19.5 °C (67 °F) in January and 32 °C
(90 °F) in April.[5] Approximately 87% of the annual
average rainfall of 2,121 millimeters (83.5 in) occurs
between May and October [5]. Increasing air and
water pollution emanating from traffic congestion
and industrial waste are serious problems affecting
public health and the quality of life in the city [6].
Water bodies and wetlands around Dhaka are
facing destruction as these are being filled up to
construct multi-storied buildings and other real estate
developments. Coupled with pollution, such erosion
of natural habitats threatens to destroy much of the
regional biodiversity [6].
ENERGY CONSUMPTION REVIEW
OF EASTERN PLAZA
Eastern plaza was established in the time period of
1998. It is 10 storied, but the one to sixth floors were
used as retail shopping areas. It starts in at 9 am and
continues up to 8 pm. There is no atrium in the
building. The energy consumption of Eastern plaza is
211.73 Watt/sft in the month of November, 2012.
Fig.1: Eastern plaza (Second floor plan)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Road junctions: General Description
The selected three roads are:
1) Kaji Najrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka)
2) Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi)
3) Gulshan 2 Road (Gulshan-2)

Fig. 2. Temperature in Eastern plaza (In different floors)
The graph in Fig. 2 is showing the air temperature
at different floors of Eastern plaza. The average
temperature is 24.6 ○C when the outside temperature
was 31.2○C. The graph in Fig. 3 is showing the
average lighting level at different floor levels of
Eastern Plaza. The average lighting level is 330 lux
in corridor areas and 820 lux in shops.
Fig. 3. Average Light Level in Eastern plaza
(In different floors)
Fig. 4. Basundhara City (second floor plan)
ENERGY CONSUMPTION REVIEW OF
BASUNDHARA CITY
In the time period of 2001-2011 Basundhara city
was established. It has a shopping area of 8 floors
with recreational facilities on the 8th floor. The
central atrium has a stained glass enclosed roof. The
other 4 atriums are covered with translucent sheets.
~ 60 ~
The central atrium serves as a source of day light in
the central circulation areas adjacent to the atrium,
but does not affect the shops. The energy
consumption of Basundhara City is 445 watt/sft in
the month of November, 2012.
The graph in Fig. 5 is showing the air temperature
level at different floor levels. The average air
temperature is 24.2○C when the outside temperature
was 30.3○C. The graph in Fig. 6 is showing the
average lighting level at different floor levels of
Eastern Plaza. The average lighting level is 309.21
lux in corridor areas and 795 lux in shops. The
daylight level is also increasing with the number of
floors in the central atrium.
Fig. 5. Average Temperature in Basundhara City
(In different floors floor)
Fig. 6. Average Light level in Basundhara City
(In different floors floor)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It is clear that there is a big jump in the energy
consumption from Eastern plaza to Basundhara city.
The energy consumption of Basundhara City is
almost twice than that of in Eastern plaza in Watt/sft
unit. (Fig.7) The comparison between the lighting
level and the air temperature level can reveal the
main factor of this difference.
The graph in Fig. 8 is showing the average
temperature level in shopping areas of the two
studied shopping environments. The difference of air
temperature is only 0.4 ○C. So the air temperature is
almost same in the shopping areas.
The graph in Fig. 9 is showing the light level in
shops and corridor areas of the shopping areas. It is
also showing almost the same level of light. So it is
clear that the air condition and the light level are
almost equal. They are not responsible for the huge
energy consumption jump.

Fig.7: Comparison of Energy Consumption
Fig. 8. Comparison of Average air temperature
Fig. 9. Comparison of Average Light level
Fig. 10. Comparison of Temperature in atrium and
Shopping areas in Basundhara City
Now, according to the graph in Fig. 10, the
temperature in the atrium and in the shopping areas is
showing a difference. The stained glass roof is not
only ensuring daylight but also rising the temperature
in the atrium area. The air temperature in 4th and 5th
floor level is almost near to the shopping areas. But
in the upper and lower floors of the atrium has much
higher air temperature. The lower floors have high
temperature for the occupants. On the other hand the
temperatures in the upper levels are high because of
the heat trapped in the enclosed roof areas. This high
temperature is elevating the cooling load. This can
easily increase the energy consumption.
~ 61 ~
CONCLUSION
From this study it is clear that in spite of its high
urban value enclosed atriums are elevating the
energy consumption in the shopping areas. Although
it is not clear to which extend this atriums are
contributing in the high energy consumption. It
requires detail study and research. The papers
outlined here is only the beginning of this complex
but indispensable approach. It is important to be clear
about the purpose of designing of an atrium building
in a temperate climate like Bangladesh. It is of
course an incorrect assumption that an atrium
building works well at some latitude will always
work well at others. In cold climatic region,
extensive use of glazing for atrium fenestration
increases the possibility of warm and comfortable
indoor climate. But the scenario is totally opposite
for temperate climate. As atria become commercially
popular, this fact frequently dominates other
considerations of energy use and location with their
architectural potential often ill considered.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My special thanks go to Professor Dr. Zebun
Nasreen Ahmed for her care, comments and
inspiration.
REFERENCES
[1] Ahmed, Z. N. (1994), Assessment of residential sites
in Dhaka with respect to solar radiation gain, PhD.
Thesis (unpublished), Demontfort University in
collaboration with University of Sheffield, UK.
[2] Energy in Architecture: The European Passive Solar
Handbook (1994) BT Batsford limited, London, 137
pp.
[3] www.wikipedia.com, [Accessed 10 November 2012].
[4] Lean, G. (1990), Atlas of the Environment, Arrow
books Ltd., London
[5] "Weatherbase: Historical Weather for Dhaka,
Bangladesh". Available at: www. weatherbase. com
[Accessed 15 December 2008]
[6] Mondal, M. Abdul Latif (2006-09-27). "Our Cities:
15th Anniversary Special". The Daily Star.
http://www.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2006/15thann
iv/ourcities/ourcities28.htm [Accessed: 27
September, 2006]
[7] Energy in Architecture: The European Passive Solar
Handbook (1994) BT Batsford limited, London,
137pp.
[8] Lean, G. (1990), Atlas of the Environment, Arrow
books Ltd., London
[9] Ahmed, Z. N. (1994), Assessment of residential sites
in Dhaka with respect to solar radiation gain, PhD.
Thesis (unpublished), Demontfort University in
collaboration with University of Sheffield, UK.
[10] Anniversary Special". The Daily Star. Available
at:http://www.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2006/15tha
nniv/ourcities/ourcities28.htm [Accessed: 27
September, 2006].
 E10
Distribution Choice for Flood Frequency
Analysis In Bangladesh Context
Samiran Das1 and Dipa Awale2
1Assistant
Professor, Environmental Sciences Program, Asian University for Women, Chittagong,
Bangladesh, e-mail: samirandas@gmail.com
2Undergraduate Research Student, Environmental Sciences Program, Asian University for Women,

Chittagong, Bangladesh, e-mail: dipa.awale@auw.edu.bd

Abstract
A suitable probability distribution is required in the establishment of flood frequency curves (flood magnitude- return
period relationship) for a region. In Bangladesh there is no standard distribution for use in flood frequency analysis. Thus a
consistent approach is needed for design purposes at the national level. This study investigates potential utility of
Generalized Logistic (GLO) distribution for use in flood frequency analysis for Bangladesh. The GLO is compared with
four widely used distributions namely Gumbel (EV1), Log Normal 2 (LN2), Log Pearson 3 (LP3) and Generalized Extreme
Value (GEV) distributions. Seven data sets of annual maximum discharge with length of 26-36 years from six major rivers
in Bangladesh were used for statistical analysis. The parameters of each distribution were estimated using L-moments.
Several goodness-fit-tests and L-moment ratio diagram were used for comparison among distributions. All results point that
GLO seems to be the best choice for the use with discharge data considered in this study.

INTRODUCTION In all the previous studies conducted on

Flood frequency analysis concerned with the
estimation of flood magnitude return period (T)
relationship. The relationship based on annual
maximum (AM) flood data can be determined by: 1
–F(QT)=1/T where F() is the cumulative frequency
distribution of flood magnitude Q. This relationship
is needed when analyzing flood risk.
Selection of a suitable distribution for a particular
region is a common problem in flood frequency
analysis. An enormous amount of literature has been
published on the selection of distributions for flood
frequency analysis. For example, a study conducted
in [1] summarizes the worldwide use of probability
distribution functions based on the survey of 55
agencies from 28 countries. EV1, GEV and LN2
were found to be most widely used distributions.
However, very few studies have been done in
Bangladesh context. Among them, the studies carried
out in [2] and [3] are notable. In [2], the authors
compared four distributions, GEV, LP3, EV1
(Gumbel) and LN2, using data sets from 31 gauging
stations at different rivers in Bangladesh. They
advocated the basis for using GEV distribution based
on several goodness-of-fit analyses. They also
suggested that EV1 is not a suitable distribution for
flood frequency analysis as at-site flood data sets are
skewed. However, the Flood Protection Action in
1992 suggested using EV1 for flood frequency
analysis of the major rivers of Bangladesh [4]. In [3],
the authors compared four widely used distributions:
LN2, LN3, EV1 and LP3 for the study of flood
frequency analysis. They used five flood data sets for
the major rivers of Bangladesh. The parameters of
the distributions were estimated by using the method
of moments and the method of maximum likelihood.
Their results suggested that LP3 gives better results
than other distributions.
Bangladesh context, Generalized Logistic (GLO)
distribution was not included in the analysis. GLO is
recommended distribution for the flood data in UK
[5] and recently several flood frequency studies [6]
use GLO in their flood frequency analysis.
The objective of this study is to investigate
potential utility of GLO distribution for use in flood
frequency analysis for Bangladesh. The GLO is
compared using several goodness of fit tests with
four widely used distributions namely EV1, LN2,
LP3, GEV. EV1 and LN2 are considered as they are
the most widely used distributions for the flood
frequency analysis worldwide [7] while GEV and
LP3 are considered as it is suggested by the previous
studies conducted on Bangladesh Rivers.
METHODOLOGY
A. Statistical Model
The statistical approach associated with frequency
analysis is focused on finding an appropriate form to
model the underlying distribution of flood data and
then estimate the parameters of this underlying
distribution. In this study, two 2-parameter
distributions: EV1 and LN2, and three 3-parameter
distributions: LP3, GEV and GLO are considered.
This study uses the method of L-moments to estimate
distribution parameters. L-moments are analogous to
conventional moments defined as linear
combinations of the probability weighted moments
[8]. Theoretical formulation in terms of the basic
population quantities can be obtained from [9].
Procedure for the calculation of these statistics from
the sample data can be obtained from [10]. The
theoretical expressions and the formulae of parameter
estimation using L-moments of the distributions
considered in this study are given in [9].

~ 62 ~
B. Goodness – of – Fit Test
In this study, goodness of fit tests based on
chi-square statistic [11],[12] and empirical
distribution function (EDF) statistics such as
Kolmogorov- Smirnov (KS) [12] and Anderson-
Darling (AD) [14],[15][12] are used for evaluating
the suitability of different probability distributions.
Although the chi-square test is generally less
powerful than EDF tests [15], it is still the most
practical test on the basis of flexibility and ease of
use [16].
Since the tests are performed in cases where the
concerned distribution is specified by fitting to the
sample, appropriate percentage (critical) points
should then be used. The critical values for
chi-square tests are documented in [16]. The critical
points of SK and AD for EV1 and LN2 distributions
are given in [17]. The critical points of SK for the
GEV distribution are given in [13] while for GEV
and GLO distributions the critical points of AD are
given in [14]. Critical values of SK for Pearson Type
3 distributions are provided in [18]. Critical values of
AD for Pearson Type 3 are given in [17] and
discussed, among others, in [19].
C. L – Moment ratio diagram
The suitability of different probability distributions
can be also explored with the help of L-moment ratio
diagrams [9]. The L-moment ratio diagram is a
graph between L-kurtosis and L-skewness. Usually a
2-parameter distribution with a location and a scale
parameter plots as a single point on such a diagram
while a 3-parameter distribution with location, scale
and shape plots as a line or a curve on the diagram.
Generally the distribution selection process involves
plotting the sample L-moment ratios as a scatter plot
and comparing them with theoretical L-moment ratio
points or curves of candidate distributions [9].
D. Study area and datasets
The annual maximum discharges of six major
rivers (Brahmaputra, Padhma, Meghna, Jamuna,
Ganga and Surma) from seven stations collected
from Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB)
are used for the statistical analysis described above.
The discharge data record covers from 1971 to 2006
with length of 36 to 26 years. After careful
examination of the data series, some data points are
removed as they are found to be outliers.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The test results were calculated using the methods
described in methodology section of the paper. Table
1 summarizes the number of times out of 7 datasets
that distributions are rejected by these three tests at
the 10% significance level.
Out of the 7 datasets, the KS test results did not
reject any distributions. The chi-square method
rejected GLO and EV1 least frequently out of the
four distributions, with a total of 3 rejections (37%).
The AD test also did not reject GLO and EV1 at all.
The AD test rejected LP3, GEV and LN2 one time
~ 63 ~
each. It is to be mentioned that AD test is the most
powerful and preferred test available at present [15],
[19], [21]. Compared to KS test, it gives more weight
to the tails, where outliers are located. The goodness
of fit test results show that in comparison to LN2, GEV
and LP3, the GLO and EV1 distribution are more
acceptable fit for data used in this study. It can be
mentioned that in general, three or more parameter
distributions are able to model the input data more
accurately than a distribution with two parameters [7].
However two parameter distributions have lower
standard error in estimating design flood values, but
larger bias than three parameter distributions,
especially in small sample sizes [1]. The three
parameter distributions often have negligible bias.
Table 1. Number of rejections at the 10% significance level
for the three goodness of fit tests.
GLO GEV LP3 EV1 LN2
Korlmorgorov-Smirnov 0 0 0 0 0
Andearson-Darling 0 1 1 0 1
Chi-square 3 5 4 3 4
Plots of dimensionless L moment ratios are shown
in Fig. 1 which compares the observed and the
theoretical relations between L-skewness and L-
kurtosis for the annual maximum flood discharges at
7 sites. The average data point is quite far from the
population L-moments of EV1 and LN2 distribution
indicating that EV1 and LN2 are not capable of
describing the data very well. The average data point
lies between GLO and GEV and the average point is
very close to GLO. This shows that the GLO
distribution has the best fit when analyzing L-
moment ratio diagrams for the datasets considered in
this study.
Fig. 1. L-moment ratio diagram for
7 annual maximum discharge datasets
The results from goodness of fit tests and the
L-moment ratio diagram reveal that the annual
maximum Bangladesh flood data can be well
described by the GLO distribution. The reason for its
best fit may be because GLO is capable of
reproducing almost the same degree of skewness
typically present in observed flood data and is more
robust to the presence of extreme outliers in the
upper tail of the distribution [20]. It is to be noted
that the L-skewness values of seven data sets used in
this study varied from -0.24 to 0.236, which is typical
for many observed flood datasets [1,2,5].
The major limitation of the study is that the study
only used seven stations with data record of
maximum 36 years. For better results more stations
with longer records should be used. This is the
recommendation of the study for future work.
CONCLUSION
This study was conducted to find potential utility
of GLO probability distribution function for the use
in flood frequency analysis in Bangladesh context.
Annual maximum discharge data from 7 gauging
stations at major rivers of Bangladesh were used for
statistical analysis. The GLO distribution was
compared with the four distributions: EV1, LN2, LP3
and GEV. The method of L-moments was used to
estimate the parameters of the distributions. Goodness
of fit tests such as chi-square, Kolmogorov-Smirnov,
Anderson-Darling and graphical test such as
L-moment ratio diagram were used to determine
which distribution was an acceptable fit to the
datasets. The overall results show that the GLO
distribution provides the best fit according to the tests
performed in this study. Gumbel (EV1) also provides
similar results to GLO when test results are based on
only goodness of fit tests.
The overall results from the study reveal that there
is a need for more studies with more datasets from
other rivers to perform the validity of the GLO
distribution use in Bangladesh conditions. We would
like to use the results of this study and open the
discussion on the choice of the most appropriate
distribution for the development of frequency curves
for use in Bangladesh.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the
financial support made available by the Asian
University for Women.
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~ 64 ~
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Earth Science, 17:741-762.
[20] NZ Abidin, MB Adam and H Midi. 2012. The
Goodness-of-fit Test for Gumbel Distributionμ A
Comparative Study. Matematika. 28(1):35-58.
[21] DJ Best, JJC Rayner and O Thas. 2007. Comparison
of Five tests of fit for the extreme value distribution.
J. of Statistical Theory and Practice, 1(1): 89 - 97
[22] MI Ahmad. 1989. Application of Statistics in Flood
Frequency Analysis. PhD thesis, Department of
Mathematical Science, University of St.
Andrews.193p.
 E11
Time Series Analysis and Forecasting of Temperatures
in the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh
AH Nury1*, M Koch2 and MJB Alam3
1Departmentof Civil Engineering, Leading University, Sylhet-3100, Bangladesh
2Department
of Geohydraulics and Engineering Hydrology, Kassel University, Kassel, Germany
3Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Shahjalal University, Sylhet, Bangladesh
*e-mail: hasancee@yahoo.com

Abstract
Time series analysis and forecasting has become a major tool in numerous applications in meteorology and other
environmental areas to understand phenomena, like rainfall, humidity, temperature, draught etc. Here ARIMA (Auto
Regressive Integrated Moving Average) models have been set-up and used to carry out short-term predictions of monthly
maximum and minimum temperatures in the Sylhet and Moulvibazar districts in north-east Bangladesh. Using the classical
Box-Jenkins methodology, stationary, seasonal ARIMA models for the temperatures recorded at two stations in Sylhet
division between 1977 and 2011 are set up. Verification of the models has been done for the 2010-2012 time period.
Based on the inspection of the ACF, PACF autocorrelation plots, the most appropriate orders of the ARIMA models are
determined and evaluated using the AIC-criterion. For the maximum and minimum temperatures at Sylhet station
ARIMA (1,1,1) (1,1,1)12 and ARIMA (1,1,1) (0,1,1)12, respectively, are obtained, whereas the respective models for the
Moulvibazar station are ARIMA (1,1,0) (1,1,1)12 and ARIMA (0,1,1) (1,1,1)12 . Using these ARIMA-models
one-month-ahead forecasts of the temperatures at the two stations for years 2010 and 2011 are carried out.

INTRODUCTION models, and c) to carry out short-term prediction for

Climate change is for many countries in the world
one of the biggest environmental threats to food
production, water availability, forest biodiversity and
livelihoods [1]. Moreover, it is widely believed that
developing countries in tropical regions of the world,
e.g. Bangladesh, will be impacted more severely than
developed ones [2, 3].
Understanding the nature and scale of possible
climate changes in north-eastern Bangladesh is of
importance to the policy makers and people who are
working there as it gives them a chance to be
prepared for better mitigation and adaptation
measures. For that purpose time series analysis of
weather data can be a very valuable tool to
investigate its variability pattern and, maybe, even to
predict short- and long-term changes in the time
series. Although any individual extreme climate
event cannot be attributed unequivocally to climate
change, the probability of high temperature events
will increase if there is an underlying trend of rising
mean temperature. In fact, according to data from the
reinsurance industry, the number of climate-related
disasters has increased significantly the 1λ70’s [4].
Time series analysis and forecasting has become a
major tool in numerous hydro-meteorological
applications to study trends and variations in
variables like rainfall, humidity, temperature,
streamflow and many other environmental parameters
[2-5]. A number of classical time series studies have
been conducted in recent years to assess the nature of
the climate change [1-3], as it has occurred over the
world as well as in Bangladesh [4] in the recent past
and as it will more in likely do so in the future.
The objectives of the present study are, a) to build
ARIMA models for the two temperature stations in
the Sylhet division, b) to verify the selected ARIMA
the temperatures at these stations.
SITE AND METHODS
A. Climate data
Monthly temperature data covering the Sylhet and
the neighboring Maulvibazar district has been
collected from the Bangladesh Meteorological
Department (BMD) which is the principal
organization gathering meteorological data in
Bangladesh. Temperature station of Sylhet district is
situated in Sylhet at latitude 24053'40", longitude
91052'61"and Moulvibazar district is situated in
Sreemongal upazila at latitude 24018'31", longitude
91043'49". The temperature data covers a period of
34 years, from 1977 to 2011. The study area is shown
in the Fig. 1.
Fig. 2. Study area
B. ARIMA model
The acronym ARIMA stands for ‘autoregressive
integrated moving average’ and they are sometimes
also called Box-Jenkins models [6]. An
autoregressive model of order p is conventionally
classified as AR (p) and a moving average model
with q terms is known as MA (q). A combined model
that contains p AR-terms and q MA-terms is called

~ 65 ~
an ARMA (p, q) model [6]. To make a generally examination of the partial autocorrelation plot and
non-stationary time-series stationary time-shifted (by the partial autocorrelation plot of the time series,
d-lags, whereby in most cases d=1) differences are respectively. ACF- and PACF- autocorrelation plots
computed before further processing. Such a model of the monthly maximum temperatures of Sylhet
is then classified as ARIMA (p, d, q), where the after differencing are shown in Fig. 2 and give an
symbol “I” signifies “integrated”. indication of the significant orders p and q to be used
Assuming that the original data Xt has been made in model-setup.
stationary by taking d nonseasonal differences Once the most appropriate order of the ARMA- or
(whereby in most cases d=1), an ARMA (p, q) model ARIMA model is specified, the AR- and
for this new, stationary time series Yt is as follows: MA-coefficients in Eq. (1) are estimated in step ii) of
the Box-Jenkins process by linear least-squares. The
goodness of the best models is evaluated using the
AIC (Akaike Information Criterion).
Table 1 lists the ARIMA models obtained for the
maximum and minimum temperatures time series at
Sylhet and Sreemongal stations, together with their
corresponding AIC –values.
where, c = constant term, = autoregressive
parameter, = moving average parameter, = the Table 1. ARIMA models for the monthly temperatures
error term at time t.
Variable Station Name ARIMA Model AIC
For climate data which usually follows a seasonal, Max. 12
i.e. an annual cycle, it is more appropriate to use a Sylhet (1, 1, 1) (1, 1,1) 1211.30
Temp.
seasonal ARIMA (p, d, q) (P, D, Q)S model, whereby Min.
Sylhet (1, 1, 1) (0, 1,1)12 1810.38
P is the order of the seasonal AR-model; D is the Temp.
order of the seasonal differencing (for monthly data, Max.
Moulvibazar (1, 1, 0) (1, 1,1)12 1836.66
usually, D= 12) and Q is the order of the seasonal Temp.
MA-model and s is the number of periods in the Min.
Moulvibazar (0, 1, 1) (1, 1,1)12 914.27
season (s=12, for an annual cycle) [7]. Temp.
The general form of such a seasonal ARIMA (p, d,
q) (P, D, Q)S model, can be written in backshift
notation as

where = non-seasonal AR- parameter, =

non-seasonal MA- parameter, = seasonal
AR-parameter, = seasonal moving average
parameter, B= backward shift operator.
To identify a perfect ARIMA model for a
particular time series, Box and Jenkins [6] proposed
a methodology that consists of four phases, namely,
i) model identification; ii) estimation of the model
parameters; iii) diagnostic checking for the identified
model appropriateness and iv) application of the final
model, i.e. forecasting. Further details on the various
procedures involved in these four steps are provided
in [6, 8].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As the original monthly temperature time series
analyzed here are non-stationary, and have a
12-month seasonality, they are all differenced
non-seasonally at lag d=1 and differenced seasonally
at lag D=12.
The next step in the Box and Jenkins methodology Fig. 2. ACF (top panel) and PACF (bottom panel) of
[6] consists then in the determination of the orders p monthly maximum temperatures at Sylhet station after
and q in ARMA(p,q) model. This is done by seasonal differencing.

~ 66 ~

Fig. 3. ACF (top panel) and PACF (bottom panel) of
residuals of monthly maximum temperatures at Sylhet
station.
As prescribed by step iii) Box-Jenkins
methodology, the identified ARIMA model must be
diagnostically checked for its appropriateness, by
looking at the ACF and PACF of the model residuals.
These are shown for the monthly maximum
temperatures at Sylhet station in Fig. 3. As the spikes
at the different lags in the ACF and PACF plots in
the figure are within the statistical confidence bands,
the ARIMA (1,1,1) (1,1,1)12 model for this time
series is adequate. Similarly good results have been
obtained for the other time series analyzed.
The final step (iv) and ultimate goal of ARIMA
modeling is then the forecasting of the time series for
one or more future time steps ahead [9], using Eq. 1,
with the coefficients determined in step (ii) and
values of the time series from previous months.
Fig. 4. Observed and ARIMA-predicted monthly
maximum temperatures at Sylhet station.
~ 67 ~
Fig. 4 and 5 show one-month-ahead predictions for
the monthly maximum temperatures for years 2010
and 2011 at Sylhet and Moulvibazar station,
respectively. From the visual inspection of these
graphs one may note that the predicted time series is
very close to the other three time series investigated
which indicates that the ARIMA-model is a valuable
tool for short-term forecasting of the two
meteorological variables max. and min. temperature.
Fig. 5. Observed and ARIMA-predicted monthly maximum
temperatures at Moulvibazar station.
CONCLUSION
The temperature time series fitted by the ARIMA
model for the two selected stations can be used for
estimating missing temperature values and for
forecasting. Thus, the Box-Jenkins methodology can
help decision makers to establish better strategies and
to set up priorities for arming themselves against
upcoming weather changes which may have effects
last, but not to the least, on the water resources in the
Sylhet division.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study is in part supported by JSPS grant for
scientific research to the senior author (#24401040).
REFERENCES
[1] ES Chung, K Park and KS Lee. 2011. The relative
impacts of climate change and urbanization on the
hydrological response of a Korean urban watershed.
Hydrological Processes, 25:544-560.
[2] D Machiwal and MK Jha. 2006. Time Series
Analysis of Hydrologic Data For Water Resources
Planning and Management: A Review. J. Hydrol.
Hydromech., 54(3): 237–257
[3] SA Shamsnia, N Shahidi, A Liaghat, A Sarraf and SF
Vahdat. 2011. Modeling Of Weather Parameters
(Temperature, Rainfall And Humidity) Using
Stochastic Methods. Internat. Conference on
Environment and Industrial Innovation, IPCBEE,
Singapore, 282-285.
[4] SB Cheema, G Rasul, G Ali and DH Kazmi. 2011.
A comparison of minimum temperature trends with
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[5] S Soltani, R Modarres and SS Eslamian. 2007. The
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 rainfall climates of Iran. International Journal of
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[6] GEP Box and GM Jenkins. 1976. Time Series
Analysis: Forecasting and Control. Revised Edn.,
Holden-Day, San Francisco, CA.
[7] BC Monsell. 2002. An Update on the Development
of the X-12-ARIMA Seasonal Adjustment Program.
Proceedings of the 3rd Internat. Symposium on
Frontiers of Time Series Modeling, Tokyo: Institute
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[8] M Koch and H Sun. 1999. Tidal and non-tidal
characteristics of water levels and flow in the
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Anagnostpolous (eds), WIT Press , Southampton, UK,
pp. 357-366.
[9] RJ Hyndman and Y Khandakar. 2008. Automatic
Time Series Forecasting: The forecast Package for R,
J. of Envir. Resources, 27(3): 1-22.

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 E12
Policy Recommendation to Change the Social Structure for the
Environmental Conservation of River Buriganga in Bangladesh
Banani Biswas and Takeshi Hamada
Graduate School of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology.
e-mail: neelgungchil@yahoo.com, bqx11300@nifty.com
Abstract
Bangladesh is a least developed country, where industrial growth has been achieved without attention to environmental
degradation and conservation. From past decades, Bangladesh has been facing the problem of severe environmental
degradation of Buriganga and linked rivers, around the capital city Dhaka because of indiscriminate discharge of industrial
effluents, especially toxic effluents from Hazaribagh tanneries. The adverse impacts of Buriganga pollution are going to
spread upon the overall socio-economic conditions and make the city unsuitable for human habitation and biodiversity.
Now it is emergency for the country to protect and conserve Buriganga through environmental management actions. The
Government of Bangladesh (GOB) has created different organizations and agencies to ensure the process of environmental
management and conservation, but unfortunately the efforts by the government have turned in vain because of social
structural problems. Improved policies to change the social structure for the conservation of Buriganga, are needed to be
considered urgently.

INTRODUCTION creating social problems on the way of the struggles

Environment comprises everything in the nature
around human habitant with combined impacts either
positive or negative way. As a matter of fact, our
very existence depends upon environmental quality.
We exploit the environment as human being in
various activities for living. Such exploitations, over
the centuries, have been irrespective of carrying the
capacity of the nature and as such, have resulted in
serious threat to the environment itself.
The countries belonging to the South Asian region
rank first in the global run toward attaining higher and
sustainable economic growth and Bangladesh has
attained growth in the industrial sector at a rate, fastest
among these countries [1]. In Bangladesh the growth
of industries has been unplanned and without careful
consideration on environmental protection and
conservation. Tanneries at Hazaribagh are such kind
of industries, causing serious water pollution in
Buriganga, the main river flowing beside Dhaka and
make it unsuitable for human habitation and
biodiversity. Ministry of Environment (MoE) reports
that the tanneries collectively dump 22,000 liters of
toxic waste including cancer-causing chromium into
Buriganga every day [2]. As a result the environment
of Dhaka is deteriorating rapidly and becoming an
alarming problem for the country. The policy
development for the improvement of water quality of
Buriganga and the conservation of its watershed
environment are now the nation’s important problem.
But unfortunately, the efforts by the government are
not adequate to face the threat. In fact, ill-conceived
and ill implemented government projects, corruption
and poor governance are very often aggravating the
situation. On the other hand, isolated efforts by
various non-government and volunteer organizations
are also insufficient to meet the crisis. Mindset of the
industrialists, traders and other factor groups in
market system are also very important obstacles
of environment conservation. So it is vital for the
country to change this social structure or solve the
social problems for the protection and conservation
of the natural environment of Buriganga through
environmental management actions.
GOB has created different organizations and
agencies to ensure the process of sustainable
development through conservation and management
of natural environment. There are also some
non-government and volunteer organizations,
working for environmental conservation. Henceforth,
all organizations and agencies entrusted with
environment management responsibilities like
regulation, planning, construction, operation and
maintenance will have to enhance environmental
amenities and ensure the environmental resources
being protected and restored in executing their tasks.
Environmental and economic development
concepts and realities are interrelated and inseparable.
There is an unavoidable conflict between economic
development and environmental protection [3]. A
study conducted by N Islam indicates that for both
economic growth and social justice, Bangladesh has
to give priority to environmental protection [4]. A
Khorshed and M Dora proposed government-
community-private sector partnerships for restoring
the ecological health of the river as well as eliminating
or abating the potential sources of pollution [5].
Our study is conducted to mitigate the social
problem structure for reviving the natural
environment and the water quality of Buriganga and
recommend a policy framework to solve it. The study
is designed to collect information from both primary
and secondary sources. Primary data and information
were collected mainly through survey and direct
interviews with key informants with useful
knowledge about the particular areas that fall under
the scope of the study. On the other hand secondary
information was collected from various concerned

~ 69 ~
government, non-government and volunteer
organizations and a thorough review was hold on
different studies, reports, newspaper articles, books
and websites to make this study potential and
consequential. Literature review is another important
part of this research work.
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
ORGANIZATIONS IN BANGLADESH
For sustainable development, protection and
conservation of natural environment is essential. To
ensure the process of sustainable development, GOB
has created different organizations, departments and
agencies. There are also some non-government and
volunteer organizations, working to meet the
environmental problems. Our study focuses on 4
major organizations of Bangladesh, which are
directly or indirectly responsible for ensuring the
environmental management and preservation of
Buriganga River and its watershed environment. The
organizations are Department of Environment (DOE),
Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority
(DWASA), Bangladesh Water Development Board
(BWDB) and Bangladesh Inland Water Transport
Authority (BIWTA). Our study also emphasizes
about the most renowned civil movement
organization, called BAPA, which is playing a very
significant role to protect and conserve the natural
environment of Bangladesh, specially the
biodiversity of Buriganga.
DOE has started its journey as a department in
1989 under the Ministry of Environment and Forest,
with a mandate to ensure a safe and healthy
environment for the present and future generations,
through the prevention and control of pollution and
through strategic environmental management for
protection of ecosystem. It was established with a
new hope and aspiration. DOE is an authority for
controlling pollution of the water bodies, caused by
different industries [6]. The main objective of DOE
is to solve environmental problems with public
involvement and support through enforcement of the
environmental laws and regulations and their
compliance. DWASA was established in 1963,
entrusted with the responsibility of providing water
supply, sewerage disposal (wastewater), and storm
water drainage services to the urban dwellers of the
fast-growing metropolitan Dhaka [7]. In 1990, Water,
Drainage & Sanitation service of Narayangonj city
also handed over to DWASA [8]. The objective of
DWASA is to improve the life standards of the mega
city Dhaka and Narayanganj by supplying safe and
potable water and improving the sewerage and
drainage system. BWDB started its operation as the
water wing of the erstwhile ‘East Pakistan Water and
Power Development Authority’ in 1λ5λ. It was
created under the Bangladesh Water and Power
Development Boards Order 1972 (P.O. No. 59 of
1972) as a fully autonomous organization [9]. Being
the principal agency of the government for managing
~ 70 ~
water resources of the country, BWDB was inherited
the total responsibility for developing country’s vast
water resources. BIWTA was created in 1958 for
maintaining the river ports, based on the East
Pakistan Inland Water Transport Authority
Ordinance 1958. An advisory committee has
subsequently been constituted to advise the authority
in respect of all matters related to development,
maintenance and operation of inland water transport
and of inland waterways in Bangladesh. BIWTA,
under the Ministry of Shipping, maintains and
supervises 22 river ports [10]. BIWTA performs
statutory functions of development, maintenance and
regulatory nature which include river conservancy,
hydrographic survey, dredging navigational channels,
providing towage, landing and terminal facilities.
From this study, it is observed that most of these
organizations are handicapped with a bunch of
problems and barriers. Political influence, corruption
and bad governance are the main problems
constraining the development and management
activities of these organizations. Fund shortage,
authoritative prolongation, no magistracy power, lack
of public awareness, etc. are the very common barriers
for these government organizations.
There is also a number of non-government and
voluntary organizations and environmental groups,
performing active roles in conserving the natural
environment of Bangladesh. Among them,
Bangladesh Paribesh Andolon (BAPA) is most
well-known civil movement organization. A
community based group, called POROSH, was set up
to concentrate on Dhaka only in 1997. This has
virtually been transformed into BAPA in June 2000
with nationwide coverage and expanded dimension.
Formulation of BAPA was a direct result of the 1st
International Conference of Bangladesh Environment
(ICEAB) held in January 2000. BAPA, acting as a
pressure group against any kind of environment
degradation, is trying to create a broad based
citizen’s movement for protection and betterment of
environment in Bangladesh [11]. BAPA is a
volunteer organization, which runs without financial
support from national or foreign governments.
Subscription of members and philanthropy of
individual citizens and national organizations are the
main source of income for meeting its routine
expenditure. The main responsibility of BAPA is to
motivate and aware the citizen regarding
environmental crisis and to achieve the goal by the
government through social and environment
movement. BAPA has set a wonderful example of
raising awareness, suggesting policies and mobilizing
the people for protection of Bangladesh environment
[12]. BAPA’s dedicated work has earned positive
changes in several areas of country environment. But
still it could not accomplish any positive change in
protecting Buriganga and its watershed environment
though working on it from the beginning of its birth.
The effectiveness of BAPA is being hindered by the
structural problem of the whole systems of
government and the factory owners, which can be
defined as a vicious circle consisting of political
leaders, factory owners and the government. The
main aim of the owners is to make profit without
paying heed to the degradation of the environment of
the Buriganga. They are making collusion with the
political leaders by bribery to manipulate the
government not to impose the environment acts.
BAPA, though trying to put pressure on the
government concerning the Buriganga pollution, its
almost all efforts have turned in vain for this social
structural problem. As BAPA have not enough
materials and power, it cannot break the vicious
circle to keep the movement of implementing the
laws and acts.
POLICY CONSIDERATION TO CHANGE
THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Improvement of environment is not possible
without change in government policies and actions.
From this study, it is revealed that the social
structural or political economic problem is the key
barrier for all environmental activities. So it is vital
for the country to change this structure to face the
environmental challenges. In this situation the
following policies may be considered to diminish the
overall problems of environment management
organizations for the conservation of Buriganga:
A. Introducing third sector organizations
Government may take initiatives of third sector
with social enterprises for maximizing the social and
environmental improvements. These initiatives
generally derive their impetus from voluntary
organizations and operate under a wide variety of
legal structures. BAPA is the most renowned
voluntary organization in Bangladesh and ‘Save the
Buriganga’ has now become the well-known slogan
to the Dhaka dwellers due to the active performance
of BAPA. BAPA’s dedication is to protect and
conserve the natural environment and motivate the
civil society about it. Moreover, most of the
environmental specialists and activists in Bangladesh
are the active members of BAPA. Though there are
also some other non-government and volunteer
organizations, most of them are non-profitable
organizations (NPO) and their activities are not as
broad-based as BAPA. In this situation, as BAPA is
the most active and fully voluntary organization, the
government may make BAPA more effective by
providing proper financial support and initiatives.
Then BAPA will operate as a development partner of
the government based on the legal structure of third
sector. It may be applicable for any other voluntary
organizations like BAPA and the government should
take proper initiatives about it.
~ 71 ~
B. Constituting a special monitoring and
enforcement taskforce (including civil society)
A special taskforce may be established to monitor
and enforce the rules and regulations to save the
Buriganga from pollution and encroachment. The
taskforce will be formed and guided by the
government and the intellectual environmental
activists, who will participate as the representatives
of the civil society. Moreover two thirds of the
members should be from civil society so that the
polluters and encroacher cannot control the whole
taskforce by bribing or using political power. The
taskforce may also have the power to monitor and
report on the development and management activities
of different environment management organizations.
C. Providing financial support
Fund shortage is a very common barrier for any
developing activities. Government should take much
more initiatives for giving financial support to these
environment management organizations timely and
properly. Government may create development and
welfare fund for these organizations. Government
can create fund in many ways, such as by increasing
luxury tax and imposing progressive and inheritance
tax, like developed countries and solve the problem
of fund shortage.
D. Strict enforcement of industrial and
environmental rules and policies
Lack of strict enforcement is the key barrier to
control the pollution. It may be possible to curb
pollution by the policies. The existing rules should be
amended to ensure strict enforcement. Under this
policy, all tanneries have to clean their effluents
before disposal and install environmentally friendly
technologies. Those who are unable to obey the rules
have to close their tanneries and governments have to
support them to switch in other sectors.
E. Creating public awareness
According to the information, collected through
this study [13], it is revealed that lack of public
awareness is a key barrier for environmental
conservation. Most of the tannery owners are
illiterate and they are not care enough about the
environment. They do not feel the necessity to clean
the tannery wastes for saving the environment. Their
only aim is to earn profit. Besides, the low-income
people, who are living besides the Buriganga, are
fully ignorant about the environmental pollution.
They dump their household wastes even human
excreta directly to the river. So creating public
awareness toward environmental conservation and
prevention of activities that vitiate and pollute the
environment may be the important part of the overall
approach to conserve the Buriganga. All the
government, non-government, voluntary and civil
movement organizations should have to work to
make the general citizens aware of the importance of
environment and motivate them for protecting and
conserving it.
F. Developing efficient management system
Efficient management system is very important
part for any organization to achieve their objectives.
The concerned organizations should give much
importance to create efficient and active management
system by arranging training, workshops, research
programs, etc. to their employees.
G. Reviving self-realization and honesty
Poverty is the root cause of all corruption and
dishonesty. The tannery owners make collusion with
the political leaders by bribery to manipulate the
government not to impose the environment acts.
Their target is to earn money easily and quickly
without thinking of environment [13]. But we all
have our own judgment and clarity. We have to
sacrifice our smaller interest for the greater interest
of the country. All should try to cooperate the
concerned organizations to protect and preserve our
natural resources for the well-being of the
environment.
H. Giving achievement award
Achievement should be rewarded for related
organizations, departments, agencies, groups,
individuals, etc. according to their contribution in
environmental activities and this will inspire all to be
more active for saving our environment.
CONCLUSION
Dhaka is experiencing serious environmental
degradation due to the alarming Buriganga pollution
for several decades. There are multiple
environmental and economic factors behind
environmental deterioration of Buriganga but the
social structural problem is the key factor
constraining the environmental management
activities. So all the government, private and
individual development partners, environment
activists and the general citizen have to work
together and cooperate each other to change this
social structure for maintaining the ecological
balance of Buriganga. In this situation, the
government should work for the introduction of third
sector with social enterprises for maximizing social
and environmental improvements. It may be a
mistake to think that the government will by itself do
all that is necessary to conserve Buriganga. The
government need much help from citizens in this
regard. As the main organization representing
citizen’s environment movement, BAPA therefore
has important responsibility. But as BAPA is a
voluntary organization, it has no legal power to put
pressure to the government for solving this social
structural problem. So the government should take
proper initiatives of third sector to make BAPA more
effective and stronger. Finally, it may be concluded
that in order to ensure a safe and healthy
environment for the present and future generation of
Dhaka, and also overcoming the political economic
implications of Bangladesh, we all have to sacrifice
~ 72 ~
our own interest, work together and cooperate each
other. The recommended policies may be a
significant policy framework in this regard.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was supported in part by a grant
from the Yuasa International Foundation.
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[4] N Islam. 2000. Protecting Bangladesh’s
Environment: The Role of the Civil Society. The
Journal of Social Studies, 88: 34-63.
[5] A Khorshed and M Dora. 2003. Ecological health of
rivers: a case for integrating government, community
and private sector towards regional sustainability. A
conference paper, International Sustainability
Conference: Regional Governance for Sustainability.
Perth, Western Australia.
[6] MI Haque. 2008. Water Resources Management in
Banglagesh. Anushilan, Chuadanga & Dhaka. p. 337.
[7] TA Khan. 2012. Dhaka Water Supply Sewerage
Authority: Performance and Challenges. [Online]
Available at: http://www.dwasa.org.bd/admin/news/
Dhaka%20WASA%20Article-for%20BOOK.pdf
[Accessed 21 March 2013].
[8] Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority. 2013
[Online]. Available at: http://www.dwasa.org.bd/
index.php?type_name=visitor&page_name=history&
panel_index=1019 [Accessed 21 March 2013].
[9] Bangladesh Water Development Board. 2013
[Online]. Available at: http://www.bwdb.gov.bd/
index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1
&Itemid=2 [Accessed 22 March 2013].
[10] Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority. 2013
[Online]. Available at: http://www.biwta.gov.bd/
about_us.htm [Accessed 22 March 2013].
[11] Bangladesh Poribesh Andolon (BAPA). 2013
[Online]. http://www.bapa.org.bd/Default.aspx
[Accessed 22 March 2013].
[12] N Islam. TEN YEARS OF BAPA: Some Reflections
on the past and future of Bangladesh Environment
Movement. p. 11.
[13] Personal Interviews with the General Secretary of
BAPA ‘‘Dr. Abdul Matin’’ (3 June 2012, 10μ00 AM)
and Some Officers of DOE, BWDB, DWASA,
BIWTA and DWASA.
 E13
Assessments of Hearing Quality of Traffic Police Personnel
of Dhaka City: A Self Reported Noise Pollution Study
Ahmad Kamruzzaman Majumder*, Nur Alam Mistri
Department of Environmental Science, Stamford University Bangladesh, 44, Satmosjid Road, Dhanmondi,
Dhaka-1209, Bangladesh, e-mail: kamrul_sub@hotmail.com*, nur_alam1985@yahoo.com.sg
Abstract
This study aims to assess the perception, knowledge, attitude and practices of traffic policemen towards the physiological
and psychological health effects caused by traffic noise pollution that they are exposed to. Present self reported
questionnaire-based study was carried out among 110 traffic policemen randomly selected in DMP .The questionnaire was
filled up by the subjects themselves. 40.9% respondents are in age group of 20- 24. The self-assessment of hearing ability
has describes by the traffic policemen as 11.8% of the subjects felt that their hearing ability was below average, while the
remaining believed that their hearing ability was above average to excellent. 15.5% subjects reported that they usually
missed a lot when conversing with someone on phone, while 25.5% reported similar condition while talking to someone in
a crowd. 33.6% reported that while watching television they usually kept the sound louder to hear properly. 08.2%
complained of regular tinnitus was found.

INTRODUCTION transportation, mining, construction, agriculture and

Physically, there is no difference between sound
and noise. Sound is a sensory perception and noise
corresponds to undesired sound (WHO, 2004). By
extension, noise is any unwarranted disturbance
within a useful frequency band. The automobiles are
an important source of not only air pollution but also
of a significant proportion of noise pollution [1]. The
traffic police engaged in controlling traffic,
particularly at heavy traffic junctions, belong to the
high-risk group to be affected by the health hazards
of noise and air pollution [2-9]. Because the irritation
of upper respiratory tract resulting in cough is a
somewhat acute phenomenon, most of the traffic
policemen use a mask to prevent the ill effects of air
pollution. However, a majority of them remains
unaware about the health effects of noise on their
hearing ability as this is an insidious process and
takes long time to become overt. The World Health
Organization (WHO) carried out an assessment of
the global disease burden from occupational noise
and identified 25 risk factors in a standardized
manner [10]. Occupational hearing loss includes
acoustic traumatic injury and Noise Induced Hearing
Loss (NIHL), and can be defined as a partial or
complete hearing loss in one or both ears as the result
of one’s employments [11]. High levels of occupational
noise remain a problem in all regions of the world. In
the United States of America (USA), for example,
more than 30 million workers are exposed to hazardous
noise [12]. In Germany, 4-5 million people (12-15%
of the workforce) are exposed to noise levels defined
as hazardous by WHO [13]. Although noise is
associated with almost every work activity, some
activities are associated with particularly high levels
of noise, the most important of which are working
with impact processes, handling certain types of
materials, and flying commercial jets.
Occupations at highest risk for Noise Induced
Hearing Loss (NIHL) include those in manufacturing,
the military.
The situation is improving in developed countries,
as more widespread appreciation of the hazard has
led to the introduction of protective measures. Data
for developing countries are scarce, but available
evidence suggests that average noise levels are well
above the occupational level recommended in many
developed nations [14-16].
Health effects of noise include both the auditory as
well as non-auditory effects. Many studies have been
carried out to study these effects in different
categories of population exposed to high intensity
and frequencies of sound in their workplaces [17-21].
However, the auditory effects of noise generated by
automobiles among the traffic policemen have never
been explored, particularly in India [22]. The
situation in Dhaka City Traffic Policemen is
somehow same. This may be one of the reasons for
not providing hearing protection devices to this
group of work force. However, the need should be
felt by the traffic policemen themselves and this can
happen only when they have adequate knowledge
about the associated health hazards. With this
background, the present study has been carried out to
assess the hearing ability, knowledge, attitude and
practices of traffic policemen with respect to the
health effects caused by noise pollution.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present questionnaire-based study was carried
out among 110 traffic policemen randomly selected
in DMP from June 2010 to August 2010. The
questionnaire included questions regarding the
self-assessment of the traffic policemen about their
hearing ability, past and present exposure to loud
traffic sound and the use of personal protective
devices such as earplugs and earmuffs. The
questionnaire was filled up by the subject themselves.
Close supervision was followed so as to avoid the
influence of one's result by the other subject. The

~ 73 ~
data analysis was carried out using SPSS 16 and More than 65.6% of them reported that they have a
included calculation of percentages and proportions duty hour of 8-10 in 6 days in a week. Their duties
and application of the test of significance. were not fixed at one station and they had to give
duties in any site at any time in the city. From the
RESULTS study it has found that, the respondent has the habits
The general profile of the subjects according to of smoking and tobacco chewing. Since only
demographic characteristics is shown in Table 1. non-smokers were included in this study, all of the
Table 1. Demographic and occupational characteristics of subjects had no habit of smoking.
the study subject. Table 2. The study subject according to their perception on
Characteristics Number Percentage noise pollution.
Sex Composition Perception Number Percentage
Male 82 74.55
Did you know that noise affects human health?
Female 28 25.45
Yes 103 93.6
Age (in Years) No 6 05.5
20- 24 45 40.9 Don't Know 1 00.9
25-29 35 31.8
Do you think noise can be considered as an occupational
30-34 22 20.0
hazard?
35-39 8 07.3
Yes 86 78.2
Educational Qualification
No 23 20.9
Test 6 05.5 Don't Know 1 00.9
SSC 68 61.8
How do you classify your present working environment
Intermediate 31 28.2
in terms of noise quality?
Bachelors 5 04.5
Quiet 6 05.5
Occupational profile Tolerable 39 35.5
Police Constable 74 67.3 Noisy 30 27.3
Head Constable 36 32.7 Extremely Noisy 35 31.8
Duration of exposure (in years) Did you visit the doctor, in the past 12 months, regarding
2-5 65 59.1 any ear injury complaint or auditory problem
6-10 31 28.2
Yes 39 35.5
11-15 13 11.8 No 71 64.5
≥ 15 1 00.9
Duration of exposure (in day) Table 2 illustrates the general perception of the
<4 7 06.4 subjects regarding noise pollution and their effects
5-7 22 20.0
on human health. The table shows that most of the
8-10 71 65.6
≥ 11 10 09.0 subjects (93.6%) believe that noise affects on their
heath. 78.2% considered noise pollution as one of
A total of 82 males and 28 females were included the occupational hazard for them. 59.1% traffic
in the study, which constitute 74.55 and 25.45% of policemen reported that their work environment is
the total sample size, respectively. The age of the noisy to extremely noisy which caused a number of
subjects lies in the range of 20-39. Most of the hearing problems and which lead to make them to go
subjects (40.9%) belong to the age group of 20-24 to doctors. 35.5% subjects had visited the doctors in
years. Most of them had recently joined the police the past 12 months regarding ear injury complaint or
service. The mean age of the subjects was found to auditory problem. So, more efforts should be given
be 26.6 years. All the subjects had minimum of towards raising awareness regarding noise pollution
secondary level of school education. Majority of and its health impacts among the traffic policemen.
them (61.8%) had passed SSC whereas the number The self-assessment of hearing ability has
of subjects who had passed Intermediate was lesser describes by the traffic policemen in Table 3. Only
(28.2%) and those with bachelors’ degree were very 11.8% of the subjects felt that their hearing ability
few (4.5%). Out of the total subjects, majority was below average, while 57.3% believed that their
(67.3%) worked as a police constable and 32.7% hearing ability was above average to excellent, the
worked as head constable. The years of service in remaining 30.9% said their hearing ability was
traffic police is also consider as the years exposure average. However, the supplementary questions to
which is not so high. The duration of service of the assess the hearing ability revealed a slightly different
subjects as traffic police ranges between 2 to more picture. 15.5% subjects reported that they usually
than 15 years. Most of the subjects (59.1%) had missed a lot when conversing with someone on
served as a traffic police for less than 5 years. 28.2% phone, while 25.5% reported similar condition while
had worked for 6-10 years, 11.8% for 11-15 years talking to someone in a crowd. 19.1% reported that
and 0.9% for more than 15 years. The distribution of while watching television they usually kept the
the subjects according to year of exposure showed a sound louder to hear properly. 29.1% mentioned that
decline from 2 to more than 15 years. Again in others often indicated to them that they (traffic
Dhaka City traffic police has long working hours. police) were talking louder, while 33.6% felt that

~ 74 ~
people usually talked louder with them so as to life. Fortunately, their duration of exposure was less
enable them to hear. 8.2% complained of regular and so not much could have been lost and if effective
tinnitus, while 57.3% had work-related tinnitus and measures could be taken at that stage, health hazards
experienced it during working hours only. could be well prevented. Only 11.8% of the policemen
felt that their hearing ability was below average. This
Table 3. Distribution of study subject according to the
perception on noise pollution stimulated hearing quality. could be due to ignorance about the hazards caused
by continuous exposure to noise and non-usage of
Perception Number Percentage
PPEs. In a similar study among the traffic police in
How is the Quality of your hearing?
Excellent 43 39.1 India out of 86 subjects only 2.3% felt that their
Above average 20 18.2 hearing quality is below average [23]. An study
Average 34 30.9 conducted in 2001 showed that health effects of
Below average 13 11.8 vehicular noise pollution on traffic police personnel
How do you hear over the phone in Kathmandu is very alarming[24]. Another study
Without difficulty 71 64.5 among the rock concert attendees, only 36.3% of the
Do miss some conversation 22 20.0 subjects felt that noise is likely to cause health hazards
Miss a lot of what is said 17 15.5
[25]. In a study in Nepal it is found that, 39.34% of
How do you hear in a crowd
Without difficulty 45 40.9
the total sample surveyed had the NIHL which is
Do miss some conversation 37 33.6 quite a high in number [26]. The self-assessed
Miss a lot of what is said 28 25.5 prevalence of reduced hearing was found only in 11.8%
How do you hear to the sound of TV/Radio? subjects. However, the supplementary questions to
Usually louder 21 19.1 assess hearing ability suggested that it was higher
Usually with same 29 26.4 though not felt by the subjects. Exact figures can be
loudness calculated by doing Audiometry of these subjects.
Usually a little softer 60 54.5 Thus on the basis of the findings of this study, it is
Do people often indicate that you are talking too loudly? recommended that the periodic medical examination
Yes 32 29.1
No 78 70.9
should be done for the traffic policemen and it should
Do people have to talk to you louder? include Audiometry to assess the health effects of
Yes 37 33.6 exposure to noise along with the investigations to
No 73 66.4 measure the health effects of air pollution. It is
Tinnitus suggested that not only should these PPEs be made
Almost all the time 9 08.2 available, but also periodic workshops should be
More than once a day 12 10.9 carried out to motivate the subjects for their correct
About once a day 5 04.5 and regular usage. The effectiveness of the PPEs
About once a week 14 12.7 over other methods to reduce noise exposure should
More than once a year 7 06.4
Work related or 63 57.3
also be demonstrated [27].
recreational Table 4. Distribution of study subject according to use of
PPEs.
Table 4 represents the distribution of the study
subjects according to the usage of earplugs/earmuffs. Perception Number Percentage
Only 7.3% used earplugs and that too, very seldom. Have you ever used Ear Plugs or Ear Muffs
Again only 1.8% traffic police of the city are being Yes 8 07.3
using ear plugs regularly during the duty period. No 102 92.7
Non-availability of these personal protective Regularity of usage of Ear Plugs or Ear Muffs
Only during duty period 2 01.8
equipments (PPEs) was the common reason for its Seldom 6 05.5
non-usage as reported by 49.1% of the subjects. Never 102 92.7
However, other reasons for non-usage included Reason for non-usage of Ear Plugs or Ear Muffs
personal dislike (22.2%), uncomfortable (13.9%), Uncomfortable 15 13.9
headache caused by its use (8.3%), bad fit (6.5%), Not available 53 49.1
and 77.3% subjects did not use any method to reduce Bad fit 7 06.5
exposure to noise, while the remaining used fingers Dislike 24 22.2
(2.7%), hands (8.2%) and cotton (11.8%) to avoid Cause of headache 9 08.3
Use of other PPE
noise exposure. However, out of these subjects using
Hands 9 08.2
other methods, only 24.0% felt that these methods Cotton 13 11.8
were good or better than the earplugs. Fingers 3 02.7
Don’t use anything 85 77.3
DISCUSSION
How effective are these methods
The present study revealed that the study subjects Average 19 76.0
were in the economically productive age groups and Good 3 12.0
if they suffer from hearing disability at this age, they Better than plugs 3 12.0
would have to live with that disability throughout their

~ 75 ~
 CONCLUSION
The questionnaire survey revealed that most of the
subjects are aware about the health effects of noise
pollution and three forth of the subjects think that
noise pollution can be considered as occupational
hazard. The use of these PPEs can ensure the best
protection only by their proper use. For the proper
use of PPEs and to disseminate more knowledge
regarding noise pollution and its health effects,
awareness programs should be conducted for the
traffic police. The long work hours of traffic police
personnel and no holiday in weekends has been made
necessary by manpower crunch. Such long duty
hours are against the international norms. So, the
recruitment of more traffic police should be done.
Further research and follow-up studies using the
same subjects should be done as it could give a better
picture on the occupational health status of the traffic
police working in Bangladesh and reveal more
significant results related with their health.
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[11] Nandi, S.S., Dhatrak, V. S. 2008. Occupational noise
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 E14
Physical Environment Adaptation due to
Climate change: in the context of Bangladesh
Jubaida Gulshan Ara
Student, M. Arch Program, Department of Architecture, Bangladesh University of Engineering &
Technology, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh; e-mail: shimu_khl@yahoo.com
Abstract
At this time Climate change is a burning issue and it is often mentioned as human-specific impacts. The thermal inertia
of the oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects indicate that climate can take centuries or longer time to adjust to
changes. It will bring adverse effects on nature, ecology and human settlement. Overall, it is predictable that climate change
will result in the extinction of many species through different disasters. In Bangladesh, Climate change is an extremely
critical matter as Bangladesh lives perilously close to the risks of disasters like cyclones, floods and droughts and the
impacts may be devastating. For this, people have to be aware of climate change immediately, its effects and be prepared to
combat all adverse situations. This particular paper will deal with the issue of climate change, its worst impacts and the way
to overcome climate change shock through physical environment adaptation.

INTRODUCTION unpredictable heavy rainfall [11]. So, this is the time

In the World Risk Index 2011, jointly carried out
by United Nations University (UNU), Germany and
the Institute of Environment and Human Security
said that, Bangladesh ranked sixth among the most
vulnerable nations to natural disasters and second
among the Asian countries [1]. From1991 to 2009
more than 259 extreme natural events hit Bangladesh
among which more than 80% died in 1991 and the
number was 1,40,000 people [2]. The villagers of
flood-prone southwest Bangladesh are considering
leaving their place for good and matters become
more complicated when devastating storms like the
‘Sidr’ demolish the last hope for living. More than
3,000 people died in that cyclone [3]. According to
International Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) 2007
findings, storms and cyclones became more powerful
over the last 30 years [4]. Thus, Climate change is
increasing inequities through utmost impact on the
poorest people of the poorest countries [5]. Dhaka,
the capital of Bangladesh is overcrowded, and daily
thousands of people enter into Dhaka, fleeing river
flooding in the north and cyclones in the south.
Majorities’ destination is slums, where thousands
such migrants already colonized [6]. Almost 90% of
the rural migrant people are immersed in the four
main cities -- Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and
Rajshahi of Bangladesh [7]. Outcome of this
migration is unbearable pressure on urban utilities
like water and sanitation services [8]. According to a
statistics, since 1970 till 2009, about 39 million
people in the country have been displaced by major
natural catastrophe like flood and cyclone and
experts warn that by 2050 about 6-8 million people
more might be displaced due to the effect of climate
change like global temperature increase and sea-level
rise [9]. In northern Bangladesh millions of people
are threatened by riverbank erosion and severe
droughts [10]. In the 21st century, climate change is
estimated to increase the risk of more frequent and
severe floods through higher river flows and
to set in motion through both visions and actions for
a better and sustainable world for us. We are to take
the challenge to share the knowledge and adaptation
strategies of local communities on a wide scale [12].
The people and the communities in the rural areas
need to be given the information and knowledge
about the impacts of climate change, the mitigation
technique, adaptation knowledge, and how successful
practices can be imagined so that, they can develop
resilience to combat odd situation and adapt
themselves [2]. Community vulnerability towards
climate change may exacerbate ongoing social and
economic challenges, particularly for those whose
resources are sensitive to climate change. Such risks
are apparent in agriculture, fisheries and many other
components that make up the livelihood of rural
people in developing countries [13]. The objective of
this paper is to explore the nature of risk and
vulnerability of climate change in the context of
Bangladesh and review the evidence of present
adaptation by local people and required action on
future adaptation by the individuals. Though
previous evidences of adaptation by the community
in climate change and similar risk argue that all
societies are fundamentally adaptive, we need to
improve our physical adaptive capacity to face both
present and future climate change.
CLIMATE CHANGE
What is Climate change?
United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCC) defines climate change as
the change resulting from long term direct and
indirect activities that induce changes in the
compared time which are much more than the
natural change [14].
Why the Climate is changing?
A recent review, published in Nature Geosciences,
support that greenhouse gas emissions is elevating
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels leading to more
warming [15, Fig. 1, Fig. 2]. Hasnain (2000) and

~ 77 ~
WWF (2005) mentioned in their studies that, since
the mid 1970s, the measured average air temperature
at 49 stations of the Himalayan region rose by 10°C.
The high elevation sites are warming the most and
leading to melting of ice which causing sea level rise
[16]. Thus the atmosphere is under increasing
pressure of green house gases that directly or
indirectly enhance climate change [17]. The fourth
assessment report of the IPCC in 2007 concluded that
it was "unequivocal" that human activities playing a
role in climate change and global warming. It also
identified that, if there is no action to cut emissions,
there is a possibility for temperature rise up to 7°C
by 2100. Rises may be 2 to 3°C by 2090 at higher
latitudes, and 4 to 5°C rises in northern Canada,
Greenland, and Siberia [18].
Fig. 1. (Source: NASA GISS)
Fig. 2. (Source: Dana Nuccitelli, vectorized
by User: Dcoetzee)
Effect of Climate change
Global climate is warming at an incomparable rate
in the past 1000 years [19]. According to the IPCC’s
2007 findings the average global temperature rise
will make changes in precipitation, atmospheric
moisture and increases in evaporation, and water
vapour [20]. Thus extreme precipitation is increasing
over many northern mid-latitude regions, excessive
summer heat often combined with high humidity,
have increased in world’s most regions and southern
oscillation episodes have been prolonged over the
last two decades [21].
~ 78 ~
A recent report of the Arctic Monitoring and
Assessment Programme (AMAP), mentioned that by
the end of this century global sea-level may rise 1 m
or more as a result of faster melting of the Greenland
ice sheets [4]. A World Bank study has estimated
that, 1m sea-level rise would affect 84 developing
countries at a time. So, without solving climate
change problem, poverty eradication, food security,
access to water cannot be solved [16]. According to
the United Nations High Commission for Refugees
(UNHCR) in 2010, almost 42 million people around
the world were forced to escape their homes because
of natural disasters. What is alarming is that, this
number was almost doubled between 2009 and 2010
and UNHCR pointed out that climate change is the
most important contributing factor to natural
disasters [22].
In 21st century, Climate change is the biggest
threat for global health [23, 5, 24]. Ecological niches
of tree species and their distribution patterns depend
on Climatic variables [24, 25]. Species-distribution
models (SDMs) and forecasted global climate data
indicated that up to 43% of tree species in Amazonia
could become incapable by 2095 [24, 26 ].
EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN
BANGLADESH
Geographically, Bangladesh is located in the
tropical region [27]. Natural disaster is a common
phenomenon and Bangladesh is facing several
disasters frequently, and climate change might be the
main reason behind it [28]. Bangladesh is a deltaic
plain with five major rivers to drain out upstream
waters. The average elevations are less than 10 m
above sea level which feature makes Bangladesh
vulnerable to natural disasters, such as floods and
cyclones [29]. Bangladesh Water Development
Board mentioned in 2008 report that, water level
rises by at least 5.6 mm a year at Hiron point, 1.4 mm
at Cox's Bazar and 2.9 mm at Khepupara [30]. The
Healthy Centre for Climate Prediction and Research
(HCCPR) estimated that, sea level of Bangladesh
will rise about 40 cm (15 inches) by 2080 [31]. IPCC
predicted that by 2050, Bangladesh is on way to lose
17% of its land and 30% of its food production [32].
The climate model hints that, temperature will increase
in Bangladesh approximately 1.0 to 15°C by 2030 [33,
Table 2]. The country has already started to feel the
effects of the climate change because of long term
flood, recurrent cyclones, droughts and earth quakes
that cause massive devastation and adverse effect to
agriculture, land, water resources, occupational
dislocations, food, health, energy and urban planning
[34]. It has also been shown that, unmitigated climate
change, will decrease 8% rice and 32% wheat
production by the year 2050 [15]. Climate change
would also create increased frequency of diseases,
such as cholera, dengue, cardiovascular, respiratory
diseases, and malnutrition due to food scarcity and
reduction in food production [35].
Table 1. Changes in climate parameters with respect to base
year 1990.
2030 2070
Monsoon
Winter
Winter
Parameters
Temperature (oc) 2 0.65 3 1.5
Evaporation (%) 10 20 16
Precipitation (%) -3 11 -37
Discharge (%) -5 20 -67
FAP completion 60 60 100
Sea level rise (cm) 30 30 70
Source: Kafiluddin (2005).
Prolonged flooding will also create shortage of
space available for residential building construction
or crops cultivation or animal farming, which
eventually leads humans and animals in migration to
urban areas, and beyond. These phenomena
accelerate urbanization, which, in turn, will result in
strong competition between urban people for access
to social and economic opportunities [35, 36] and
will make social instability by increasing crime [37].
Millions of people in northern Bangladesh are
threatened by riverbank erosion and severe droughts
[10].
A formal report has predicted that a decline in
population increase will start at mid-century and a
prominent chunk of landmass could be permanently
underwater [35]. That scenario is based on two
projections. One is population growth and another is
possible sea level rise by 2100 as a result of climate
change. This mean as IPPC warned that 35 million
people along the southern coast would be displaced
[37] and would be climate refugees [6].
NECESSITY AND WAY TO PHYSICAL
ADAPTATION
A poor villager of Noakhali, Munni Aktar said
“τur lands and homes are flooded every full moon.
Villagers have to shift their homes very often. I want
justice” [38]. Vulnerability is a socially made fact
which is influenced by institutional and economic
dynamics. The vulnerability of a society to climate
change is determined by its exposure, by its physical
setting and sensitivity, and by its ability and
opportunity to adapt to climate change [39]. To show
these categories, sensitivity will be high where the
system in question, for example, settlements built on
flood plains, hill slopes or low-lying coastal areas
should be given special priority. Adaptation might be
a way of reducing dependency on vulnerable systems
like diversifying food production away from a
limited number of drought-prone crops or by
avoiding building settlements and infrastructure in
high-risk locations, or by strengthening existing
systems so that they may not be damaged by unusual
events [39]. So, the individual and society should
adapt and have been adapting to climate change over
the period of human history as climate is a part of the
wider environmental landscape of human habitation
Monsoon
[39].
In November 2002, the Delhi Declaration from the
Eighth Conference of the Parties reinforced the
importance of adaptation for the developing nations
[39]. Bangladesh government can take preparation
5 for a warmer earth. This includes limited
28 construction along low-lying coastal areas, building
51 dykes to protect the coastal areas from flooding,
100
protecting wildlife and developing water storage to
continue farming in drought condition [40]. In
70 addition to that, it is the duty of the agronomists to
help the farmers at field level and guide the policy
makers to achieve the desired crops [35]. The IPCC
state that all societies need to learn to cope with the
changes that are predicted like warmer temperatures,
drier soils, changes in weather extremes and rising
sea levels.
“Let me tell you about Bangladeshis," says Zakir
Kibria; "We may be poor and appear disorganized,
but we are not victims. And when things get tough,
people here do what they've always done-they find a
way to adapt and survive. We are masters of climate
resilience" [6]. Thus when individuals and societies
are exposed to climate, act as a driver for adaptive
resource management. Some adaptation by
individuals is undertaken in response to climate
threats [41]. In this way, the poor people of
Bangladesh are constantly adjusting to climate
change by raising their houses above the flood level
or changing crop types [42]. The people of Goalbari,
a low-lying area of Gopalgunj district of central
Bangladesh is dotted with raised areas of inhabited
land connected by roads built on embankments.
During monsoon frequent rains and intense flood
submerges most the area and stays for half of the
year due to embankments and climate change [43].
This situation also persists in the wetlands of
Bangladesh disrupting agriculture, mobility, and
create inaccessible to basic facilities like drinking
water and healthcare [42]. In these area people raised
the foundational platform, or plinth, of their houses
by four feet which intervention has protected them
from the flood waters. Sometimes they build their
house around a pond that gives fresh water during
flood [42]. As agricultural lands remain inundated for
months, many households in the area of Goalbari are
using the technique of a floating bed of compacted
water hyacinths where they are growing vegetables.
This bed is locally known as ‘baira’ and these
floating gardens fall and rise with water level. BCAS
(Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies)
Researchers have invented the ways to improve the
design of such bairas to make them lighter and stay
afloat for long periods of time which has allowed the
households to grow vegetables for eating when the
flood waters are high [43].
~ 79 ~
 CONCLUSION
Even after applying many adaptive measures
people have the problems to keep schools open even
during floods, health facilities, power supply,
sanitation, mobility and other types of income
generating activities. In this regard researches should
be carried out by architect, engineers and scientist.
For example like the floating beds a floating house
concept can solve most of the problems. A floating
house flexibly attached to a particular ground like an
anchored boat can solve the problem of secure tenure
rights, access and ownership over resources and also
can solve the problem of mobility. Same type of
construction can be useful for making education and
health facility available. Engineers can research for a
portable and user friendly power generating
accessory from sun, air and water. A scientific
intervention is necessary to decompose human waste
rapidly to make them fertilizers and food for aquatic
species. Though Raising the plinths of the houses and
developing floating beds was helping the poorer
households of these communities to cope with some
of the challenges coupled with higher and more
severe levels of flooding and water logging these
kinds of technical interventions can only go so far in
helping poor families address the serious climatic
challenges they face. It was clear that diversifying
the ways people could make a living when the area is
under water is fundamental to their long-term
adaptation. So, by improving access to the basic
services is mandatory to improve people’s resilience
to these climate related challenges. Climate change
and other weather related events present unique
challenges that require us to be more innovative.
Technologies do have the potential to help us to
adapt to changes in climate. But these technologies
have to be developed by means of greater research
investments into climate change science [5].
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 E15
Diffraction of Sound as a Side Effect of Noise Pollution
at Road Junctions of Dhaka City
Kumar Biswajit Debnath1 and SM Najmul Imam2
1Studentof M. Arch Program, Department of Architecture, Bangladesh University of Engineering &
Technology, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh; e-mail: kumar.biswajit@gmail.com
2Associate Professor, Department of Architecture, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology,

Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh; e-mail: najmulimam@gmail.com

Abstract
A good number of buildings are located very close to road junctions in Dhaka City. Due to poor setback, building edges
hinder visibility. Traffic noise travelling from a main road to a secondary road and vice versa, diffracts at building edges
creating virtual images of noise source. This may cause confusion and lead to accidents. It is established that noise threatens
human health. But it is not much explored how this unique phenomenon of sound diffraction at road junctions, as a side
effect of noise pollution, may create confusion and cause accidents. From instrumental measurements and practical
observations, this study identifies evidences of sound diffraction, virtual position of noise source and its effect on erroneous
perception at road junctions. This paper suggests proper setbacks of buildings, appropriate geometry of building edge and
suitable acoustical properties of finish materials to eliminate diffraction of sound at road junctions of Dhaka city.

INTRODUCTION Studies have established the fact that noise has

Noise pollution in Dhaka city is increasing with
the growing number of vehicles [1]. Road noise in
Dhaka city comprises of a wide range of sound levels
and frequencies. These are mainly due to vehicular
horns and movements [2]. Different studies show
that the level of noise pollution in Dhaka city far
exceeds the acceptable limits set by the Department
of Environment, Bangladesh [2-5].
Generated
noise
adverse effect on human wellbeing, both physical
and psychological [6, 7]. People of Dhaka city are
very much susceptible to this effect. Sound
diffraction at the road junctions is putting on another
dimension to the problem by adding the risks of
erroneous perception and accidents.
In prevailing situation, this study explores answers
to following questions: a) Is the position of buildings
adjacent to road junctions creating diffraction of
sound? b) Can diffraction affect our perception of
sound source and cause accidents? c) What might be
the possible options addressing the problem?

Actual
MATERIALS AND METHODS
source
Three main roads of three different parts of Dhaka

 Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka)

city was selected as samples for field study, namely,

 Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi)

Virtual

 Gulshan 2 Road (Gulshan-2)

source
Edge of
Receiver diffraction
Diffracted
noise
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the effect of sound diffraction
at a road junction
In addition to the burden of high population
density, Dhaka city suffers from haphazard and
uncontrolled growth of built environment. National
Building Code and Building Construction Acts are
violated very often. As a result, a good number of
buildings are constructed at road junctions without
proper setbacks from road edges. In this situation, the
phenomenon of sound diffraction and its effect of
creating virtual and shifted image of noise source
may create confusions for pedestrian and vehicular
movement and may cause accidents [Fig. 1].
Widths of sample main roads vary from 30.5 m to
36.6 m and those of secondary roads vary from 4.6 m
to 7.6 m at different locations.
The sound pressure level (SPL) of these main
roads and respective secondary roads were measured
with a data logger type sound level meter (Lutron
SL-4023SD). At Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old
Dhaka), a noise sample was digitally recorded using
a high-fidelity microphone (Sony ECM PC-50) and a
laptop computer. To find prevalent frequency spectra,
the noise sample was digitally analysed with open
source software (Audacity Ver. 2.0.2).
The effect of diffraction was observed practically
comparing actual and virtual positions of noise
sources, which were mainly moving vehicles.
Subsequently, the change in type and magnitude of
diffraction due to change of levels and frequencies of
noise was also observed from secondary roads.

~ 82 ~
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Road junctions: General Description
The selected three roads are:
1) Kaji Najrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka)
2) Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi)
3) Gulshan 2 Road (Gulshan-2)
At Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka), two road
junctions were considered [Fig. 2]. At Junction 1, the
main road width is 30.5 m and the secondary road
width is 4.6 m. On the other hand, the main road
width at the junction is 30.5 m and the secondary
road width is 7.6 m.
Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi) has width of 30.5
m [Fig. 3]. As it is a designed area, secondary roads
are of same width of 6.1 m. So, Sound level of point
A was only compared with other selected roads, as
diffraction will depend on the wavelength of sound
waves, size of the obstacle and also on the size of the
gap the waves are travelling through [8]. Fig. 4 Gulshan 2 Road (Gulshan-2)

B. Sound pressure levels

Sound pressure level (SPL) was measured at Kazi
Nazrul Islam Road. For Road Junction 1, SPL are
shown for main road and in secondary road
respectively [Fig. 5.1-2]. The average SPL at main
road is higher than that at secondary road. At main
road, the SPL Sometimes increases up to 100 dBA,
while in secondary road, it remains within 92 dBA.
At the junction, the surface of the building was
cement plaster.

Fig. 2 Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka)

Fig. 5.1 Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka) - Main road
Junction 1

Fig. 3 Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi)

At Gulshan 2, the main road has a width of 36.6 m

[Fig. 4]. It is also a designed urban area and widths
of secondary roads are of same width of 4.9 m. So,
sound level of point B was only compared with other Fig. 5.2 Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka)- Secondary
selected roads. Road, Junction 1

~ 83 ~
 For Road Junction 2 of Kazi Nazrul Islam Road,
Fig. 5.3 and Fig. 5.4 are showing the SPL measured
at main road and at secondary road respectively. The
SPL in main road is higher than that at secondary
road.
Fig. 5.3 Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka)- Main Road,
Junction 2
Fig. 5.4 Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka)- Secondary
Road, Junction 2
Fig. 6.1 Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi)- Main Road
Fig. 6.2 Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi)- Secondary Road
~ 84 ~
The data shown in Fig. 6.1 and Fig. 6.2 were
collected at Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi). Graphs
are showing the SPL at main road and secondary
road respectively at Road Junction A [Fig. 6.1-2].
The average SPL at main road is higher than that at
secondary road. At the junction, the surface of the
building was cement plaster.
SPL is measured at Road Junction B of Gulshan 2
Road. Fig. 7.1 and Fig. 7.2 are showing the SPL in
main road and in secondary road respectively. The
SPL at main road is higher than that at secondary
road. The surface of the building was cement plaster
at the junction.
Fig. 7.1 Gulshan 2 Road (Gulshan 2)- Main Road
Fig. 7.2 Gulshan 2 Road (Gulshan 2)- Secondary Road
C. Comparison of SPL at road junctions
The main roads have a constant source of high and
low level of sound. At Shat Masjid Road and
Gulshan-2 Road, the overall sound level is lower
than that at Kazi Nazrul Islam Road. At Kazi Nazrul
Islam Road, the highest sound level was 130 dBA,
mainly due to loud horns of heavy vehicles. Among
these three roads, Kazi Nazrul Islam Road is the
noisiest. It is also found that the lowest SPL at these
road junctions never goes below 60 dBA.
From measured SPL, it can be concluded that
noise at secondary roads are lower than that at main
roads.
D. Sound frequencies
In Road Junction 2 of Kazi Nazrul Islam Road, a
sample sound clip was digitally recorded and
analyzed to derive frequency content. The
frequency-SPL graphs [Fig. 8.1-3] demonstrate three
situations.
 First situation [Fig. 8.1] contains usual noise in the
road without any noise from traffic horn or vehicle
engine. There was no specific noise source. Only a
regular background noise was present due to people
and vehicles at a far distance. It is found that SPL is
low and higher frequency is less in percentage.
Second situation [Fig. 8.2] shows existence of
noise from a vehicle engine, in addition to the
previous situation. It demonstrates an increase of
percentage in the lower frequencies.
Third situation [Fig. 8.2] includes loud horns in
addition to the previous two situations and graph
shows the increase in both high and low frequencies.
The surface of the building was cement plaster at
this junction.
Relationship of frequency and SPL [Fig. 8.1-3]
shows presence of both lower and higher frequencies
of noise at the road junction. Noise clip contains
greater percentage of lower frequencies, which are
more effective for causing diffraction [8].
Fig. 8.1 The frequency-SPL graph for first situation
Fig. 8.2 The frequency-SPL graph for second situation
Fig. 8.3 The frequency-SPL graph for third situation
The frequency-SPL graphs are showing the spike
in the lower sound frequencies both in first and
second situation [Fig. 8.1 and Fig. 8.2]. In third
situation [Fig. 8.3], there is a spike in higher traffic
frequencies, when the loud horns reinforced first and
~ 85 ~
second situations. These lower frequencies diffracts
more than that of higher frequencies [8]. As the
percentage of lower frequencies is greater, diffraction
is expected to be higher.
E. Effects of diffraction
It was clear from observations that a high level
horn of a bus at main road was easily heard and its
location was relatively easier to perceive from a
secondary road. But it was very difficult to perceive
the location of a low level noise source. Most of the
motorized vehicles on the road produce noise of
lower level at about 60 dBA. For example, the
position of a bus at the main road cannot be
determined from the secondary road from its low
level engine noise.
Similarly, it was found that sources of lower
frequency noise were more difficult to locate due to
greater diffraction. Thus, the presence of diffraction
was noticeable at the road junctions and it was more
apparent for low SPL and low frequency noise.
F. Suggestions
To address the problem of diffraction and
subsequent risks of accidents at road junctions,
 The development of built environment should
following suggestions may be considered:
follow building codes. Keeping adequate setbacks
and round curbs at road junctions are two
significant parameters. This will decrease effect of
diffraction and as well as increase visibility. This
 Selection of appropriate geometry for building
option may substantially mitigate risk of accident.
edges can control the effect of diffraction [9]. A
chamfered or filleted edge may redirect diffracted
 Choice of proper building and finish materials,
sound waves to a desired direction.
particularly those with necessary acoustical
absorption quality, may be used at building edges
 The boundary walls of the buildings at road
to reduce the effect of diffraction.
junctions may spare enough pedestrian space that
can ensure sufficient offset of the right angle
corners from road junctions.
CONCLUSION
It is evident that the diffraction of sound exists in
the road junctions of Dhaka city. This may increase
the risk of accident as the position of the noise source
cannot be perceived correctly. It is also observed that
noise of lower SPL and lower frequencies are more
susceptible for greater diffraction.
Exact type and magnitude of diffraction in relation
to different road widths, positions of the building
edges, different sound levels and frequencies are not
clearly identified due to the limited scope of this
study.
This study bears prospects for further research on
identification of type and magnitude of diffraction;
its interactions with different factors. On this regard,
computer based advanced numerical analysis
including Boundary Element Method and simulation
techniques may be helpful.
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Engineers, Bangladesh, 29(1): 55-63.
[4] Hassan A., Alam, J.B. 2013. Traffic Noise Levels at
Different Locations in Dhaka City and Noise
Modelling for Construction Equipments, International
Journal of Engineering Research and Applications,
3(2): 1032-1040.
[5] Haq, M. A., Islam, M. M., Ali, M. S., Haque, M. F.
and Akhand, M. M. R. 2012. Status of Noise Pollution
in Mixed Areas of Dhaka City: a GIS Approach,
Journal of Environmental Science & Natural
Resources, 5(1): 09-17.
[6] Stansfeld S., Haines, M. and Brown B. 2000. Noise
and Health in the Urban Environment, Reviews on
Environmental Health, 15(1-2): 43-82.
[7] Ising, H., Kruppa, B. 2004. Health Effects Caused by
Noise: Evidence in the Literature from the Past 25
Years. Noise and Health, 6(22): 5-13.
[8] Everest, F. A., Pohlmann, K. C. 2009. Master
Handbook of Acoustics. New York: Mc Graw Hill.
pp.107-115.
[9] Ishizuka T., Fujiwara K. 2013. Full-scale Tests of
Reflective Noise-reducing Devices for Balconies on
High-rise Buildings. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 134(2):
EL185-EL190

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 E16
The Consequences of Landuse Changes and Impact on Groundwater
Aquifer in and around Cox’s Bazar Town, Bangladesh
Ashraf Ali Seddique1*, S.K. Sabbir Hossain1, M.R Shaibur2, M. Ashraful Haque3
K. Matin Ahmed4, Nur Alam5, Moklesur Rahman1
1Dept.of Petroleum & Mining Engineering, Jessore Science & Technology University, Jessore7408,
2Dept.of Environmental Science & Technology, Jessore Science & Technology University, Jessore
3Marine Fisheries & Technology Station, Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute, Cox’s Bazar
4Dept. of Geology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000
5Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Jessore Science & Technology University, Jessore7408

*e-mail: aseddique@yahoo.com

Abstract
In recent years, landuse pattern of the Cox’s Bazar town has changed significantly where with the rapid expansion of
settlement area. To explore the environmental consequences of landuse changes were assessed in the Cox’s Bazar town and
its adjoining area at south-eastern part of Bangladesh. Archived remotely sensed images of Landsat 4 & 5 TM during the
period of 1989-2010 and QuickBard QB1 of 2011 were interpreted using ERDAS Imagine image processing software along
with ArcGIS 9.3.1 to produce landuse maps of the area. Due to rapid expansion of urbanization, the impact on groundwater
aquifer was also assessed by the changes of groundwater level (GWL), and electrical conductivity (EC). Landuse maps
derived from Landsat imageries for 1989 to 2010 shows that landuse change pattern has increased substantially over the last
21 years. Due to the rapid urban sprawl, the agricultural land has a net decrease of 61.46%, settlement has increased by
245.64% and water bodies have decreased 63.41%. Detailed landuse map based on QuickBird image of 2011 shows that the
main landuse was settlement (49.25%), agricultural (21.30%), and water bodies (5.03%). High EC values ranged from
300-2200µS/cm (in dry season) to 200-1800µS/cm (in wet season) showed a general trend parallel to coastline and values
indicated that saline water moves towards land. Groundwater salinization has also been arising from isolated areas were
also assessed by high EC. GWL hydrograph shows a declining trend which is conducive for saline water intrusion. This
study have significant implications for urban planning and decision making in an effort to protect the groundwater resource
in the area studied, and the techniques described here can be used in other areas as a base line for projections of alternative
future landscapes.

INTRODUCTION patterns certainly provide many social and economic

The Cox’s Bazar town is rapidly growing coastal
modern city and located along the Bay of Bengal in
South-Eastern Bangladesh. The study area lies
between 21022/ to 21030/ N latitudes and between
91058/ to 9202/ E longitudes (Fig. 1) covering an area
of about 7km2 and the population on about 0.6
million (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2011). The
area is bounded in north and east by Bakkhali River
and in the west by Bay of Bengal and Jhilwangja
union in the south. It is well known as a tourist place
and famous for its plenty of natural resources. Due to
the rapid expansion of tourism with increasing
population, numerous tourism related infrastructures
such as multistoried hotel, motel, guest house etc.
have been built and still now construction is going on.
For meeting demand of fresh water for thousands of
tourists along with domestic, aquaculture, and
agricultural purposes, these areas have been
extensively utilizing pumped water from the
underlying aquifers. As a result, risk of saline water
intrusion has been increasing significantly over the
last few years in the prime tourist resort of
Bangladesh and there are some anecdotal evidences
of sea water intrusions in Cox’s Bazar town [1]. For
meeting demand of increasing population urbanizations
rapidly grab Cox’s Bazar’s natural land and it affects
water and environment. The changes of landuse
benefits, but inappropriate landuse and urbanization
may result in serious environmental degradation, [2,
3] including increased water pollution and decreased
water supply [4-6], can alter the natural hydrologic
condition within a watershed [7, 8]. A number of
studies stated that the outcome of this alteration is
typically reflected in increases in the volume and rate
of surface runoff and decreases in groundwater
recharge and base flow [9-12]. Other impacts
associated with change of discharge behavior due to
urbanization include modified watershed water
balance [13], and increased erosion of river channel
beds and banks [14]. Effective land assessment,
planning and management at local and regional scales
are dependent on a sound knowledge of the distribution
and variability of landuse within the basin area.
Compared to aerial photography or ground surveys,
satellite imagery is an excellent tool for accurate and
cost-effective assessment of multi-temporal landuse
change at a regional scale. To date, however, long-
term (spanning both pre and post-urbanization
periods) and spatially explicit monitoring of the
urbanization of the study area, together with
comprehensive studies of the groundwater quality
problems have not been conducted. It is of great
importance to study on the landuse change and
identify groundwater pollution sources and predict

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their future status in an effort to restore the water processing and preparation of landuse maps of the
quality of Cox’s Bazar town at local scale is of study area. Landsat 4 & 5 TM satellite images were
significance for decision making on the optimized analyzed to produce the time series landuse maps.
allocation and rational exploitation of land resources. Whereas the current detailed landuse map of the
The aim of this study is to detect the processes and study area was produced from the QuickBard QB1
characteristics of landuse changes in Cox’s Bazar that is available in Google earth. A GIS layer with
town, based on the historical archived remotely 100 X100 m (1 ha) grid cells was created based on
sensed images of Landsat 4 & 5 TM during the the landuse data sets. The Iterative Self–Organizing
period of 1989-2010 and QuickBard QB1 of 2011, Data Analysis (ISODATA) clustering algorithm has
and to assess the impact of rapid urbanization and been used to derive Agriculture, Airport, Forest,
landuse changes pattern over the period on ground Harb-Shrubs, Mangrove, Moist land, Settlement and
water aquifers by the measurements of groundwater Water class. The “Vegetative” classes have been
level and electrical conductivity. derived using the Normalized Difference Vegetation
Index (NDVI).
Table 1. Characteristics of the Landsat4 & 5 TM sensor
systems
Item name Parameters
Satellite Landsat 4 & 5
Sensor TM (Thematic Mapper)
Spatial Resolution 30 meters
Spectral Bands 7 Bands
Nominal orbital altitude (km) 705
Orbital Type Polar Sun Synchronous
Inclination (degree) 98.2
Receptivity 16 days

Table 2. Characteristics of Projection System

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. Archived remotely sensed images
The historical archive of Landsat imagery
provided a unique and valuable data source for
tracking changes in the landscape. Landsat 4 & 5 TM
(30m resolution) during the period of February 22,
1989 – February 24, 2010 and QuickBard QB1 (0.6m
resolution) of May10, 2011 were classified to derive
land-use data-sets at scale of 1:100,000 after being
radiantly corrected and geo-referenced. Since the
contemporaneous ground truth data were not
available, an unsupervised classification method was
employed (ERMapper 6.3). Detailed characteristics
of Landsat 4 & 5 satellite image and projection
parameters are given in Table 1 & 2 respectively.
B. Satellite image analysis
ERDAS Imagine image processing software along
with ArcGIS 9.3.1 software was used for the
Item name Parameters
Bangladesh Transverse
Projection Name
Mercator (BTM)
Projection Type Transverse Mercator
Spheroid Name Everest
Datum name Everest
Scale factor at central meridian 0.999600
Longitude of central meridian 90:00:00.000000E
Latitude of origin of projection 0:00:00.000000N
False easting 500000.000000m
False northing -2000000.000000m
C. Groundwater level and electrical conductivity
(EC)
Groundwater levels were continuously monitored
and measured by Bangladesh Water Development
Board (BWDB) with the help of piezometer network.
Long term groundwater level data were taken from
the station of CT002 (Cox’s Bazar Sadar) and surface
contours were constructed and interpreted with help
of ArcGIS 9.3.1. For assessing the saline water
intrusion and for evaluating overall dissolved solids
in the wells of the research area, EC data were
collected from different types of water wells i.e.,
shallow (<50m depth), intermediate (50-100m depth)
and deep (>100m depth) wells using portable
instruments (D-55, Horiba Techno Service, Ltd. and
SC82, Yokogawa Electric Co.). EC of 148 water
supply wells were measured twice in April (dry
season) and September (wet season) of 2012.

~ 88 ~
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fig. 5 shows the landuse dynamics in the region in
A. Landuse changes based on Landsat imagery terms of aerial extent for each class. Statistics of
landuse changes during the 2011 are presented in
Due to rapid urban expansion and economic Table 4. It is noted that the main landuse was
development, Cox’s Bazar has experienced one of settlement, covering an area of 49.25%; agricultural
the greatest rates of change in landuse during the last ranked second (21.30%); water bodies (5.03%),
21 years. Figs. 2a & b show the landuse maps marshy land (4.91%), forest including hill and
derived from Landsat imagery for 1989 and 2010, mangrove forest (8.38%). The remaining areas were
respectively. Fig. 3 shows the landuse dynamics in shared by airport, road, gher, salt pan, barren hill and
the region from 1989 to 2010 in terms of aerial extent others (11.14%).
for each class. Statistics of landuse changes during
the 1989 to 2010 are presented in Table 3. In 1989,
Table 3. Statistics of landuse change derived from Landsat
the dominant landuse was harb-shrubs, covering one 4 & 5 TM satellite images during 1989 and 2010
third of the area (29.58%); water bodies ranked respectively.
second (27.29%); agricultural (12.89%), settlement Sl. Class Area (ha) Covering Area (ha) Covering
(12.69%), sandbar (9.9%), forest (6.44%). The Name 1989 Area (%) 2010 Area (%)
remaining areas were shared by airport and moist 1989 2010
land (1.16%). On the other hand, in 2010, the 1 Water
dominant landuse was settlement, covering a major 1315.98 27.29 834.48 17.31
Bodies
part of the area (31.39%); harb-shrubs ranked second 2
Moist land 3.78 0.08 255.33 5.30
(23.60%), water bodies (17.31%), agricultural
(7.92%), sandbar (7.27%), forest (5%), moist land 3 Agriculture
621.27 12.89 381.87 7.92
(5.30%). The remaining areas were shared by airport land
and mangrove (2.21%). In the past 21 years results 4
Mangrove 0 0.00 34.11 0.71
shows that the rapid urban sprawl has resulted in a 5
large amount of agricultural land being replaced with Harb-Shrub 1426.32 29.58 1137.78 23.60
settlements and indicates that agricultural land has a 6
net decrease of 61.46%, and i.e., settlement has Forest 310.5 6.44 240.84 5.00
increased by 245.64%. Results also show that the 7
Sand bar 479.61 9.95 350.64 7.27
water bodies have been decreased 63.41%.
8
Airport 52.29 1.08 72.72 1.51
B. Landuse changes based on QuickBird image
Fig. 4 shows the detailed landuse map based on the 9
Settlement 611.73 12.69 1513.65 31.39
analysis of QuickBird image of 2011 and evident that
landuse changes have been rapid in recent history. Total 4821.48 4821.42

Fig. 2. (a) Landuse maps of 22 Feb.1989 Landsat 4 TM satellite, (b) 24 Feb. 2010 derived from Landsat 5 TM satellite image

~ 89 ~
Fig. 3. Landuse changes during last 21 years (1989-2010) Fig. 5. Landuse dynamics based on QuickBird-QB1 image
based on Landsat 4 & 5 TM images

Table 4. Statistics of detailed landuse derived from

Quickbird QB1satellite image.
Area (ha) Covering Area
Sl. Class Name
2011 (%), 2011
1 Water 71 5.03
2 Road 5.69 0.40
3 Mangrove forest 47.12 3.34
4 Sand bars 14.3 1.01
5 Marshy land 69.29 4.91
6 Agriculture land 300.83 21.30
7 Gher 72.49 5.13
8 Airport 6.93 0.49
9 Settlements 695.61 49.25
10 Salt pan 13.05 0.92
11 Barren hill 29.25 2.07
12 Hill forest 71.11 5.04

Fig. 4. Detailed landuse map of May 2011 derived from 13 Others 15.64 1.11
QuickBird QB1 satellite image Total 1412.31

Fig. 6. Spatial distribution of EC in shallow tubewells (<50m depth) water to compare the saline
condition between the (a) dry, and (b) wet seasons

~ 90 ~
C. Groundwater EC and groundwater levels in the alteration of dry and wet season is obvious from the
area Fig, 8 and long term groundwater level hydrograph
Groundwater EC values in the study area vary with exhibits a declining trend indicating over exploitation
location and depth. Most of the sampled wells was of groundwater and conducive for saline water
found at shallow depth (<50m) and fluctuation of EC intrusion in the study area.
value was observed at this depth. In wet season,
lower range (200-1800µS/cm) of EC was noticed
than dry season (300-2200µS/cm) in shallow depth
and shows spatial variation over the study area. EC
distribution map (Fig. 6 a & b) for shallow wells (<
50m in depth) shows the fluctuation of EC values
and a zone of higher EC (>200 S/cm with a
maximum of 2200 S/cm) is located in western and
northern part of the town, covering the Laboni,
Suganda, Kalatoli, Jauitola, Nuniar chara and
Khurushkul areas and some isolated parts at the
center of the town. High EC value indicates saline
water and shows a general trend parallel to coastline
and values indicate saline water moves towards land.
Fig. 7 also exhibits higher EC values fluctuation both
in dry and wet are restricted to shallow depth wells
(<50m). No significant change occurs between dry
and wet season at the wells having depth of 50-100m,
and deeper (>100m) depth of well. But, deeper wells
Fig. 7. Depth profiles distribution of EC for both dry and
having relatively higher EC values than the wet seasons to assess the salinity in terms of well
intermediate depth of wells indicate that excessive abstraction technology.
abstraction of groundwater is assumed to be main
cause of the saline water intrusion. The period

Fig. 8. Long-term groundwater level hydrograph of the study area recorded from BWDB well No. CT002.

CONCLUSION in paleobeach (backdune) area along the coast line is

Urban expansion is a major driving force altering
local and regional hydrology and non-point source
(σPS) pollution. The Cox’s Bazar town, one of the
rapidly growing eastern modern coastal city of
Bangladesh, has undergone urbanization in recent
decades and landuse pattern of the area has changed
significantly. As a result, water body and wet lands
are being diminished and natural recharge potential is
decreasing. This study also demonstrated that a
landuse change together with groundwater pollution
i.e., saline water intrusion will be capable of
generating useful information about future
urbanization and its possible environmental impact.
However, this study implies that current development
a greater threat to the groundwater quality than that
in other areas. The results of this study have
significant implications for urban planning and
decision making in an effort to protect and remediate
water and habitat quality of Cox’s Bazar town, and
the techniques described here can be used in other
areas as a base line for projections of alternative
future landscapes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors thank to HEQEP (Higher Education
Quality Enhancement Project) and the World Bank
for financial support. Special thanks to Mr. Suzon
CGIS, Dhaka for his technical support.

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 REFERENCES
[1] Risalat, 2013. Delineation of Fresh-Saline Water
Interface in and around Cox’s Bazar Town,
Bangladesh, Dept. of Geology, Dhaka University,
2012, (unpublished M.S thesis).
[2] YH Kim and JJ Baik. 2005. Spatial and temporal
structure of the urban heat island in Seoul. Journal of
Applied Meteorology 44.
[3] SQ Zhao, LJ Da, ZY Tang, HJ Fang, K Song, JY
Fang. 2006. Ecological consequences of rapid urban
expansion: Shanghai, China. Frontier in Ecology and
Environment 4 (7): 341–346.
[4] JG Liu, J Diamond. 2005. China’s environment in a
globalizing world. Nature 435: 1179–1186.
[5] M Shao, XY Tang, YH Zhang, WJ Li. 2006.
Environmental pollution of city clusters in China:
current situation and challenges. Frontiers in Ecology
and the Environment 4 (7): 353–361.
[6] USEPA. 2001. Our Built and Natural Environments:
A Technical Review of the Interactions between
Landuse, Transportation, and Environ-mental Quality
2001 p. 4.
[7] Brain L Morris, Adrian R. Lawrence, and Stephen SD
Foster. 1997. Sustainable groundwater management
for fast-growing cities: Mission achievable or mission
impossible? Groundwater in the urban Environment:
Problems, Processes and Management, Chilton et al.
(eds)
[8] WJ Young, FM Marston, JR Davis, 1996. Nutrient
export and landuse in Australian catchments. Journal
of Environmental Management, 47: 165–183.
[9] WR Carter. 1961. Magnitude and frequency of floods
in suburban areas. US Geological Survey
Professional Paper 424-B: B9-11.
[10] DG Andersen. 1970. Effects of urban development of
floods in Northern Virginia. US Geological Survey
Water Supply Paper 2001-C: 26.
[11] TR Lazaro. 1990. Urban Hydrology, a
Multidisciplinary Perspective. Technomic publishing
company, Lancaster.
[12] AL Moscrip and DR Montgomery. 1997.
Urbanization flood, frequency and salmon abundance
in Puget Lowlan Streams. Journal of the American
Water Resources Association 33 (6), 1289–1297.
[13] N Fohrer, S Haverkamp, K Eckhardt, HG Frede.
2001. Hydrologic response to landuse changes on the
watershed scale. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth,
Part B: Hydrology, Oceans and Atmosphere 26
(7–8): 577–582.
[14] M Doyle, J Harbor, C Rich, A Spacie. 2000.
Examining the effects of urbanization on streams
using indicators of geomorphic stability. Physical
Geography 21: 155–181.

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 E17
Model Analysis and its Evidence for Particle Removability
of Pressed Non-woven Fabric Membrane
*T. Oike, *S. Manabe, **M. Kim, ***K. Yoshimura, ***K. Shuzenji
*Sepa-Sigma Inc., **MK-Sigma Inc., ***Fukuoka Industrial Technology Center, Japan
Abstract
Low cost membranes for water treatment using a pressed non-woven fabric membrane are proposed. The
pressed non-woven fabric membranes are applied in the novel separation technologies of the pore diffusion
separation under the flow fractionation. The particle removal was evaluated by both computer simulation and
experimental method. The simulation demonstrated that when the particle size increased the probability of the
particle ejection through the membrane pores decreased and when the particle located far from the membrane
surface the above probability decreased also. The experimental results showed the similar tendency to the
model computer analysis.

INTRODUCTION fractionation effect that occurs by quickened flow

Due to the increase in the world population and the
economic development, the water shortage has
become a serious problem. To solve the water
shortage, many technologies of water treatment have
been developed. The water treatment required for
developing countries must be small size, easy to
handle and low cost, since it is not easy to build
large-scale infrastructure. A problem of a centralized
city is also needed to concern. Due to old facilities of
domestic infrastructure, it will be good chance to
convert them to such small size equipments.
In the case of installing small equipments, the
operation system must be simple. A membrane
separation may be the most effective for these
demands. The current membrane separation is known
to be very expensive due to the high production cost
of the membrane.
In the previous paper, the pressed non-woven
fabric membrane for water treatment has been
proposed as the low cost membranes [1], and the
novel low cost separation technology such as the
pore diffusion and the flow fractionation has been
evaluated.
The pore diffusion, defined as the diffusion of a
substance in a pore of a membrane, is the separation
technique under no plugging [2]. Water molecule
passes through pores in the membrane by diffusion
and also is filtered through a bulk flow under the low
trans membrane pressure such as less than 0.1 atm.
The particles shift their position to the place where
shows the higher flow rate. This shift has been
named as the flow fractionation [3, 4] originated
from the effect [3]. The particles cannot pass
through pores of the membrane, and then, is
separated from water. One of the features of the pore
diffusion is high level of particle removability. On
the other hand, slow filtration rate is a disadvantage.
The flow fractionation separation has been
proposed for the porous membrane [4]. The
separation mechanism is based on the flow
rate [5]. The flow fractionation effect is observed in
blood flow [6]. By the use of this effect we may
maintain a stable long-term filtration performance.
For example, red blood cells move to the center of
the blood vessel by the effect resulting the stable
filtration [7, 8]. When we use this effect in the
filtration process of aqueous solution, it is possible to
remove particles by low pressure filtration. The flow
fractionation effect is observed only in the case of the
shear stress to the particles exceed over the critical
value that originates the rotational motion of the
particles in a flow stream. This indicates that the flow
stream of a given aqueous solution must be the
laminar flow and the flow should give the shear rate
to the particles. The shear rate, , is given by the
following equation (1).
= V / t … … … … … (1)
Where V is the flow rate (mm/s), t is the width of
the flow path (mm). When the particles size are a
sub-micron, more than 20 sec-1 shear rate works
effectively on the rotational motion of the particles.
Even in the case of the pressed non-woven fabric
membrane, the flow fractionation and also the pore
diffusion may be applicable since the surface of the
membrane is smooth[1] although its mean pore size
exceeds over 1 m. We can expect the development
of the novel low cost and small scale equipment for
water treatment.
In this paper, we will evaluate the particle
removability using both methods of the computer
simulation and experimental filtration with the
membrane. The wastewater containing particles may
be employed and the separation performances
including particle removability may be evaluated.
We intend to show (1)the separation mechanism for
the novel separation technology including the pore
diffusion and the flow fractionation, and
(2)confirmation of the effectiveness of the no-woven
fabric membrane to the solution treated with the
nucleating reagent.

~ 93 ~

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the flow fractionation
mechanism: The lengths of arrows stand for the amount of
flow rate and are represented by a parabolic curve.
METHODS
A. Pressed non-woven fabric membrane
Regenerated cellulose filament non-woven fabric
(The non-woven fabric membrane) was prepared by
copper ammonium process (100g / m² basis weight,
3λ0 m thickness, Ra=21.1 m surface roughness),
and roller pressed to more than 50 % of the
compression rate in a wet condition by a mechanical
roller press machine. The average pore size of the
original non-woven fabric was about 100 m
including support mesh pore size.
Average pore size of the membrane 2rf was
calculated by putting the filtration rate of distilled
water J into the following formula (2).
Where J is the observed value in (mL / min), d is the
membrane thickness ( m), ⊿ P is pressure
difference (mmHg), A is the membrane area (m2).
Prρ is porosity of the membrane and in calculated
though the eq. of "1 - (cellulose density / membrane
density)". η is the viscosity of water.
The compression ratio was calculated with the
thickness of the membrane before and after pressing.
Compression ratio is given by the following equation
(2).
Compression ratio = (T1-T2)/T1×100 (2)
Where T1 is the thickness of non-woven fabric
membrane before pressing, T2 is the thickness after
pressing.
B. Nucleation of particles in raw water
A sewage waste water was employed as a raw
water where the particles were generated. The
sewage was sampled from a sewage farm of the city
of Kitakyushu in Japan. Original COD of the solution
was 185 ppm.
After, 40 ppm of sodium hypochlorite and 50 ppm
of ferric chloride added to the sewage waste water
for oxidation and mixed by aeration in 30 minutes,
500 ppm of Ca(OH)2 was added for nucleation and
mixed by aeration in 30 minutes. The size and
quantity of particles were measured by Laser particle
size analyzer LS 230 (Beckman Coulter inc.).
~ 94 ~
C. Computer simulation of particle ejection
A computerized simulating software, STREAM
ver.8 (CRADLE Inc.), was used for the estimation of
the location of the particle in the laminar flow as the
function of time and of the position of the particle in
generation. The ejection means that the particle goes
through out from primary side(original waste water
side) to secondary side(filtrate side) via membrane.
The flow pass had the orthogonal cross section of 2
mm x 2 mm x 200 mm (Fig.2). The flow rate in the
primary side, Vin, was 92 mm/s. The particle size
was selected 3 sizes of 1, 10, 100 m. The distance
from particles to membrane surface, h, was 250-750
m. The filtrate speed condition, Vyout, was
0.022-0.33 mm/s.
Fig.2: Model analysis condition
D. Experimental tevaluation of filtration performance
The filtration performance was evaluated by
filtering waste water through the pressed non-woven
fabric membrane using the filtration equipment
designed for the pore diffusion and the flow
fractionation. The waste water includes the nucleated
particle of toxic materials. The particles were filtered
through the pressed non-woven fabric membrane.
The Filtration performance was evaluated by
measuring the particle size and the quantity of the
particles in the raw water and the filtrate
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Pressed non-woven fabric membrane
The pressed non-woven fabric membrane was
prepared under the same condition in the previous
paper [1]. The compression rate was 52.6%. The
average pore size was about 8 m after the
compression.
B. Nucleation of particles in raw water
The particle size in the raw water was 17 m as a
peak in the distribution curve vs log (particle size)
and 31 m as average size (Fig.3). There were two
peaks located at 17 m and 1 gentle curve of
0.1-1 m. It might be occurred by stirring of a
circulation pump of the filtration equipment.
C. Model analysis of particle ejection
The simulation results are summarized in Fig.4.
The figure shows the area, expressed by the
co-ordinates of Vyout (y-axis) and particles size
(x-axis), where the particles at the heights of 250 m,
500 m and 750 mfrom the membrane surface
retain in the flow without ejection through pores. In
the case of further distance between a particle and
membrane surface, the particle ejection was decreased.
In the case of bigger particle, the ejection probability
of the particle at the same position is decreased.
Fig.3: Particle size distribution of the raw water
Fig.4: Particle retentive zone exhibited by two-dementional
map of Vyout and particle size; Zone I stands for the region
where the particle located at h=250um remains in the flow
solution under Vin of 92mm/s, Zone I+II stands for the
remaining region for the particle at h=500um and Zone
I+II+III stands for the remaining region for the particle at
h=750um.
D. Experimental evaluation of particle removal
Fig. 5 shows experimental filtrate of each of Vyout.
The rightmost is the raw water and it has the most
vivid color. With slower Vyout speed, its color
becomes clear. It means slower Vyout gives higher
removability of the particle with wide range of size.
The experimental filtrates showed mostly the same
results of the model simulation.
Fig. 5. Observation of solutions before and after treatment;
From left side, the solutions are treated under
Vyout=0.022mm/s, 0.091mm/s and 0.33mm/s, respectively,
and the solution at right end is the solution before treatment.
~ 95 ~
Fig. 6 is the particle size distributions of raw water
and two filtrates. Filtrate 1 indicates the filtrate
obtained under 0.33mm/s of Vyout, and the Filtrate 2
indicates the filtrate obtained under 0.091mm/s. The
Filtrate of 0.022mm/s could not be evaluated through
a light scattering method because of too clear. A
comparison between the solution before treatment
and the filtrate 1 indicates that particles over 40 m
were removed by the filtration, and the filtrate 2
indicates that particles over 3 m were removed.
Fig. 6. Particle size distribution of the raw water and the
filtrate; Filtrate1: Vyout=0.33mm/s,; Filtrate2: Vyout=
0.091mm/s
In the filtrate 2, it has no peak around 10 m. It
means the nucleated particles around 10 m stay in
the primary side in 0.091mm/s of Vyout. As for two
big peaks around 1 m of the filtrate 2, bigger
particles than 1 m in the primary side might be
comminuted by the shear stress of the circulation
pump of the filtration equipment.
CONCLUSION
The novel membrane separation technology
employed both of the pore diffusion and the flow
fractionation mechanisms worked effectively to the
solution treated with the nucleating reagent for the
removal of particles with the non-woven fabric
membrane. The removability was originated from the
flow fractionation mechanism and the activity of the
Brownian motion in addition to the sieving of pores.
The contribution of the flow fractionation was
reproducible by the computer simulation of the
movement of a particle in fluid flow.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are deeply grateful to Mr. Takeuchi, Asahi
Kasei Fibers Corp. for his enormous supports such as
providing membrane samples and helpful comments.
Also, we would like to thank FAIS, Kitakyushu
Foundation for the Advancement of Industry,
Science and Technology, for its financial supports.
REFERENCES
[1] T. Oike, S. Manabe, T. Itai, S. Takeshita,
“Characterization and filtration performance of
pressed non-woven membrane”, Proceedings of the
International Conference on Environmental Aspects
 of Bangladesh, 2012, pp. 27-29
[2] [2] S. Manabe, S. Hanada, Japan patent No.4803341
[3] [3] K. Kamide, S. Manabe, “Mechanism of
Permselectivity of Porus Polymeric Membranes in
Ultrafiltration Process”, Polymer Journal, vol. 13,
1981, pp. 459-479
[4] [4] R. Hartmann, S. Williams, “Flow field-flow
fractionation as an analytical technique to rapidly
quantitate membrane fouling”, J. of Membrane
Science, vol. 209, 2002, pp. 93-106
[5] [5] S. Kim, S. Lee, C. Kim, J. Cho, “A new
membrane performance index using flow-field flow
fractionation (fl-FFF)”, Desalination, vol. 249, 2009,
pp. 169-179
[6] [6] σ. Maeda, “Microcirculation of Erythrocytes in
Relation to Their Rheological Properties”, Fluid
Dynamics Research, vol. 21, 2002, pp. 129-134
[7] [7] σ. Maeda, “Blood Flow Structure Related to Red
Cell Flow”, Jpn. J. Physiol., vol. 51, 2001, pp. 19-30
[8] T. Pan, T. Wang, “Dynamical Simulation of Red
Blood Cell Rheology in Microvessels”, Int. J. of
Numerical & Modeling, vol. 6, 2009, pp. 455-473

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 E18
Antibacterial Activity of Cajanus cajan Leaves against Industrial
Wastewater Bacteria Collected from Kushtia, Bangladesh
Mst. Shirina Khatun1, Md. Ruhul Amin1, Md. Manirujjaman2,
Md. Monirul Islam1*, Hossain Md. Faruque1
1Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Islamic University, Kushtia, Bangladesh
2Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Rajshahi Universty, Rajshahi, Bangladesh
*e-mail: monirbtge@yahoo.com
Abstract
The beneficial effects of extracts from many types of plants that are used as antimicrobial agents have been claimed for
centuries. The purpose of this project work was to examine the effectiveness of leaves extracts of Cajanus cajan L. for the
control of growth and survival of microorganisms isolated from industrial wastes water including (tannery wastes water,
tobacco wastes water and sugar wastes water) bacterial strains. All of these three industrial waste water bacteria showed
colorful colony in MacConkey Agar Media. The Cajanus cajan leaves was extracted with different solvents viz., ethanol,
ethyl acetate, chloroform, and n-hexane. Inhibition of growth was tested by the paper disc diffusion method. Among used
solvent tested, ethanol and ethyl acetate extract exposed better antibacterial activity against testing samples (viz., sugar
industry waste water and Tannery waste water bacteria). Antibacterial activity was assessed by inhibition diameters which
were found to range from 8–25 mm for the four extracts against all the sources of bacterial strains. The minimum inhibitory
concentrations (MIC) for the extracts were determined by two fold serial dilutions method and they ranged from
250–62.5mg/mL against all the sources of bacterial strains.

INTRODUCTION agents against different industrial waste water

Throughout the world, various types of plants are
continuously using for the treatment of various
ailments. Medicinal plants are rich bioresources of
drugs [1]. A number of interesting outcomes have
been found with the use of a mixture of natural
products or plant extracts to treat diseases [2]. The
antimicrobial properties of plants have been
investigated by a number of researchers worldwide
though thorough biological evaluation of plants
extracts is vital to ensure their efficacy and safety.
Chemical constituents of the plant include glycosides,
flavonoids, alkaloids, essential fatty acid [3].
Medicinal plants are the richest bio-resource of drugs
of traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines,
nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk medicines,
pharmaceutical intermediates and chemical entities
for synthetic drugs [1]. A number of interesting
outcomes have been found with the use of a mixture
of natural products to treat diseases, most notably the
synergistic effects and poly pharmacological
application of plant extracts [2]. The development of
pharmaceuticals begins with identification of active
principles, detailed biological assays and dosage
formulations, followed by clinical studies to establish
safety, efficacy and pharmacokinetic profile of the
new drug [4].
Cajanus cajan belongs to the family Fabaceae,
commonly called pigeon pea and locally known as
‘adhor’ in Bangladesh.It is an important grain legume
crop. Cajanus cajan is widely used as food. They
contain high level of protein and the important amino
acids methionine, lysine and tryptophan. The green
leave of Cajanus cajan is usually used traditionally
as medicine, in the treatment of stomach or intestinal
disorder. This study was designed to evaluate the
effects of Cajanus cajan (‘adhor’) as antimicrobial
bacteria.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. Source of plant
The leaves of C.cajan were collected from the
local areas of Bheramara, District: Kushtia,
Bangladesh. It was authenticated from the proper
source and a voucher specimen No: 01 was deposited
in the department of Biotechnology & Genetic
Engineering, Islamic University, Kushtia,
Bangladesh.
B. Extraction of plant
Collected leaves were cleaned and shade-dried.
The dried leaves were pulverized by a mechanical
grinder and passed through a 20-mesh sieve. A
powdered leaf (500 g) was successively extracted
with petroleum ether, Chloroform and ethanol using
a Soxhlet apparatus and water extracted by cold
maceration. The extraction was carried out for 24 hrs
at room temperature with mild shaking. The filtrates
were collected in different beakers. The filtrates were
evaporated to dryness in a steady air current for
about 24 h in a previously weighed Evaporation
dishes (porcelain dishes). After evaporation, the
dishes were re-weighed and the differences in their
weights before and after evaporation were calculated
and recorded. The plant extracts (residues) were
stored in a clean sterile container for further use.
C. Sources of Microorganisms
Three (3) samples of waste water were collected
from the following sources:-
a. Tannery waste water from Kushtia.
b. Tobacco waste water from Leaf Factory, Kushtia.
c. Sugar mill wastewater from Jogoti sugar mill,
Kushtia.

~ 97 ~
D. Culture of waste water bacteria
Two types of media were used, viz., MacConkey
Agar Media and Nutrient Agar media. Each of the
waste water was cultured to MacConkey agar media
and Nutrient agar media was used for spread culture.
For streak culture, the Nutrient agar media was used.
Then some of the colonies were transferred to conical
flask for liquid culture with the help of Nutrient
broth.
E. Concentration (MIC) of the crude extracts
In the experiment, Minimum inhibitory
concentrations (MICs) are defined as the lowest
concentration of an antimicrobial that will inhibit the
visible growth of a microorganism after overnight
incubation. Minimum inhibitory concentrations
(MICs) are used by diagnostic laboratories mainly to
confirm resistance, but most often as a research tool
to determine the in vitro activity of new
antimicrobials and data from such studies have been
used to determine MIC breakpoints. The method
gives information on the storage of standard
antibiotic powder, preparation of stock antibiotic
solutions, media, and preparation of inocula,
incubation conditions, and reading and interpretation
of results. In the present study, it was determined
following the serial dilution according to Reiner
(1982). The lowest concentrations of the extracts,
which did not show any growth of tested organisms
after microscopic evaluation, were determined as
Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MIC).
RESULTS
The extracts derived from C. cajan L. showed a
significant antibacterial activity against almost all the
tested bacteria. The oil of extract exhibited a potent
inhibitory of effect against all the microorganisms.
Various organic extracts of C. cajan L. also have
potent antibacterial activity agents against three
industrial (Tannery, Tobacco and Sugar Mill) waste
water Bacterial strains.
For ethanol extract of Pigeon pea, the highest
inhibition zones (22.0mm) were measured at
500µg/10µl against Tannery waste water bacteria,
where the lowest inhibition zones (19.5mm) was
measured against Tobacco waste water bacteria
(Table 1) after 24 hours.
For ethyl Acetate extract of Pigeon pea, the
highest inhibition zones (23.5 mm) were measured
at 500µg/10µl against the sugar Industry waste water
bacteria, where the lowest inhibition zones (22.5mm)
were measured against Tannery waste water bacteria
(Table 2) after 24 hours
For Chloroform extract of Pigeon pea, the highest
inhibition zones (18.0 mm) were measured at
500µg/10µl against Tannery waste water bacteria,
where the lowest inhibition zones (15.5 mm) was
measured against Tobacco waste water bacteria
(Table 3) after 24 hours.
For N-Hexane extract of Pigeon pea, the highest
inhibition zones (19.0 mm) was measured at
500µg/10µl against Tannery waste water bacteria,
where the lowest inhibition zones (11.5 mm) was
measured against Tobacco waste water bacteria
(Table 4) after 24 hours.
Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was
observed in almost all of the bacterial strain when
different extract were used. For the ethanol extract,
the MIC of the C. cajan (Pigeon pea) leaf against
Tobacco waste water bacteria is 62.5µg10/µl
produced 14.5mm zone of inhibition. The MIC
against Tannery waste water bacteria and Sugar Mill
waste water bacteria produced 16.5 mm and 17.0
mm zone of inhibition respectively (Table 5).

Table 1. Determination of antibacterial activity of Ethanol extract of Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)
Source of Bacterial Strain Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition (mm)
Positive Control Negative Extract Concentration (g/10l)
(Cloxaciline 10g/l) Control
500 250 125 62.5
Tannery waste water bacteria 25.23±0.32 - 22.0 18.5 17.0 16.5
Tobacco waste water bacteria 24.16±0.23 - 19.5 19.0 18.0 14.5
Sugar Mill waste water bacteria 26.00±0.00 - 21.0 20.0 18.0 17.0

Table 2. Determination of antibacterial activity of Ethyl Acetate extract of Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea)
Source of Bacterial Strain Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition (mm)
Positive Control Negative Extract Concentration (g/10l)
(Cloxaciline 10g/l) Control
500 250 125 62.5
Tannery waste water bacteria 25.23±0.32 - 22.5 21.0 20.5 20.0
Tobacco waste water bacteria 24.16±0.23 - 23.0 22.0 20.0 18.0
Sugar Mill waste water bacteria 26.00±0.00 - 23.5 19.5 18.0 16.0

~ 98 ~
Table 3. Determination of antibacterial activity of Chloroform extract of Pigeon pea (C. cajan)
Source of Bacterial Strain Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition (mm)
Positive Control Negative Extract Concentration (g/10l)
(Cloxaciline 10g/l) Control
500 250 125 62.5
Tannery waste water bacteria 25.23±0.32 - 18.0 16.5 12.0 11.5
Tobacco waste water bacteria 24.16±0.23 - 15.5 12.0 9.0 8.5
Sugar Mill waste water bacteria 26.00±0.00 - 17.0 14.0 13.0 10.0

Table 4. Determination of antibacterial activity of N-Hexane extract of Pigeon pea (C. cajan)
Source of Bacterial Strain Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition (mm)
Positive Control Negative Extract Concentration (g/10l)
(Cloxaciline 10g/l) Control
500 250 125 62.5
Tannery waste water bacteria 25.23±0.32 - 19.0 16.5 12.0 10.5
Tobacco waste water bacteria 24.16±0.23 - 11.5 9.0 8.0 5.5
Sugar Mill waste water bacteria 26.00±0.00 - 14.0 10.0 8.0 6.0

Table 5. Comparison study of minimum inhibitory concentration of ethanol and ethyl acetate extract of C. cajan (Pigeon pea
leaf).
Source of Bacterial Strain Minimum Inhibitory Concentration(MIC)
Ethanol extract Zone of inhibition Ethyl Acetate Zone of
(µg/10µl) (mm) extract (µg/10µl) inhibition (mm)
Tannery waste water bacteria 19.0 16.5 12.0 10.5
Tobacco waste water bacteria 11.5 9.0 8.0 5.5
Sugar Mill waste water bacteria 14.0 10.0 8.0 6.0

For the Ethyl Acetate extract, the MIC of the C.
cajan (Pigeon pea) leaf against Sugar Mill waste
water bacteria is 62.5µg/10µl produced 16.0 mm
zone of inhibition. The Ethyl Acetate extract of C.
cajan (Pigeon pea) against Tobacco waste water
bacteria and Tannery waste water bacteria also
showed the MIC at 62.5µg/10µl that produced
18.0mm and 20 mm zone of inhibition respectively
(Table 5).
DISCUSSION
Antimicrobial activity of extracts of C. cajan using
different extraction solvents was investigated. The
phytochemical characteristics possessed by C. cajan
may be attributed to their antimicrobial properties.
This finding agrees with similar study by [7].
High level of reduction was recorded as the
concentration of extract increased comparable with
standard antibiotics used. The growth inhibitory
effect was concentration dependent [5]. This is
important in considering dosage and rate at which the
extract inhibits the growth of organism [6] this means
that the extracts were as effective as standard
antibiotic used. The present study showed that
extracts of leaf C. cajan generally have antimicrobial
properties against the test industrial effluents.
The results of this work indicated that the various
soluble extracts of C. cajan had antibacterial properties.
When the extracts were tested on all the above
mentioned industrial effluents, different zones of
inhibition were produced by each of the strain. These
differences in the zones of inhibition may be directly
related to the susceptibility of each test organisms
present in the waste water to the C. cajan extracts. The
factors responsible for this high susceptibility to the
extracts are not exactly known but may be attributed to
the presence of secondary plant metabolites. It was clear
from this work that the extraction solvents affected
the degree of antibacterial activity of the extracts. The
result of ethyl Acetate extract showed very good
antibacterial activity against Sugar waste water
bacteria with maximum zone of inhibition 23.5mm
at 500µg/10µl concentration. This extract show good
antibacterial activity against Tannery waste water
bacteria and Tobacco waste water bacteria.
Chloroform extract also showed moderate
antibacterial activity against Tannery waste water
bacteria, Sugar waste water bacteria with zone of
inhibition 18.0 mm and 17.0mm using the
500µg/10µl concentration. The ethanol extract
showed antibacterial activity against all of the test
strain. The result indicated that n-hexane extract
showed antibacterial activity against all the tested
effluents with zone of inhibition 19.0 mm ~ 11.5 mm
using the concentration of 500µg/10µl.
Result of our study suggests the possibility of
using the organic extracts of C. cajan as natural
antimicrobial in pharmaceutical industry because
they possess positive antibacterial activities. Since
the extracts showed marked antibiotic potencies, it

~ 99 ~
may be said that new era has been explored in the
field of control of organisms. It can be concluded
from the study that the extracts showed a significant
antibacterial activity against all the tested industrial
effluents. However, a sub chronic toxicity test has to
be conducted to establish the adverse effects of a
repeated response to C. cajan extract
CONCLUSION
Based on the result, we have considered that the
extract of C. cajan have strong antibacterial activity
against all bacteria present in different industrial waste
water.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We wish to thank Professor Dr. Md. Rezuanul
Islam, Chairman, Dept. of Biotechnology and
Genetic Engineering. Islamic University,
Kushtia-7003 Bangladesh to support financially and
guide to complete this project.
REFERENCES
[1] KA Hammer, CF Carson and TV Riley.1999.
Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and other
plant extracts. J. Appl. Microbiol. 86(6): 985.
[2] S Gibbons. 2003. An overview of plant extracts as
potential therapeutics. Expert Opin. Ther. Pat. 13(4):
489-497.
[3] K Arokiyaraj, P Perinbam, R Agastian and K Mohan.
2009. Phytochemical analysis and antibacterial
activity of Vitex agnus-castus. International Journal
of Green Pharmacy. 34:162-164.
[4] MW Iwu, AR Duncan and CO Okunji. 1999. New
antimicrobials of plant origin. In: Janick J (editor),
Perspectives on new crops and new uses. ASHS
Press. Alexandria, pp. 457-462.
[5] OK Achi. 2006. Composition and antibacterial
activities of Tetrapleura tetraptera Taub. pod
extracts. Journal of Microbiology. 1 (5): 416 – 422.
[6] LO Egwari. 1999. Antibacterial activity of crude
extracts of Nauclea latifolia and Eugenia aromatica.
West AfricanJournal Pharmacology drug Res. 15
(1-2): 55 –59.
[7] AM Kilani. 2006. Antibacterial assessment of whole
stem bark of Vitex doniana against some
enterobacteriaceae. African Journal of Biotechnology.
(10): 958-959.

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 E19
Risk Assessment of Pesticide Exposure
on Farmers Health in Kaliakair Upazila
Ahmad Kamruzzaman Majumder*, Shahriar Iqbal, Md. Enayet Hossain,
Nur Alam Mistri and Wahed Uddin
Department of Environmental Science, Stamford University Bangladesh, Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1209, Bangladesh
e-mail: kamrul_sub@hotmail.com*, isnbd06@yahoo.com, nur_alam1985@yahoo.com.sg,
wahid.uddin@hotmail.com
Abstract
Present study evaluates the level of farmers' pesticide use practiced to rice pest control, their knowledge and perception of
the impact of pesticides on health and environment. Data have been collected from 300 farmers of Kaliakair Upazila of
Bangladesh. For the case of spraying in the agricultural field the respondents found that 89% spend their spraying time for
less than 2 hours whereas only 11% spend their time more than 2 hours. The study found that, almost all the symptoms
studied were found frequent for the farmers of sprayer group compared to the farmers of non sprayer group. Of the
symptoms, headache (123), excessive sweating (130) and thirst (121) were found major in the farmers of sprayer group. In
terms of knowledge regarding different aspects of pesticide use and its effects showed that the respondents of sprayers
group have more knowledge (132 and 136) than that of respondents of non sprayers group (112 and 123 respectively).

INTRODUCTION comparison to other developing countries. It is 0.03

The rapid increase of pesticide use is causing
detrimental effect on environment and health of farm
workers and consumers. Pesticides are contaminating
ground and surface water, which is causing depletion
of inland fishing resources and ecosystem. Pesticide
use in crop production has been suspected of being a
major contribution to environmental pollution. There
are widespread and growing concerns of pesticide
over-use, relating to a number of dimensions such as
contamination of ground water, surface water, soils
and food, and the consequent impacts on wildlife and
human health [1]. Farmers often spray hazardous
insecticides like organophosphates and organochlorine
up to five to six times in one cropping season while
only two applications may be sufficient [2]. The usual
practice of draining paddy water into irrigation canals
may cause river and lake contamination. Residues
carried by the water can be taken up by non-target
flora and fauna, leach in to soil, and possibly
contaminate groundwater or potable water. A greater
problem lies in the bioaccumulation of pesticides in
beneficial organisms like fish. Residues in food pose
to consumers if the maximum residue limit set by
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World
Health Organization (WHO) is exceeded [3].
Pesticide as agricultural input was introduced in
Bangladesh in 1957 and mainly DDT and BHC was
distributed by the Government to the farmers free of
cost until 1973. The pesticides become very popular
to the farmers for two reasons; firstly quick and
visible effect on pest and secondly, no cost
involvement. In 1974, the subsidy was reduced to
50% and in 1979 it was withdrawn completely. As a
result at first pesticide use declined and again
gradually increased and in 1999 the amount reached
15000 metric tons. At present 84 pesticides with 242
trade names have been registered in Bangladesh [4].
The use of pesticides in Bangladesh is less in
kg/ha compared to 0.3 kg/ha in India, 0.4 kg/ha in Sri
Lanka and 0.8 kg/ha in Indonesia [4]. Currently,
14,340.40 metric tons of commercial pesticides are
used annually, primarily in the cultivation of rice, tea,
jute, sugarcane and vegetables. About 70% of
pesticides are used on rice. Pesticides used on rice
consist almost exclusively of insecticides, but
fungicides are used occasionally. In 1989-90 almost
90% of pesticides were used on rice. In Bangladesh,
insect pests' outbreak is frequent in rice and crop
losses occurred due to rice insect pest attack up to
80% [5]. Another surveys of 291 households every
week for seven months in 2005 to understand acute
health symptoms and to estimate health costs
associated with pesticide exposure in rural Nepal [6].
The study finds that the magnitude of exposure to
insecticides and fungicides significantly influenced
the occurrence of acute symptoms.
With this background, the present study has been
carried out to assess the risk of pesticide exposure on
farmer’s health in Kaliakair Upazila of Dhaka district.
The study also aim to evaluate the knowledge,
attitude and perception of farmers in respects to
spraying pesticide and its health and Economic loss.
METETIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in Kaliakair Upazila
which is located at 24°σ to 24° 15’σ and λ0°08”E to
λ0°22”E in Gazipur district of Dhaka Division.
Kaliakair Upazila with an area of 314.14 sq km, is
bounded by mirzapur and sakhipur upazilas on the
north, savar and gazipur sadar upazilas on the south,
Gazipur sadar and sreepur upazilas on the east,
Mirzapur and Dhamrai upazilas on the west. It
consists of 9 union parishads, 181 mouzas and 283
villages. This study was conducted between March
2013 to May 2013. The Upazila consists of 9 Union
from which 3 unions was selected from which 10

~ 101 ~
villages were considered for the present study. From farmers of both sprayers (139) and non sprayer group
10 villages of the Upazila, 300 respondents were (70) argued that weakness is a very common
selected based on random sampling technique. Of symptoms experienced by them.
those 300 respondents, 150 respondents were sprayer
group and the remaining 150 were in non sprayer Table 1. General characteristics of sample farmers
group. A reconnaissance survey was conducted Issues Frequency (N=300) Percent (%)
before finalizing the sample villages and respondents Age Group
in early March 2013. The data analysis was carried
Less than 20 Years 22 7
out using SPSS 16 and included calculation of
percentages and proportions and application of the 21-30 Years 47 16
test of significance. 31-40 Years 125 42
Above 40 Years 106 35
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Gender
The age group of the respondents in the study area
found (Table 1) that more than 42% respondents are Male 241 80
31 to 40 years of age followed by 35% in age group Female 59 20
above 40 years old. Of the sample respondents 80% Education Statues
were male whereas only 20% were female. The No Schooling 36 12
educational status of the respondents in the study Primary 195 65
area was found that 65% farmers have primary
S.S.C 49 16
education followed by SSC education of 16% of the
respondents whereas only 12% respondents have H.S.C 20 7
found no education. Its implies that the average Occupation
literacy rate of the study area is better than the Agriculture 201 65
national average of 57% (BBS, 2010). About 65% of Wage labor 48 16
the respondents are engaged in agricultural
Business 22 7
occupation followed by 16% of the respondents
engaged in wage labor. The maximum respondents Other 29 10
of 50% are found to have their monthly income Monthly income in BDT.
more than BDT. 8000 followed by BDT. 3000 to Less Than 3000 31 10
5000 of 21% respondents. 3000-5000 62 21
Table 2 showed the pesticide exposure assessment 5000-8000 151 50
of the respondents. Study showed that most of the Above 8000 56 19
respondents have been working duration for 11 to 15
years (44%) and 16 to 20 years (30%). The minimum
numbers of workers (3%) found working above 20 Table 2. Pesticide exposure assessment of the respondents
years in the agricultural field. The number of days Issues Frequency (N=150) Percent (%)
working per year was found highest 63% for 31 to 60 Working Duration (Years)
days followed by 17% of the respondents for the Less than 5 Years 11 7
working day of less than 30 days. Minimum 6-10 Years 24 16
respondents (9%) found to work above 90 days per 11-15 Years 65 44
annum. Similarly maximum respondents of 47% 16-20 Years 45 30
found to work 3 to 6 hours in a day whereas above 20 Years 5 3
minimum respondents of 17% work for more than 6 Working Day/year
hours a day. For the case of spraying in the Less than 30 days 25 17
agricultural field the respondents found that 89% 31-60 days 95 63
spend their spraying time for less than 2 hours 61-90 days 16 11
whereas only 11% spend their time more than 2 above 90 days 14 9
hours. Working Hour/day
An investigation was conducted among the Less than 3 hours 54 36
farmers of sprayers and non sprayers group on the 3-6 hours 70 47
different symptoms experienced by them during the above 6 hours 26 17
last one year. The outcome of the investigation is Working Time in farms( hr/day)
given in the table 3 where it is found that almost all Less than 3 hours 18 12
the symptoms studied were found frequent for the 3-6 hours 78 52
farmers of sprayer group compared to the farmers of above 6 hours 54 36
non sprayer group. Of the symptoms, headache (123), Spraying Time (hr/day)
excessive sweating (130) and thirst (121) were found 1-2 hours 133 89
major in the farmers of sprayer group whereas above 2 hours 17 11

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Table 3. Symptoms experienced by farmers in connection Table 4 has shown a comparative assessment of
with spraying pesticides within the last year (Positive the respondent’s knowledge regarding the use of
answer). pesticides between sprayers and non sprayer’s
Issues Sprayers Non Sprayers categories. The study revealed that most of the
(N=150) (N=150) respondents of both categories do not have IPM
training. The respondents of non sprayer’s category

Frequency

Frequency
Percent

Percent
(110) have much knowledge on reading the labeling
in the bottle/container whereas only 72 respondents
of sprayer group read the label. In terms of knowledge
Blurred vision 121 81 50 33 regarding different aspects of pesticide use and its
Chest pain 80 53 20 13 effects showed that the respondents of sprayers group
Concentration loss 78 52 24 16 have more knowledge (136 and 132) than that of
Cough 90 60 12 8 respondents of non sprayers group (123 and 114).
Diarrhea 77 51 15 10 On the other hand Table 5 portrayed that due to
Dizziness 67 45 17 11
spraying of pesticides in the agricultural filed the
Excessive sweating 130 89 32 21
maximum respondents (47%) experienced one
Eye irritation 139 93 50 33
symptom per annum whereas only 21% respondents
Headache 123 82 42 28
experienced 2 symptoms in a year. The loss of work
Muscle pain 90 60 45 30
day of the respondents of the sprayer category due to
Nausea 70 47 21 14
illness was found maximum 0-5 day per annum
Nose irritation 56 37 13 9
Respiratory depression
(52%) followed by more than 10 days (28%). For the
69 46 15 10
Skin irritation/burn
medication, the respondents found to have
85 57 24 16
Sneezing 78 52 16 11
expenditure of BDT. 1000 to 2000 for the maximum
Stomach pain 88 59 17 11
respondents of 31% followed by less than BDT. 1000
Thirst 121 81 41 27 representing 30% of the respondents. About 43% of
Throat discomfort 125 83 43 29 the respondents found to have more than BDT. 2000
Trembling 67 45 27 18 per annum of the loss of productivity and there is a
Vomiting 120 80 32 21 gradual inclination in the regard.
White patches on skin 65 43 18 12 Table 5. Economic loss of spraying pesticides within the
Weakness 139 93 70 47 last 1 year (N=150 Sprayers)
Issues Frequency Percent
Table 4. Knowledge about the pesticide use (%positive
answer) Symptoms experienced (No/person/year)
Issues Non Nill 35 23
Sprayers Total
Sprayers 1 time 70 47
(N=150) (N=300)
(N=150) 2 times 31 21
f % f % f % 3 times 14 9
Have you received IPM Work day loss for illness (day/person/year)
20 13 16 10 36 23
Training
0-5 days 78 52
Have you ever read the label in
72 48 110 73 182 121 6-10 days 30 20
pesticide container?
Knowledge regarding the effect Above 10 days 42 28
136 91 123 82 259 173
of excessive use of pesticide Medication Costs (BDT/year/household)
Knowledge regarding direction Nill 40 27
123 82 124 83 247 165
of pesticide spray Less than 1000 BDT 45 30
Knowledge on worst impact of 1000-2000 BDT 46 31
132 88 114 76 246 164
improper handling of pesticide
Above 2000 BDT 19 12
Knowledge regarding cause of
120 80 118 79 238 159 Productivity loss (BDT/year/household)
the harmfulness of the pesticide
Knowledge regarding toxic Less than 1000 BDT 34 23
107 71 82 55 189 126
effects of pesticide 1000-2000 BDT 51 34
Knowledge on primary Above 2000 BDT 65 43
treatment of the toxicity of 109 73 101 67 210 140
WTP for safer pesticides (BDT/year/household)
pesticide
Nill 40 27
Use of protective gear while
127 85 140 93 267 178 Less than 1000 BDT 70 46
handling of pesticide?
Urgent need for creating more 1000-2000 BDT 25 17
150 100 150 100 300 100
awareness among the farmers? Above 2000 BDT 15 10

~ 103 ~
During the study the willingness to pay (WTP) of the
respondents were investigated for safer pesticides.
46% of the respondents found to have WTP of less
than BDT. 1000 per household per annum whereas
only 10% respondents have WTP of more than BDT.
2000 and the expenditure for unsafe pesticides was
found less than BDT. 1000 for 50% of the
respondents.
CONCLUSION
The availability and use of obsolete pesticides
indicates that existing pesticide laws and regulations
are not strictly enforced in relation to import,
formulation, repackaging, distribution, advertising
and use of pesticides. Therefore, in Bangladesh the
laws and regulations of pesticide should be enforced
more strictly and a new policy should be enacted to
educate the farmers regarding the harmful impacts of
pesticides. There is an urgent need to assess the
impact of pesticides on human health and pollution
level of pesticides in soil, water and air in
Bangladesh.

REFERENCES
[1] A McLaughin and P Mineau. 1996. The impact of
agricultural practices on biodiversity. Agriculture,
ecosystems and environment, 55, 201-212, Elsevier
Netherlands
[2] VP Gandhi and NT Patel. 1997. Pesticides and the
environmentμ A comparative study of farmer’s
awareness and behaviour in Andhra Pradesh, Punjab
and Gujarat. Indian J. Agri. Econ, 52 (3): 519-529.
[3] PL Pingali and PA Roger (eds.). 1995. Impact of
Pesticides on Farmer Health and the Rice
Environment.Kluwer Academic Publisher, Boston.
[4] KMHA Kalam. 1998. Bangladesh Country Paper.
Environmental Assessment for Agricultural
Development in Asia and the Pacific, pp. 141-152.
Asian Productivity Organization (APO), Tokyo.
[5] JM Kim. 2000. Analysis of economic and
environmental effects of pesticide application with
special reference to vegetable production.
Acta-Horticulturae, 25 (524): 33-38
[6] A Kishor 2008. Health costs from short-term
exposure to pesticides in Nepal, Social Science and
Medicine, 67(4): 511-519.

~ 104 ~
 E20
Egg and Fry Production Performance of Female Tilapia
Related to Fluctuating Temperature and Size Variation
Md. Shahadat Hossan1, Suparna Biswas Ulka1, Md. Abdul Motin1,
Md. Abdul Kadir Tarafder2, Zahid Parvez Sukhan2, and Harunur Rashid1*
1Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2002, Bangladesh
2Sharnalata Agro-Fisheries Ltd., Radhakanai, Fulbaria, Mymensingh, Bangladesh

e-mail: rashid@bau.edu.bd
Abstract
Female Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus of six body weight (200, 250, 300, 350, 400 and 450 g) were studied to estimate
egg and fry production performance in fluctuating temperature and size of fish at Sharnalata Agro-fisheries Ltd.,
Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Water temperature was 31-36°C and 29±0.5°C in the broodstock pond and incubator,
respectively during experimental period. Histological observation of ovary showed that water temperature has significant
effect on egg production (P < 0.01). Egg production decreased with increased water temperature and relative fecundity
decreased significantly with the increasing body weight of female (P < 0.01). Maximum number of eggs, 1342±10.54 and
1377.33±48.27 were found at 32°C and 250 g female, respectively. Histological sections of ovaries from 250 g and 300 g
females showed higher number of mature eggs compared to other weight categories. Reproductive performance in O.
niloticus can be improved by selecting 250 to 350 g brood and rearing them near or below 32°C temperature.

INTRODUCTION of eggs; medium body weights produce higher

Tilapia has been dubbed as the “aquatic chicken”
[1] of which the most widely farmed stock is the Nile
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Word-Fish Center
has developed the genetically improved farmed
tilapia (GIFT) strain through several generations of
selections involving eight different pure breeds of
Nile tilapia O. niloticus strain and it is the most
widely farmed variety and performs 60% better growth
and 50% better survival than other commercially
available strains of tilapia [2]. The high growth rate,
resistant to adverse environmental and management
conditions, and low production cost makes tilapia as
the most important commercial species in Bangladesh.
The attributes that make Nile tilapia so suitable for
fish farming are its resistance against harsh conditions,
ease of breeding, rapid growth rate, ability to
efficiently convert organic and domestic wastes into
high quality protein and good taste [3, 4].
Several environmental and physiological factors
are practically involved in fish gonadal maturation
and spawning, hence facilitate hatchery production
[5]. In natural water bodies, tilapia species can show
large variations in its reproductive characteristics [6].
In culture situations, tilapias tend to produce more
but smaller oocytes than under natural conditions [7].
Major environmental factors involved in cueing
reproductive activity are temperature and photo-
period [8–11]. Temperature is generally the most
variable environmental parameter and also the most
controllable in hatchery condition. It has been
considered as the most thoroughly investigated
environmental factor influencing fish reproduction.
Sexual maturity in tilapia species is a function of
age, size, and environmental conditions. O.
mossambicus, in general, reaches sexual maturity at a
smaller size and younger age than O. niloticus and O.
aureus. Body weight of tilapia influences the number
number of eggs compared to the small and large
body weight. The difference in fecundities (seed/
female/spawning season) could be related to
differences in size and age of brood used [12] and the
relative fecundity in Nile tilapia has been shown to
decrease with increased female size and age [13].
Considering all these facts, the present study was
conducted to determine the effect of fluctuating
temperature and size of brood on egg and fry
production performance of O. niloticus.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. Experimental fish and site
Brood stock of GIFT strain of Nile tilapia were
collected from Bangladesh Fisheries Research
Institute (BFRI) and reared at the Sharnalata Agro
Fisheries Ltd., Mymensingh, Bangladesh.
Experiments were conducted during January to
August, 2010.
B. Brood rearing in pond
Tilapia broods were stocked in ponds at a density
of 6-7 per m2, reared for 3 months, and fed twice
daily with floating feed (30% protein) at 1.5-2%
body weight. 30% pond water was replaced at 15
days interval.
C. Selection of brood and stocking in hapa
Based on the body weight, broods were
categorized in six group (200, 250, 300, 350, 400 and
450 g) and stocked in separate breeding hapa (5m3)
at a density of 6 per m2 at 1:2 male-female ratio.
D. Measurement of temperature, collection of egg,
counting, and incubation
Temperature was measured every day, fertilized
eggs were collected at every 15 days interval from
the mouth of female tilapia, transported to hatchery,

~ 105 ~
then treated with salt solution, counted carefully, and Table 2. Numbers of eggs produced per female tilapia at
placed into incubator with controlled water flow of different sizes.
recirculating system. Weight of female (g) Number of eggs/female
E. Counting of hatchlings ~ 200 1201.00±27.62
After hatching out, the hatchlings were counted
~ 250 1377.33±48.27
and hatching rate was calculated using the formula,
Hatching rate = (No. of hatched fry/No. of fertilized ~ 300 1298.66±23.81
egg)×100. ~ 350 1216.33±49.37
F. Histological study of ovary
~ 400 989.67±40.00
Ovary of each weight category tilapia at very
~ 450 820.67±9.02
sampling day were collected and fixed in Bouin’s
fixative for 24 hrs at 4OC. Gonad tissues were then

in paraffin, sectioned at 5 m thickness, staining

processed using graded series of ethanol, embedded
1600

1400
using Haematoxylene-Eosin stain, and mounting by
1200
DPX mounding agent. Ovary section were then

Number of egg
1000
examined under microscope (Olympus).
800

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 600

A. Effect of temperature on egg production 400

200
There were direct effect of temperature on egg
0
production of tilapia (Table 1). Egg production 31 31.5 32 32.5 33 33.5 34 34.5 35 35.5
decreased with increasing water temperature. Pond water temperature (°C)

and no egg was found when the temperature was 

Maximum eggs (1342±10.54) were found at 32°C
Fig. 1. Relationships between number of egg and water
35°C. The correlation between water temperature and temperature at 250 g body weight of female Oreochromis
niloticus.
number of eggs produced per female was negatively
significant (P < 0.01) and egg production per female
1600
decreased with the increasing temperature (Fig. 1).
1400
Table 1. Number of eggs produced per female tilapia (~ 250 1200
Number of egg

g weight) at different temperature.

1000

Water temperature (°C) Number of eggs/female 800

600
31.5 218.66±15.50
400
32.0 1342.00±10.54
200

33.0 1305.00±8.89 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
33.5 801.66±22.55
Body weight (g)
34.0 636.33±39.27
Fig. 2. Relationships between number of egg and body
35.0 0 weight of Oreochromis niloticus at 32°C temperature.

Temperature is considered as the crucial cue in
gonadal development in many fish species [10, 11].
Temperature of 21-23°C is the minimum range
required for spawning of fish [14]. Temperatures
above 20°C trigger the development of secondary
sexual characteristics and nest building [7]. Nile
tilapia does not lay eggs in water temperature of
below 19°C and above 32°C, and the most favorable
productive period coincided with a rise in water
temperature range from 22 to 27°C [11].
B. Effect of body weight on egg production
Numbers of eggs per female were significantly
higher in 250~300 weight tilapia compared with
other weight category (Table 2) and higher weight
fish tend to produce less number of eggs (Fig. 2).
Number of egg and body weight of female showed
inverse relationship [15, 16], similar findings were
observed in the present study. The difference in
fecundities (seed/female/spawning season) could be
related to differences in size and age of brood used
[12]. Comparison of reproductive performance of
tilapia could be a complicated issue because it is
affected by brood size, spawning history, production
setting, and the limitation of broodstock selection.
Unfortunately, broodstocks used in the present study
were selected randomly and largely of unknown age.
Oreochromis species is a mouth-brooder in nature
with small gonads and produce less than 700 eggs
[17] and fecundity ranged from 243 to 1847 eggs in
all sizes [18]. The present study confirmed that
fecundity was significantly related to fish body

~ 106 ~
weight (1377.33±48.27 ~ 820.67±9.02 eggs in 250 g 250g and 300g female tilapia contained the highest
~ 450 g tilapia). ME compared to others stages with very few YVS
C. Effect of body weight on stages of ovarian cells and EP oocytes. 350 g weight female contained
higher number of early stage (EP, LP) and few
Five different stages of ovarian cells were numbers of later stage (YVS, ME) oocytes. Besides
observed in the histological observation of different the highest number of eggs (1377.33±48.27), more
weight tilapia and mentioned in Table 3 in detail. mature eggs were evident in the 250 g female.
Numbers of mature eggs in histological sections were
Table 3. Intensity of ovarian cells observed in different decreased with the increasing body weight. This
body weight tilapia. results are also correlated with previous histological
Body
EP LP YVS PM ME Fig. No. study that the ovaries of O. niloticus contained less
weight number of mature egg with increasing body weight
~ 200 ++ ++ + + +++ Fig. 3 [19].
~ 250 + × + × +++ Fig. 4
~ 300 + × +++ Fig. 5
~ 350 +++ +++ × × +++ Fig. 6
~ 400 + × × × + Fig. 7
~ 450 + × × × + Fig. 8
EP, early perinucleolar; LP, late perinucleolar, YVS, yolk- vesicle
(YVS), PM, pre-maturation; ME, mature egg. +: very few; ++: few;
+++: more; ×: none Fig. 5. Haematoxylin-eosin stained sections of tilapia ovary
at 300g body weight fish (a-b). (a) YVS, yolk vesicle stage.
(b) ME, mature egg.

Fig. 6. Haematoxylin-eosin stained sections of tilapia ovary

of 350g body weight fish (a-b). (a) EP, early perinucleolar
stage; LP, late perinucleolar stage; YVS, yolk vesicle stage.
(b) ME, mature egg.

Fig. 3. Haematoxylin-eosin stained sections of tilapia ovary

at 200g body weight fish (a-d). (a) EP, early perinucleolar
stage; LP, late perinucleolar stage (b) YVS, yolk vesicle
stage. (c) PM, pre-maturation stage. (d) ME, mature egg.

Fig. 7. Haematoxylin-eosin stained sections of tilapia ovary

at 400g body weight fish (a-b). (a) EP, early perinucleolar
stage ; YVS, yolk vesicle stage . (b) ME, mature egg.

Fig. 4. Haematoxylin-eosin stained sections of tilapia ovary

at 250g body weight fish (a-c). (a) EP, early perinucleolar Fig. 8. Haematoxylin-eosin stained sections of tilapia ovary
stage; (b) YVS, yolk vesicle stage. (c) ME, mature egg. at 450g body weight fish. (a) EP, early perinucleolar stage;
ME, mature egg.

~ 107 ~
 CONCLUSION and cultivation of Fish. Fishing News Ltd., Farnham.
Surry, England, U.K.
It can be concluded that temperature and body [15] RR Velasco. 2003. Reproductive biology of tilapias.
weight have a significant effect on egg production pp. 1-12. In: Training manual on brood stock
performance of tilapia. For Nile tilapia broodstock management and sex reversal o tilapia using GIFT
pond, it better to maintain water temperature at Protocol. GIFT Foundation International Inc.
31-32°C. Moreover medium size body weights (250 [16] MP Masser. 1999. Tilapia; life history and biology.
and 300 g) are good for egg production compared to Southern Regional Aquaculture Center.
small and large size fish. For better tilapia hatchery [17] RD Gurrero. 1994. Commercial fry production of
management temperature and body weight of brood Tilapia nilotica using concrete tanks in the
Philippines. Auburn University, Auburn, USA. Paper
should be managed in recommended ways. presented at the Aquaculture Symposium.
[18] DJ Macintosh and DC Little. 1995. Broodstock
REFERENCES management and fry production of the Nile tilapia
[1] JL Maclean. 1984. Tilapia- the aquatic chicken. Oreochromis niloticus. In: Broodfish management
ICLARM Newsletter, 7(1): 17. and egg and larval quality. Blackwell Science.
[2] AE Eknath, MM Tayamen, MS Palade-de Vrea, JC Editors: Bromage, N. R. and R. J. Roberts. Oxford.
Danting, and RSV Pullin. 1993. Genetic pp. 277-320.
Improvement of farm Tilapia: the growth [19] J Srijunngam and K Wattanasirmkit. 2001.
performances of eight strains of Oreochromis Histological structures of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis
niloticus tested in different farm environments. niloticus ovary. The Natural History Journal of
Aquaculture, 11(1): 171-188. Chulalongkorn University, 1(1): 53-59.
[3] GJ de Graaf, F Galemoni, and EA Huisman. 1999.
Reproductive biology of pond reared Nile tilapia,
Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture Res., 30: 25-33.
[4] Y Yi, CK Lin, and JS Diana. 1996. Influence of Nile
tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus stocking density on
their growth and yield in cages and ponds containing
the cages. Aquaculture, 146: 205-215.
[5] N Bromage, M Porter, and C Randall. 2001. The
environmental regulation of maturation in farmed
finfish with special reference to the role of
potoperiod and melatonin. Aquaculture, 197: 63-98.
[6] RH Lowe-McConnell. 1982. Tilapias in fish
communities. pp. 83-113. In: RSV Pullin and RH
Lowe-McConnell (ed.), The biology and culture of
tilapias, ICLARM Conference Proceedings 7,
Manilla.
[7] G Fryer and TD Iles. 1972. The cichlid fishes of the
great lakes of Africa. Oliver and Boyd, London. 641
p.
[8] KN Eyeson. 1983. Stunting and reproduction in
pond-reared Sarotherodon melanotheron.
Aquaculture, 31: 257-267.
[9] L Emit, I Etcheri, and O Umoren. 1989. Aspects of
the reproductive biology of Tilapia guineensi in
Editas Pond, Nigeria. Rev. Zool. Afr. J. Zool., 103:
127-134.
[10] ZA El-Greisy. 1993. Effect of some environmental
and physiological characteristics on reproduction of
Mugil capito in Egypt. M.Sc. Thesis, Institute of
Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria
University, Egypt.
[11] GO El-Naggar, MA El-Nady, MG Kamar, and AI
Al-Kholy. 2000. Effect of photoperiod, dietary
protein and temperature on reproduction in
NileTilapia, Oreochromis niloticus 5th International
symposium for tilapia aquaculture (ISTA) September
3-7, Barzil.
[12] LC Lim. 2006. Larviculture of the greasy grouper
Epinephelus tauvina and brown marbled grouper E.
fuscoguttatus in Singapore. Aquaculture, 24:
262-274.
[13] EM Cruz and GC Mair. 1989. Conditions for
effective androgen sex reversal in Oreochromis
niloticus. Aquaculture, 122: 237-248.
[14] M Huet. 1972. Textbook of fish culture: Breeding

~ 108 ~
 E21
Histological Study of Gametogenesis in Endangered Pabo
Catfish (Ompok Pabo) from the Sylhet Basin in the North-East
Bangladesh
Md. Abdul Motin1 , Md. Reaz Uddin Sarkar2, Majnoonnaher Maya1, Md. Jahangir
Alam1 , Zahid Parvez Sukhan3, Harunur Rashid1, *
1Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
2 National Project Diractor, Establishment of Fisheries Diploma Institute at Gopalganj, Kishoreganj and
Sirajganj District Project, Department of Fisheries, Matshya Bhaban, Dhaka.
3Sharnalata Agro Fisheries Ltd., Radhakanai, Fulbaria, Mymensingh, Bangladesh

*Corresponding Author: Tel: +88-01924-429971; e-mail: rashid@bau.edu.bd

Abstract
The endangered pabo catfish (Ompok pabo), from the Sylhet basin in the North-east Bangladesh, was studied to determine
length-weight relationships, gonado-somatic index (GSI) and stages of oocytes and testicular germ cells from September to
December 2010. Length-weight relationships and condition factor were determined from the pooled data collected over the
study period. The b value ranged from 2.291879 to 3.112763 indicated isometric growth of pabo catfish. GSI value for
female was found highest 4.06 in September and lowest 1.55 in November and for male it was highest 0.76 in December
and lowest 0.43 in October. GSI values suggested spent condition of ovary and testes. Oogonia (OG), perinucleolar oocyte
(PNO), previtellogenic oocyte (PVO) and yolk granule (YG) stages of oocytes were observed in developing ovary. It was
also observed that oocytes did not develop synchronously. Similarly, spermatocytes (SC), spermatids (ST) and spermatozoa
(SZ) stages of testicular germ cells observed during histological study. October samples were found filled with SC and
empty lumen of tubules (LU) indicating spent phase of testes. Present study suggests that September-December is the post
spawning season for pabo catfish and during this period pabo catfish persevere good health in the Sylhet basin.

INTRODUCTION Knowledge on reproductive biology of fish is

The pabo catfish (Ompok pabo) locally known as
‘kala pabda’ is one of the important and popular
freshwater catfish of Bangladesh. It is delicious, less
spiny and high valued fish. Pabo catfish is
non-migratory and remains in one habitat throughout
of its life [1, 2]. It is omnivorous, feeds on
crustacean larvae, fish fries, zooplankton, algae and
small portion of sand and mud. It is found in quiet,
shallow, often muddy water, in sandy streams, rivers
to tanks and also occurs in canals, beels and
inundated fields. In the past, this fish was abundantly
available in wetlands (haors) of Sylhet basin
(depression) in the North-east region of Bangladesh
[3, 4]. Sylhet basin is a distinct type of floodplain in
the North-east region of Bangladesh which included
Netrokona district and eastern part of Kishoregonj
district. The North-east region of Bangladesh is the
largest flooding basin and rich in freshwater fish and
is often called as the “fish mine” of Bangladesh. But
fish production from this natural source is declining
increasingly due to climate change, environmental
degradation, overfishing and many other manmade
interventions
Presently, distribution of pabo catfish population
has been reduced alarmingly and IUCN Bangladesh
[5] already been recognized it as an endangered fish.
According to Rashid et al. [6], this fish is the mostly
rare among the three endangered fishes under
Ompok genus, indicating having chances of critically
endangered status for pabo catfish. Therefore,
conservation of this species is an urgent issue for its
existence in nature.
useful for evaluating the commercial potentialities of
its stock, life history, culture and management
practice of its fishery [7]. Besides, information on
gonadal development and spawning season of a
species make its management easier. Studies on
reproductive physiology, on the other hand, can
also provide important and basic information on
the gonadal maturity, breeding potential and
breeding season of a species. Information on
reproductive physiology is particularly important
for threatened fish species concerning
conservation. There are many published reports
on length-weight relationship and histology of
different fish species. But a few works had been
done on length-weight relationship and GSI of
pabo catfish in Bangladesh.
Considering the above importance, the present
study was undertaken to examine some aspects of
reproductive biology of endangered pabo catfish
from the Sylhet basin in the north-east region of
Bangladesh.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. Collection of sample
A total of 18 pabo catfish were collected from
Mohongonj Bazar fish landing centre from
September to December 2010. The catch of this
landing centre is composed of harvests from
different wetlands (haors) around the Mohongonj
Upazilla under Netrakona district known as Sylhet
basin in north-east region of Bangladesh.

~ 109 ~
B. Recording length and weight (gonad and body) RESULTS
data A. Length-weight relationships
Total length (snout to caudal tip) and standard The body weight against the standard length
length (snout to caudal fork) of each collected fish measured from September to December, 2010 is
were measured by using a specialized scale and presented in Figure 1. The regression line has
recorded in cm. Length of each sample were intercept (q) = -4.11693 and the slope (b) =2.700422.
measured to the nearest 0.1cm and body weights and The correlation coefficients (r) obtained 0.960915
gonad weights to the nearest 0.1g. The body weight and the coefficient of determination (r2) was
and gonad weight were determined by a sensitive 0.923358. In the power curve equation of
portable electronic balance. Then length-weight length-weight relationship, the constant q was
relationship of pabo catfish was calculated with the 0.016294 and b was 2.700422. The power curve
help of power curve equation as: W=qLb and a equation is BW=0.016294SL2.700422 presented in
linear form of natural logarithms as: lnW=lnq + the Figure 2. The condition factors, CFW of pabo
b(lnL); where W is the body weights, L is the total catfish was 1.0529 during the study period.
length, b and q is slope and intercept respectively.
C. Collection of gonads
The collected fish were dissected out carefully by
a scissor, starting from anus to lower jaw and the
belly was opened. Then the muscles of the abdomen
were cut from the anus towards the vertebral column
vertically. Muscles, fat tissue, digestive organs and
blood vessels were removed properly. After this the
gonads were taken out by a forceps. Then the ovary
and testes was removed carefully and placed on a
petridish. Then weight of the gonads was measured
very carefully with a sensitive portable electronic
balance. Finally, gonadal samples were cut into 3-5 Fig. 1. Standard length-body weight relationship of pabo
mm3 sized by a scissors and preserved in 10% catfish during study period
formalin fixative.
D. Calculation of gonado-somatic index (GSI)
GSI value of pabo catfish is calculated with the of
following formula.
GSI = (GW.BW) × 100
Where, GW = gonad weight; BW = body weight.
E. Study of Condition factor
The condition factor, K was calculated to
determining the condition of fish such as the degree
of wellbeing. The condition factor of pabo catfish
was calculated with the help of following equation: Fig. 2. Natural logarithm of standard length-natural
CF = W/Lb logarithm of body weight relationship of pabo catfish
during study period
F. Histological study of gonads
For historical study the preserved gonads were
taken out from the vials (kept in 10% formalin
fixatives) and put into cassette. Then dehydration of
gonads was carried out followed by clearing,
infiltration, embedding, sectioning, staining, and
GSI (%)

mounting.
G. Microscopic observation
After mounting the slides were observed under
electric microscope (Olympus) which was connected
to computer with a viewer (Magnus viewer). The
viewer was also equipped with a camera. By the help
September October November December
of this mechanism numerous photographs were
snapped at different magnification. Months
Fig. 3 GSI (%) values of female pabo catfish during study
period

~ 110 ~
 The GSI values of female and male pabo catfish
were calculated and found to be ranged from 1.55to
4.06 and 0.43to 0.76 respectively during the
study period. The highest GSI value of female 4.06
and male 0.76 were observed in September and
December respectively. Monthly mean GSI(%)
values of female and male pabo catfish are presented
in figure 3 and 4 respectively.
GSI (%)
October November December
Months
Fig. 4. GSI (%) values of male pabo catfish during study
period
B. Histological study of gametogenesis
PNO (perinucleolar oocyte), Previtellogenic
oocyte (PVO), and OG (oogonia) stages of oocytes
in September samples (Figure 5 a); PNO and PVO
stages of oocytes in October samples (Figure
5.b);only PNO stages of oocytes in November
samples (Figure 5.c) and PNO and YG stages of
oocytes in December samples (Figure 5) observed
in the histological study of ovary section.
Fig. 5. Sections of Ompok pabo ovary in September (a),
October (b), November (c) and December (d), 2010 at 40×
magnification
SC (spermatocytes) and empty lumen of tubules
(LU) in October samples (Figure 6.a); ST
(spermatids), SZ (spermatozoa) and LU in
November samples (Figure 6. b & c) and SC and ST
in December samples (Figure 6.d) were observed in
the histological study of the testes section.
~ 111 ~
Fig. 6. Sections of Ompok pabo testes in October (a),
November (b) & (c), and December (d), 2010 at 40×
magnification.
DISCUSSION
Indigenous pabo catfish (Ompok pabo) was
plenteously available in freshwater wetlands (haors)
in the north-east region of Bangladesh. But
presently, their distribution has been decrease
critically and recognized as an endangered fish. In
order to provide a guideline for conserving the
species in nature, present study was designed to
determine the length-weight relationship, GSI, and
stages of oocytes and testicular germ cells
September to December, 2010.
The relationships of body weight to standard
length of pabo catfish exposed q (intercept) and b
(slope) values. In the study, q value and b value for
pabo catfish were 0.016294 and 2.700422,
respectively. The ranges of b values were between
2.291879 to 3.112763 which included 3 indicating
isometric growth of pabo catfish population and the
obtained equation was BW=0.016294SL2.700422. The
relative condition factor, CFBW, obtained in the
present study was 1.052945, indicating that the fish
is in good condition throughout the study period.
The mean GSI values of female pabo catfish
ranged from 1.55 to 4.06 with the highest 4.06 in
September and male ranged from 0.43 to 0.76 with
the highest 0.76 in December. In the microscopic
observation of the ovary sections oogonia (O),
perinucleolar oocyte (NPO), previtellogenic oocyte
(PVO) and yolk granule stage (YG) was identified in
the ovary of pabo catfish. Likewise, in the
observation of the testicular sections spermatocytes
(SC), spermatids (ST) and spermatozoa (SZ) stages
and empty lumen of tubules (LU) was identified in
the testes of pabo catfish. The GSI of female
indicated spent ovary in September the
post-spawning season and onward. Similarly, GSI
values in male also indicated spent testes in
November and onward. Study of ovarian
gametogenesis reveals that most of the mature stages
of oocytes were absent in the ovary except for
December samples. Start of vitellogenesis in October
and yolk granule formation in December indicated
gradual maturation of oocytes and preparation for
the next breeding season. The GSI values complied
with that of histological observations of ovary
indicated by yolk granule formation in December
and increased GSI values in December from lowest
in November. Gametogenesis study in
post-spawning male identified spent testes. Again,
gradual increase in GSI value of testes is in
agreement with the histological observations of
testicular tissues, indicated by filling-up of empty
LU with ST and SZ with the progression of time. In
the current study, the highest value of GSI for female
found during post-spawning season in September
(4.06) was much less than the highest value found
during spawning season in June (14.45±2.37 [8]),
indicating a spent ovary in September and onward.
In case of male, although the GSI value of the
post-spawning male gradually increased from
October to December (0.43 to 0.76), was much less
than the highest value (1.006±0.326; [8]) during
spawning season in June, also indicating a spent
testes in November and onward. Testicular stages
were studied during September to December. From
the histological study of testis, the testicular germ
cell stages observed were spermatocytes (SC),
spermatids (ST) and spermatozoa (SZ) during
successive months. Post-spawning October samples
were filled with SC and with empty lumen of tubules
(LU), indicating spent phase of testes. From the
histological study of ovary during post-spawning
months, it was observed that ocytes developed
asynchronously. Occurrences of early stage oocytes
(oogonia, O; perineucleolar oocyte, PNO; and
previtellogenic oocyte, PVO) were evident during
the entire study period (September to December).
Maturing oocyte, yolk granule stage (YG) was
evident only during December together with early
oocytes, indication of gradual maturation of ovary
from spent phase.
Alam [8] 2009) studied earlier the reproductive
biology and gametogenesis of pabo catfish from the
Sylhet basin during June-August the spawning
season of the fish. The present study, conducted
from September-December, to get further
information on spent and maturing female and male
which will be helpful to better understand its
reproductive physiology towards designing
management and conservation plans and captive
maturation. To maintain the species diversity, it is
high time to take steps against their gradual
extinction through development of induced breeding
techniques and sustainable management practices.
The knowledge gathered through the present study
on the length-weight relationship, GSI and
histological observation pabo catfish gonads can be
used as a basis for further research to save this
species from the threats of extinction and also for
their management in nature.
~ 112 ~
CONCLUSION
Length-weight relationship and condition factor
indicate isometric growth and good condition of fish
during post spawning season. The GSI study
indicated spent ovary of the post-spawning female in
September and onward. Similarly, GSI values in
male also indicated spent testes in November and
onward. Study of ovarian gametogenesis reveals that
most of the mature stages of oocytes were absent in
the ovary except for December samples. Start of
vitellogenesis in October and yolk granule formation
in December indicated gradual maturation of oocytes
and preparation for the next breeding season. The
GSI values complied with that of histological
observations of ovary indicated by yolk granule
formation in December and increased GSI values in
December from lowest in November. Gametogenesis
study in post-spawning male identified spent testes.
Again, gradual increase in GSI value of testes is in
agreement with the histological observations of
testicular tissues, indicated by filling-up of empty
LU with ST and SZ with the progression of time.
REFERENCES
[1] Mathur, D. and Robbins, T. W. 1971. Food habits and
feeding chronology of young white crappie, Pomoxis
annularies in Conowingo reservoir. Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc., 100: 307-311.
[2] Mathur, D. 1973. Food habits and feeding chronology
of the blackbanded darter, Percina nigrofasciata in
Halawakee Greek, Albenia. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 102:
48-55.
[3] Talwar, P. K. and A. G. Jhingran.1991. Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. vol 1. A.A. Balkema,
Rotterdam. 541 pp.
[4] Rahman, A. K. A. 2005. Freshwater Fishes of
Bangladesh, 2nd ed. Zoological Society of Bangladesh,
Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka. 394pp.
[5] IUCN Bangladesh. 2003. Bangladesher Bipanno
Bonno Prani. IUCN-The World Conservation Union,
xiv+294 pp.
[6] Rashid, H., M. A. Khaleque and M. S. Haq. 2011.
Threatened fish biodiversity of Dingapota haor in the
North-East Bangladesh. Fish. and Aqua.
News-Bangladesh., 1: 23-24.
[7] Doha and Hye. 1970. Fecundity of Padma river hilsa,
Hilsa ilisha. Pakistan J. Sci., 22: 176-184.
[8] Alam, M. S. 2009. Length-weight relationship and
reproductive physiology of three endangered pabda
fishes from Sylhet basin. M.S. Thesis, Department of
Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural
University, Mymensingh. 61pp.
 E22
Heavy Metal Contamination in Water and Sediments of the
River Karnafuli from South-East Coast of Bangladesh
Al Mamun1, Kizar Ahmed Sumon1, Zahid Parvez Sukhan2, Enamul Hoq3,
Md. Wahidul Alam4, Muhammad Shahidul Haq1, Fahmida Rashid5, Harunur Rashid1*
1Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
2Sharnalata
Agro Fisheries Ltd., Radhakanai, Fulbaria, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
3Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
4Institute of Marine Science and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh
5Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Upazila Health Complex, Anwara, Chittagong, Bangladesh

*Corresponding Author: Tel: +88-01924-429971; e-mail: rashid@bau.edu.bd

Abstract
In order to determine the intensity of industrial heavy metal pollution in the River Karnafuli from south-east coast of
Bangladesh this research was conducted and to analyze water and sediment samples Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry
were used. Water quality parameters were also studied from the same location. Water and soil sediment samples were
collected from two different sites viz. pollution source (PS; Chaktai khal estuary) and upstream the pollution source (UPS;
6 km upstream the Chaktai Khal estuary) of the River Karnafuli. Samples were collected during two different seasons-
summer and winter. Heavy metals in the water and soil sediment samples analyzed were- Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr),
Nickel (Ni), Iron (Fe), Lead (Pb) and Aluminium (Al). Water quality parameters analyzed were- temperature, total
alkalinity, ammonia, pH and dissolved oxygen (DO). The average concentrations of Fe, Pb and Al in water samples were
found to be 0.6455±0.0025, 0.158±0.012 and 0.0745±0.0175 mg/l, respectively from UPS and 1.821±0.332, 0.224±0.031
and 0.215±0.0465 mg/l, respectively from PS. Cu, Cr and Ni concentrations were below detectable limit. Out of six
hazardous heavy metal elements Fe, Pb and Al were found in higher concentration in winter compared to summer. The
average concentrations of Cu, Cr, Ni, Fe, Pb and Al in soil sediments were found to be 19.46±1.10, 25.23±2.18,
25.39±3.94, 20900±2656.46, 14.44±1.63 and 12884.57±1349.15 mg/kg, respectively from UPS and 20.63±1.54,
31.11±1.87, 34.20±1.69, 27250±953.73, 16.53±2.24 and 16122.72±932.96 mg/kg, respectively from PS. The average
values of temperature, total alkalinity, ammonia, pH, and DO were found to be 24.75±4.45 ºC, 60.5±4.5, 0.6105±0.4395,
8.625±0.175, and 6.285±0.315 mg/l, respectively from UPS and 24.4±4.0 ºC, 77.0±7.0, 3.0±1.0, 8.76±0.12 and
0.675±0.665 mg/l, respectively from PS. Among the water quality parameters studied, the DO concentration was found
very low in winter from PS. Among the heavy metals, Cu, Fe and Pb were found in higher concentration in soil sediment
samples from both the sites and samples from PS showed higher concentration in both water and soil.

INTRODUCTION a major environmental focus especially during the

Karnafuli River is the largest and most important
river in Chittagong and the Chittagong Hill Tracts,
originating in the Lushai hills of Mizoram, India.
Because of industrial development, the heavy metal
pollution of the Karnafuli River is increasing day by
day [1]. The availability of the heavy metals in the
river water directly affect the fish physiology, and by
the consumption ultimately affects the human health
[2]. The fish population of the river decreasing
rapidly due to the increasing level of pollution, hence,
the socio-economic condition of the fishing
community is affected [3].
Bangladesh is a riverine country. Large number of
rivers flowing through Bangladesh originated from
other country heavy, carried out loads of sediments
and other debris including domestic wastes, agro-
chemical and industrial wastes. Thus, makes the
water body polluted with organic and inorganic
pollutants, and affect the environment. Pollution is a
serious problem all over the world and is getting
aggravated like Bangladesh [4]. Coastal areas are the
sites of discharge and accumulation of a range of
environmental contaminants [5]. Studies on heavy
metals in rivers, lakes, fish and sediments have been
last decade [6].
Generally, heavy metal pollution is a problem
associated with intensive industry, because many of
the industries do not use ETP (effluent treatment
plant) before disposing into rivers or any type of
open water bodies [7]. In this situation, it is
necessary to evaluate the presence heavy metal
contamination in the Karnaphuli river water. This
study allowed us to determine the level of heavy
metal such as Fe, Pb, Ni, Cu, Cr and Al in water of
the river Karnaphuli from the south-east coast of
Bangladesh. Ultimately, the results of this research
project will be helpful for further investigation and it
will encourage the owner of the industries for
installing the `Effluent Treatment Plant’.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. Study Area
The river Karnafuli near the Chittagong city
receives a huge amount of untreated effluents from
industries such as spinning mills, dying, cotton, textile,
still mills, oil refineries and other industries. Due it
indiscriminate discharge of untreated wastes from
these industries, the river is getting polluted day by
day and the water is getting toxic.

~ 113 ~
B. Site selection and sample collection
The Karnaphuli River, which passes through
Chittagong, was selected as the case study for this
research (Fig. 1). Soil sediment and water samples
were collected to identify the toxic substances and
the water quality. The high density PVC bottles were
used for water sample collection and preservation.
The bottles ware kept air tight and labeled properly
for future identification. Two sampling points in the
Karnaphuli River were- Upstream the Pollution
Source (UPS): Low industrial discharge near at
bolihater khal of the River Karnafuli. Pollution
Source (PS): Apparantly high industrial discharge
near the mouth of Chaktai Khal, Karnafuli River.
UPS
PS
Fig. 1. Map showing the sampling locations; upstream the
pollution source (UPS) and pollution source (PS) of the
River Karnafuli.
C. Sample preparation
Sediment and water samples were collected from
the two sampling points of the Karnaphuli River, put
in ice box and transported to the wet laboratory at
Faculty of Fisheries in Bangladesh Agricultural
University. The water samples were collected in plastic
bottles and acidified immediately with 2 ml of HNO3
per liter of water and were preserved in refrigerator
at 40C for laboratory analysis. The sediment samples
will be collected by vertical corer and Ekman Dredge
sampler. Soil samples were dried in air and sieved by
fine meshed net for laboratory analysis.
D. Sample analysis
Water quality parameters and sediment samples
were analyzed at the laboratory of Department of
Agricultural Chemistry in Bangladesh Agricultural
University during the period from July, 2012 to May,
2013. Some of the water samples were analyzed in
SGS (Social General Service) Laboratory, Dhaka.
The prepared sediment samples and water samples
were analyzed by Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer (AAS) for detection of heavy
metals like Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr), Aliminium
(Al), lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe).
~ 114 ~
E. Data analysis
Data were analyzed using a two-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA), the level of significance thereby
being set at 5% (probality limit of p< 0.05).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Water quality parameters
Water quality parameters of the River Karnafuli
from two sampling points are shown in Table 01.
Results showed that there were variations from two
sampling points and the values indicated high level
of water pollution in the site of industrial discharge
area (PS) compared to comparatively low industrial
discharge area (UPS).
Table 1. Mean concentrations (±SE) of physico-chemical
parameters collected from two sampling points of Karnafuli
River
Parameters Sampling points
USP PS
Temperature
24.75±4.45 24.4±4.0
(0C)
Total alkalinity
60.5±4.50 77.0±7.00
(mg/l)
pH 8.625 ± 0.175 8.76±0.12
Ammonia
0.6105±0.4395 3.0±0.10
(mg/l)
Dissolved oxygen
6.285±0.315 0.675±0.665
(mg/l)
The average ammonia concentration was found
0.6105±0.4395 mg/l and 3.0±0.1 mg/l at UPS and PS
respectively. The highest value of ammonia was 3.1
mg/l at PS which exceed the acceptable limit. The
pollution source (PS) where industrially polluted
waters are being carried to the Karnafuli River
through Chaktai Khal intense industries are located,
the average pH value was higher (8.76±0.12) than
UPS (8.625 ± 0.175). From the present study it was
found that the dissolved oxygen concentration was
0.01 mg/l near the pollution source in winter. It was
considerably less amount. The required amount of
dissolved oxygen on a particular water body is 5 mg/l
or more for proper functioning of the recirculatory
system of fishes [8, 9]. The average dissolved
oxygen concentration was found 6.285±0.315 mg/l
and 0.675±0.665mg/l at upstream from the pollution
source (UPS) and pollution source (PS) respectively.
So from the current study it was observed that the
dissolved oxygen concentration was below the
acceptable limit at PS. In a similar study on water
quality parameters of an industrially polluted river of
Bangladesh, Buriganga River, mean values of DO,
pH and NO3-N to be 0.85 mg/l, 7.41 and 4.12 mg/l
during dry season were observed [10].
B. Heavy metal concentratoion in water
The average concentration of Fe in the water
samples of the Karnafuli was 0.6455±0.0025 mg/l
and 1.821±0.332 mg/l at UPS and PS respectively. In
accordance with permissible limit, in winter season compared to others. Cu, Cr and Pb concentration
the Fe concentration at PS of the river water was were below the permissible limit (Table 3). The
higher compare to summer at UPS (Table 2). permissible limit of Cu, Zn, Pb, and Cd are 135-270,
The mean values of Al concentration were 300-600, 250-500 and 3-6 mgKg-1, respectively
0.0745±0.0175 mg/l and 0.215±0.0465 mg/l at UPS according to Indian standard for soil (ISS) [8], and
and PS respectively in our sampling sites of the River according to ISQGs, the maximum permissible limits
Karnafuli. The highest value of Al concentration was are 35.7, 123.0, 35.0 and 0.6 mgKg-1, respectively
0.261mg/l at PS in winter, which is slightly higher for freshwater sediment [12]. In the Karnafuli River
than the permissible concentration. In UPS Pb sediment, all the toxic metals were found within the
concentration was 0.158±0.012 mg/l and in PS, permissible limit of ISS and ISQGs. Results also
which shows the higher concentration 0.224±0.031 showed that, PS always indicates the high level of
mg/l compare to UPS. Al concentration is more in heavy metal contamination compared to UPS.
the Chaktai Khal (UPS) may be due to discharge of
industrial effluents without any treatment. Ni, Cr and CONCLUSION
Cu concentrations were analyzed for the both The river Karnaphuli near the Chittagong city
sampling sites UPS and PS of the River Karnaphuli receives a huge amount of untreated effluents from
and analysis shows the result below detectable limit. industries such as spinning mills, dying, cotton,
Concentrations of toxic metal in the water of textile, still mills, oil refineries and other industries.
Buriganga River, Bangladesh were reported to be Due it indiscriminate discharge of untreated wastes
65.45, 9.34, 8.08, 163.09 and 587.20 mg/L for Pb, Ni, from these industries, the river is getting polluted day
Cu and Cr, respectively; levels were much higher by day and the water is getting toxic.
than the permissible limit [11]; in Cauvery River, This research revealed that the physico-chemical
India concentrations were found to be 0.32, 2.23, parameters of the River Karnafuli (pH, alkalinity,
1.12 1.25, 5.25, 10.70 and 9.95 mgL-1 for Cr, Co, Cu, ammonia and temperature) were within the
Mn, Ni, Zn and Pb, respectively; some parameter acceptable limit throughout the study period. But the
found within the recommended limit and some dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration was very low
parameters beyond the permissible limit [12]. particularly at pollution source (Chaktai Khal) in
winter. It was found that, DO concentration was less
Table 2: Mean concentrations (±SE) of toxic heavy metals than 1 mg/l, which causes hazardous situation for the
in water from two sampling points of the River Karnafuli aquatic organisms to survive here. The average
concentrations of Fe, Al, Pb, in water samples were
Metals Sampling points
higher amount but beyond the tolerable limit. Out of
(mg/l) USP PS six hazardous heavy metal elements Fe, Al and Pb
Fe 0.6455±0.0025 1.821±0.332 were found higher concentration in winter compare
Pb 0.158±0.012 0.224±0.031 to summer.
Ni ND ND
In our country, rivers and coastal areas are sites of
discharge and accumulation of a range of
Al 0.0745±0.0175 0.215±0.0465 environmental contaminants. Studies on heavy
Cr ND ND metals in rivers, lakes, fish and sediments have been
Cu ND ND a major environmental focus especially during the
*ND; not detected
last decade. Heavy metals contamination of river
water and sediment has been identified as a serious
Table 3. Mean concentrations (±SE) of toxic heavy metals pollution resulting from industrialization. So, proper
from two sampling points of the River Karnafuli management and initiative measures should be taken
immediately for reducing heavy metal pollution and
Metals Sampling points enhancement of our aquatic resources in the River
(mg/kg) USP PS Karnafuli.
Cu 19.46±1.10 20.63±1.54 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Cr 25.23±2.18 31.11±1.87 Professor Md. Shahidur Rahman, Department of
Ni 25.39±3.94 34.20±1.69 Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural
Fe 20900±2656.46 27250±953.73 University, Mymensingh for kind help in analyzing
water quality parameters and Avijit-Somen, Institute
Pb 14.44±1.63 16.53±2.24 of Marine Science and Fisheries, University of
Al 12884.57±1349.15 16122.72±932.96 Chittagong, for their kind help in collecting samples
from the River Karnafuli.
C. Heavy metal concentration in soil sediment
Among the analyzed six heavy metal elements Fe
and Al concentration were found to be higher

~ 115 ~
 REFERENCES
[1] MK Ahmad, S Islam, S Rahman, MR Haque and
MM Islam. 2010: Heavy Metals in Water, Sediment
and Some Fishes of Buriganga River, Bangladesh.
International Journal of Environment Research 4(2)
321-332.
[2] AU Ahmed and M Reazuddin. 2000. Industrial
Pollution of Water Systems in Bangladesh,
University Press Limited, Dhaka, Bangladesh, pp
175-178.
[3] H Rashid, MN Hasan, MB Tanu, R Parveen, ZP
Sukhan, MS Rahman and Y Mahmud. 2012. Heavy
Metal Pollution and Chemical Profile of Khiru River,
Bangladesh. International Journal of Environment,
2(1): 57–63.
[4] MOEF (Ministry of Environment and Forest), Govt.
of Bangladesh 1991: Bangladesh Country Report for
United Nations Conference in Environment and
Development (UNCD), Brazil.
[5] DG Shaw. 1984. Hydrocarbon in the water column.
In Wolfe DA (ed), fate and effects of proteum
Hydrocarbon in marine ecosystems and organisms.
New York pegamon press. pp. 08.
[6] H Ozmen, F Kulahci, A Cukurovali and M Dogru.
2004. Concentrations of heavy metals and
radioactivity in surface water and sediment of Hazar
Lake (Elazig, Turkey). Che-mosphere, 55 401-408
[7] K Alam. 2003. Cleanup of the Buriganga River,
Integrating The Environment Into Decision Making.
PhD Dissertation. Perth, Mordoch University. pp.
120.
[8] SK Awasthi. 2000. Prevention of Food
Adulteration Act. No. 37 of 1954, Central and state
rules as amended for 1999. Ashoka Law House,
New Delhi,India.
[9] MA Rahman and DA Bakri. 2010. A Study on
Selected Water Quality Parameters along the River
Buriganga,Bangladesh. Iranica Journal of Energy &
Environment, 1(2): 81-92.
[10] AD Greiner and MB Timmons. 1998. Evaluation of
the nitrification rates of microbead and trickling
filters in an intensive recirculating tilapia production
facility. Aqua Eng 18: 189-200.
[11] MK Ahmed, S Islam, S Rahman, MR Haque and
MM Islam. 2010. Heavy metals in water, sediment
and some fishes of Buriganga River, Bangladesh. Int.
J. Environ. Res., 4(2): 321-332.
[12] A Begum, M Ramaiah, HI Khan and K Veena. 2009.
Heavy metal pollution and chemical profile of
Cauvery River Water. E-J. Chem., 6(1): 47-52.

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 E23
Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals in Aquatic Fauna Collected
from Contaminated Waters of the River Karnafuli in the
South-East Coast of Bangladesh
Kizar Ahmed Sumon1, Al Mamun1, Md. Enamul Hoq2, Md. Wahidul Alam3, Md.
Rafiqul Islam Akhand4, Md. Abdus Sattar5, M Abul Faiz6, Harunur Rashid1*
1Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
2Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
3Institute of Marine Science and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh
4Innovision Consulting Private Ltd., Dhaka, Bangladesh
5Department of Medicine, Chittagong Medical College, Chittagong, Bangladesh
6Dev Care Foundation, Dhaka, Bangladesh

*Corresponding Author: Tel: +88-01924-429971; e-mail: rashidh19@gmail.com

Abstract
The study was intended in determining the levels of some physico-chemical parameters, bioaccumulation of heavy metals
in fish, shrimp and snail muscle sampled from the River Karnafuli. Samples were collected from two different points of the
Karnafuli River (UPS-upstream the pollution source and PS- Pollution source) during July 2012-January 2013. The samples
were collected for two different seasons: the summer and the winter. The samples like one fish species-Goby (Apocryptes
bato), one shrimp species- Karnafuli shrimp (Palaemon karnafuliensis) and one snail species- Girdled horn snail
(Cerithidea cingulata) were analyzed for the detection of concentration of six heavy meta like copper (Cu), chromium (Cr),
lead (Pb), iron (Fe), aluminium (Al) and nickel (Ni). The concentrations of heavy metals in each sample were determined
via Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. Among the physico-chemical parameters studied the dissolved oxygen
concentration was considerably low at pollution source area in winter. Out of the six most hazardous substances Cu, Cr, Pb
and Ni were identified in low amount in fish and shrimp but high in snail. These metals were within the safe limit adapted
by fish and shrimp. The bioaccumulation of heavy metal concentrations in snail was higher than the other samples like fish
and shrimp during both summer and winter. The present study indicates that the water quality of Karnafuli River is
deteriorating and the organisms are getting polluted due to discharge of untreated industrial wastes.

INTRODUCTION percent by industrial effluents and the rest by

Bangladesh is a great delta formed by the alluvial
deposits of the three mighty Himalayan Rivers: the
Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna. These
three rivers originate outside of Bangladesh and flow
through China, Nepal and India before they enter
into Bangladesh and finally drain out into the Bay of
Bengal [1]. The environment, economic growth and
development of Bangladesh are all highly influenced
by water- its regional and seasonal availability, and
the quality of surface and ground water. More
obvious are the polluting activities, such as the
discharge of domestic, industrial, urban and other
wastewaters into the water-course (whether intentional
or accidental) and the spreading of chemicals on
agricultural land in the drainage basin [2].
Water quality also depends on effluent types and
discharge quantity from different type of industries,
types of agrochemicals used in agriculture, and
seasonal water flow and dilution capability by the
river system [3]. Advancement in technology as well
as increase in population have led to environmental
concerns relating from indiscriminate dumping of
refuse and discharge of industrial effluents, petroleum
waste water, and crude oil spills replete with most
common heavy metals in our environment [4].
River pollution has been a major problem in the
developing countries. In developing countries the
watercourses are polluted approximately twenty
untreated sewage [5]. Heavy metals occur in aquatic
systems from natural sources and anthropogenic
activities. The pollution of aquatic environment by
heavy metals affects aquatic biota posse’s
considerable environmental risks and concerns [6].
Compared with other types of aquatic pollution,
heavy metal pollutants less visible but its effects on
the ecosystem and humans are intensive and very
extensive due to their toxicity and their ability to
accumulate in the biota [7, 8]. These chemicals
accumulate in the tissues of aquatic organisms at
concentrations many times higher than concentrations
in water and may be biomagnified in the food chain
to levels that cause physiological impairment at
higher tropic levels and in human consumers [9].
These heavy metals are potential toxic agents for
human having effects on nervous system.
Nowadays heavy metal pollution is a major
problem in developing countries like Bangladesh.
The pollution problem is associated with the
discharge of different types of effluents from various
industries such as garments, textiles, aluminium,
plastic, rice mill, fish drying and other industries.
The heavy metal pollution of the River Karnafuli is
occurring due to the discharge of various
contaminants. In this situation, it is necessary to
evaluate the presence of trace elements and their
limits in fish and plants as well as to human body.
The aim of this study is to evaluate the seasonal

~ 117 ~
variation in bioaccumulation of six heavy metals
such as Cu, Cr, Pb, Fe, Al and Ni in fish, shrimp and
snail muscle and the suitability of some
physicochemical parameters sampled from Karnafuli
River situated in the South-East Coast of Bangladesh.
The information will be helpful to create awareness
among the people and policy makers about the
necessity of installing ‘Effluent Treatment Plant’ in
these industries.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. The study area
The River Karnafuli receives different types of
effluents those are discharged from the numerous
industries like garments, tanneries, rice mills, plastic,
aluminium, refineries, ship breaking industries and
fish drying industries. The river is getting polluted
rapidly due to indiscriminate and unplanned
construction of these industries. As a result the water
and the different organisms like various species of
fishes, shrimps, snails and other invertebrates of this
river are getting toxic (Fig. 1).
UPS
PS
Fig. 1. Map showing the sampling locations; upstream the
pollution source (UPS) and pollution source (PS) of the
River Karnafuli.
B. Site selection and sample collection
The River Karnafuli was selected as the case study
for this research. Fish, shrimp, snail and water
samples were collected from July, 2012 to January,
2013 to determine the toxic substances and the water
quality parameters. These samples were collected
within two seasons, the summer and the winter.
Fishes- Goby (Apocryptes bato) and shrimps-
Karnafuli shrimp (Palaemon karnafuliensis) were
collected with seine net. Snail samples- Girdled horn
snail (Cerithidea cingulata) was collected manually.
Immediately after collection the fish, shrimp and
snail samples were kept into the ice box. The high
density bottles were used to collect and preserve the
water sample. The samples were collected from two
points of the Karnafuli River. The sampling points
were: Upstream the Pollution Source (UPS): About
six kilometers from pollution source. Low industrial
~ 118 ~
discharge near at Bolihater Khal, Karnafuli River
and Pollution Source (PS): Apparently high
industrial discharge near the mouth of Chaktai Khal,
Karnafuli River.
C. Sample preparation
The collected samples were put in ice box and
transported to the Wet Laboratory at Fisheries
Faculty, Bangladesh Agricultural University,
Mymensingh. Samples were kept at 40C until
analysis. Viscera were removed from fish samples
and the shell was discarded from shrimp and snail
samples. The samples were prepared following the
standard protocol.
3-5 g of each sample was kept in an oven at 60 0c
for 48 hours. After then1 g was taken in digestion
tube. The samples were digested with 15 ml acid
mixture (10 ml HNO3 and 5 ml HClO4) at 1200 C for
1 hr. Digested samples were then filtered with
Whitman 42 filter and raised the volume to 100ml
with distilled water.
D. Sample analysis
The physico-chemical parameters (pH, dissolved
oxygen, total alkalinity, ammonia-nitrogen and
temperature) of water were analyzed using HACK
kit. The prepared fish, shrimp and snail samples
were analyzed by Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer (AAS) for the detection of heavy
metals like Cu, Cr, Pb, Fe, Al and Ni.
E. Data analysis
Data were analyzed using a two-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA), the level of significance thereby
being set at 5% (probability limit of p< 0.05).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Water quality parameters
Water quality parameters sampled from two
sampling points are shown in the Table 1. Results
showed that there were considerable variations in
water quality parameters between two sampling
points. The values indicated that water pollution level
was higher at pollution source area (Chaktai Khal)
than upstream the pollution source area (Bolihater
Khal). This may be due to the variation of different
industries and discharge of untreated wastes.
Table 1. Mean concentrations (±SE) of physico-chemical
parameters collected from two sampling points of Karnafuli
River
Sampling Point
Parameter
UPS PS
pH 8.62 ± 0.18 8.76±0.12
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) 6.285±0.32 0.67±0.66
Total alkalinity (mg/l) 60.5±4.50 77.0±7.0
Ammonia-nitrogen (mg/l) 0.61±0.44 3.0±0.1
Temperature (0C) 24.75±4.45 24.4±4.0
The suitable range of DO, total alkalinity, NH3-N
and pH for fish in river is 6.5-7.0, 20-200, <1.0mg/l
and 6.5-9.0, respectively [10, 11]. The present study
indicates that some parameters (pH, total alkalinity Bangladesh, Buriganga River [19], highest Cu was
and temperature) were within the acceptable limit found in Taki (Channa punctata; 5.27 mg/kg) and
and some were (DO and NH3-N) beyond the lowest in Chapila (Gudusia chapra; 4.25 mg/kg) in
permissible limit. It was found that the DO was 0.01 pre-monsoon fish samples. The concentration of Cu
mg/l at near the PS in winter which was significantly found in the fish originating from the Una River
low. The required amount of dissolved oxygen on a basin (located in the northwestern part of Bosnia and
particular water body is 5 mg/l or more for proper Herzegovina) averaged 0.79 mg/kg [20].
functioning of the recirculatory system of fishes [12]. C. Heavy metals concentrations in shrimp muscle
The value of ammonia was 3.1 mg/l at PS which
exceeded the acceptable limit. Fish and other aquatic The toxic heavy metal concentrations in shrimp
life exposed to ammonia level of 1 mg/l in water may muscle are presented in the Table 3.
suffocate as a result of a significant reduction in the The concentrations of all trace metals in shrimp
oxygen combining capacity of blood [13]. The level muscle collected from the River Karnafuli were
of ammonia at PS (Chaktai Khal) was so high, thus within safe limit [18]. The amount of copper was
indicating the water unsuitable for fish and other detected from the Una River basin, located in the
aquatic lives. In a similar study on water quality northwestern part of Bosnia and Herzegovina ranged
parameters of an industrially polluted river of from 0.004 to 0.01 mg/l [20]. The concentration of
Bangladesh, Buriganga River, mean values of DO, lead was 10.0 mg/kg in Macrobrachium rosenbergii
pH and NO3-N to be 0.85 mg/l, 7.41 and 4.12 mg/l and 7.28 mg/kg in Penaeus monodon during the
during dry season were observed [11]. Low DO and comparative study between M. rosenbergii and
high NH3-N level in Karnafuli River water may have P.monodon in Epe lagoon, Nigeria [21].
been resulted from the variety of inorganic and
Table 3. Mean concentrations (±SE) of heavy metals in
organic wastes coming from numerous industries. shrimp muscle sampled from two sampling points of
B. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in fish muscle Karnafuli River.
Heavy metals in the aquatic environment can Metals Sampling Point
affect aquatic biota and pose a risk to fish consumers, (mg/kg) UPS PS
such as humans and other wildlife. Discharge of Cu 3.8425± 3.6675 6.102±1.942
heavy metals into river or any aquatic environment Cr 1.53± 1.39 0.1205±0.0105
can change both the diversity of aquatic organisms
and ecosystems, because of their toxicity and Pb 0.04± 0.03 0.0395±0.0105
accumulative behavior [14]. The toxic effects of Fe 23.00± 5.85 22.335±11.015
heavy metals may alter the physiological activities of Al 12.145±1.495 15.054±7.014
organisms as well as change the biochemical Ni 0.075±0.045 0.0395±0.0145
parameters both in tissue and in blood of fish
[15,16and17]. The Karnafuli River receives huge
amount of untreated effluents from various industries. D. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in snail
So the environment of the River Karnafuli is getting muscle
polluted. The mean concentrations of heavy metals in The toxic heavy metal concentrations in snail
fish muscle sampled from the River Karnafuli are muscle are presented in the Table 4.
presented in the Table 2.
Table 4. Mean concentrations (±SE) of heavy metals in
snail muscle collected from two sampling points of
Table 2. Mean concentrations (±SE) of heavy metals Karnafuli River
in fish muscle sampled from two sampling points of
Metals Sampling Point
Karnafuli River.
Sampling Point (mg/kg) UPS PS
Metals (mg/kg) UPS PS Cu 8.135±8.055 732.4725±717.2325
Cr 5.845±4.365 2.688±1.192
Cu 0.59± 0.28 0.575±0.095 Pb 0.71±0.40 1.827±0.923
Cr 0.665±0.075 0.2245±0.0755 Fe 1865.355±129.125 2326.152±2297.158
Al 521.35±417.60 1830.8935±591.2165
Pb 0.08±0.03 0.1825±0.0575 Ni 2.118±0.122 4.553±0.817
Fe 32.12±2.21 46.945±5.935
Al 13.73±4.53 35.9555±17.9345 The bioaccumulation of different heavy metals in
snail muscle sampled from two sampling points of
Ni 0.165±0.125 0.076±0.074
the River Karnafuli was beyond the safe limit [18].
The average Cu concentrations in snail muscle were
The concentrations of all parameters like Cu, Cr, 8.135±8.055 mg/kg and 732.4725±717.2325 mg/kg
Pb, Fe, Al and Ni in fish muscle from Karnafuli at UPS and PS, respectively. The highest value of Cu
River at both sampling points were within the in snail muscle was 1449.705 mg/kg at PS in summer
permissible limit [18]. In a heavily polluted river of which was so high [18]. The concentrations of Cr in

~ 119 ~
snail muscle varied from 1.48 mg/kg to 10.21 mg/kg
at UPS and 1.496 mg/kg to 3.88 mg/kg at PS. The
average lead concentrations were 0.71±0.40 mg/kg
and 1.827±0.923 mg/kg at UPS and PS, respectively.
The highest value of Pb in snail muscle was 2.75
mg/kg at PS in winter. The concentrations of Fe in
snail muscle varied from 1736.23 mg/kg to 2004.48
mg/kg at UPS and 28.994 mg/kg to 4623.31 mg/kg at
PS. The highest value of Fe in snail muscle was
4623.31 mg/kg at PS in winter which was
significantly high [18]. The lowest Al concentration
(103.75 mg/kg) was found in summer at UPS and the
highest value of Al was 2422.11 mg/kg at UPS in
winter.
High heavy metal concentrations in snail muscle
of the Karnafuli River may have been resulted from
the direct discharge of untreated wastes from the
various industries situated in the vicinity of the river.
During this study, a visit along the river by the
research team found most of the industries
discharging of raw, untreated, hot and intransparent
liquid wastes directly into the river.
CONCLUSION
The study revealed that the physico-chemical
parameters of the River Karnafuli (pH, total
alkalinity, ammonia-nitrogen and temperature) were
within the acceptable limit throughout the study
period. But the dissolved oxygen concentration was
considerably low particularly at pollution source in
winter (January). Out of six most hazardous
substances Cu, Cr, Pb and Ni were identified in low
amount. But the bioaccumulation of Al and Fe were
high concentration in almost all samples. Heavy
metal concentrations in fish and shrimp muscle were
within the tolerable level. The concentrations of all
parameters especially Al and Fe in snail muscle were
significantly high. Because the invertebrate like snail
can absorb these metals more than the others. So the
bioaccumulation of heavy metals in snail muscle was
beyond the permissible limit.
Rivers are the glory of Bangladesh and transcend
all aspects of life. The rivers serve as the main
source of water for cultivation and as the principal
arteries of commercial transportation. Rivers also
provide fish, an important source of protein. Many
people earn their livelihood by catching fish in the
rivers. But the rivers are getting polluted day by day
due to various reasons. Therefore, proper
management and maintenance of river is very
important not just because of their crucial role in
maintaining ecological balance and keeping the
environment naturally hygienic but to increase
fisheries production as well as to provide livelihood
for the rural people of Bangladesh. In order to reduce
the pollution level from the Karnafuli River it is
necessary to create awareness among the public as
well as the policy makers. A periodic surveillance on
the level of these heavy metals among these fish and
snails from the Karnafuli might be useful.
~ 120 ~
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Avijit and Somendranath, Institute of Marine
Science and Fisheries, University of Chittagong,
Chittagong for their kind help in collecting the
samples from the Karnafuli River during the study
period.
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[1] H Rashid, MN Hasan, MB Tanu, R Parveen, ZP
Sukhan, MS Rahman and Y Mahmud. 2012. Heavy
Metal Pollution and Chemical Profile of Khiru River,
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Chapman (Editor), Quality Assessments. A Guide to
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[3] DHV. 1998. Meghna Estuary Study, Draft Master
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[6] S Amisah, D Adjei-Boateng, KA Obirikorang and
Quagrainie. 2009. Effects of clam size on heavy
metal accumulation in whole soft tissues of Galatea
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Ghana. International journal of Fisheries and
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[7] A Shanmugam, C Palpandi and K Kesavan. 2007.
Bioaccumulation of some trace metals (Mg, Fe, Zn,
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[9] JC Raposo, EL Bartolome, EE Cortazar, EJ Arana, EM
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[10] MA Rahman and DA Bakri. 2010. A Study on
Selected Water Quality Parameters along the River
Buriganga,Bangladesh. Iranica Journal of Energy &
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[11] SK Awasthi. 2000. Prevention of Food Adulteration
Act. No. 37 of 1954, Central and state rules as
amended for 1999. Ashoka Law House, New
Delhi,India.
[12] AD Greiner and MB Timmons. 1998. Evaluation of
the nitrification rates of microbead and trickling
filters in an intensive recirculating tilapia production
facility. Aqua Eng 18: 189-200.
[13] MA Winker. 1981. Biological Treatment of Waste
Water, Ellis Horwood Ltd., Chichester, England.
[14] AG Heath. 1987. Water pollution and Fish
physiology. CRC press, Florida, USA, pp. 245.
[15] A Larsson, C Haux and M Sjobeck. 1985. Fish
physiology and metal pollution: Results and
experiences from laboratory and field studies. Ecotox.
Environ. Safe, 9: 250-281.
[16] JG Nemesok and ZGM Huphes. 1988. The effects of
copper sulphate on some biochemical parameters of
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[17] PD Abel and SE Papoutsouglou. 1986. Lethal
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[18] FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization). 1983.
Compilation of legal limits of hazardous substance in
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[19] AOAC. 2000. Official methods of analysis of. AOAC.
Internatioanal. Official method 937.07, fish and
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AOAC.
[20] A Vildana, N Vahcic and Bajramovic. 2007.
Bioaccumulation of metals in fish of salmonidae
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Research, Vol. 2(1), pp. 31-35.

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 E24
Distribution of Salmonella and Vibrio in Water and
Soil with Relation to Water Parameters at the Estuary
of the Karnafuly River, Bangladesh
Md. Wahidul Alam*, Mohammad Zafar and Mohammed Monirul Hoque Khan
Institute of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Chittagong-4331, Bangladesh
*e-mail: wahid.imsf.cu@gmail.com

Abstract
Present study was carried out to examine the Salmonella and Vibrio presence in soil and water sample along with some
physico-chemical parameters of water at the Karnafuly river estuary during March-June 2012 from 3 stations. Water
temperature ranges from 26.5- 32ºC, salinity ranged between 0ppt to 5ppt, pH 7.5 – 7.9 and dissolved oxygen (DO) 2.28 –
2.91mg/l in water samples. Maximum Salmonella concentrations was observed 5 cells/gm in soil sample at station 1
during May and maximum Vibrio concentration was 6 cells/ml in water sample of station 1 during May. Dissolve oxygen
concentration was found most influential factor for occurrence of Salmonella where salinity was found for Vibrio
occurrence. Among two species Vibrio contributed 67.23% where Salmonella contributed 32.77% and both the species
exceed the standard level in water and soil at the Karnafuly river for drinking and other household purpose.

INTRODUCTION diverse fluctuating parameters are responsible for

Bacteria have adapted to live and reproduce in a
variety of environments including animals, humans,
water, sediments, soils and foods. Health hazard
indicating bacteria like Salmonella and Vibrio are
those which act as a contributory representative of
disease. Growth of those bacteria depends on
adequate supplies of water, food, nutrients and some
physio-chemical parameters like proper pH, suitable
oxygen, salinity, temperature etc [1]. Aquatic
environment contaminated by limited microbial
population when little amount of organic matters
support but higher concentration of organic matter
can support a higher population of bacterial growth
[1]. Salmonella and Vibrio in water and soil can lead
to diseases i.e. Typhoid, dysentery and cholera is
transmitted by water. The sites of infections in
animal and human body are the alimentary canal,
ears, eyes, nasal cavity, skin and upper respiratory
tract. Consumption of contaminated shell fishes
also exposes humans to marine pathogens. In
Bangladesh, pathogenic bacteria contamination can
also lead to infectious hepatitis and dysentery which
are more common. From health hazard point of view,
many indicator microorganisms have been identified
by Ref. [2]. Salmonella and Vibrio traditionally
monitored by water pollution control to help limit the
spread of environmental diseases [3]. Concentration
levels of Salmonella and Vibrio are significantly
influenced by various nonpoint sources such as
surface runoff, bank soils, recreational activity, and
animal excreta [4-8]. Many studies indicate that soils
can harbor much higher populations of both fecal
coliforms and Vibrio sp than the overlying water
column [9-14].
Karnafuly river estuary is one of the most
important estuaries in Bangladesh and hydro-
biologically it is the meeting place in which fresh
water from upstream in continuously mixing with
salt water from Bay of Bengal. Combinations of
occurrences and distribution of different micro-
organisms in estuarine environment. It is also blessed
with estuarine water, soil, marine resources and
varieties of fish species. Besides a lot of industry,
fishing boats, vessels or trawler and container ship
are available over the river which hampers the status
of water, soil and fish species of this river. Different
scientist reported the estuarine environment is
polluted owing to the continuous discharge of waste
material from the industries and sewage of the town.
Pollution of water courses associated with industrial
discharge and refuse from human settlements is a
global problem [15]. Everything is carried by rivers
ultimately goes in oceans through estuaries. The
pollutants get dispersed by turbulence, ocean currents
and tidal action firstly in the estuary, then
concentrated in the food chain components through
microbial action or deposited in the bottom soils [1].
People in Chittagong city are depending on
Karnafuly River for drinking or other house hold
purpose. Besides lots of people including large
number of fisherman lives in both side of the river.
They use the water for bathing and drinking. They
also used soil and soil for household purpose. Many
countries in the world have developed drinking water
criteria and standards. Bangladesh developed the first
Water Quality Standards in 1976 based on
International Drinking Water Standards [16]. The
Bangladesh standard specification for drinking water
(BDS 1240: 1989) was prepared and published by the
Bangladesh Standard and Testing Institution (BSTI)
for the control of drinking water including bacterial
load. According to World Health Organization [17]
and Environment Quality standard for Bangladesh
[18], the standard value of total load of Salmonella
and Vibrio for drinking water is nil/ml of water.
Different researchers identified different pathogenic
bacteria in respect of contaminated fish of the
Karnafuly River but it is rare to identify the presence

~ 122 ~
of Salmonella and Vibrio bacteria in water and soil in
respect of this area. Consider the importance of water
and soil of the estuary in daily life, the present
research work aimed to estimate the presence of
Salmonella and Vibrio in water and soil of Karnafuly
river estuary.
METHODOLOGY
A. Description of the study area
The Karnafuly is the principal river of Chittagong
district of Bangladesh. It originates in the Lushai
Hills of Mizoram (India), flows through Rangamati
and the port city of Chittagong and discharges into
the Bay of Bengal near Patenga. Geographically this
estuary located between latitude 22053/N and
longitude 92027/E. It travels about 121 miles in a
zigzag ways to west and south west side and finally
falls on the Bay of Bengal at latitude 22012/N and
longitude 91047/E at near Patenga, Chittagong. The
average channel depth of the basin at the river
estuary is 8 meters. Geologically, the entire
catchment consists of a substratum of tertiary rocks
covered with alluvial deposits. The overlying
deposits show that it consists of successive layers of
mud and sand [19]. Hydrological parameters i.e.
temperature, salinity, pH, D.O fluctuate seasonally.
Three sampling stations (Fig. 1) were selected for the
present investigation with the basis of different types
of pollution. First sampling station (St-1) located
near Chaktai canal (most polluted canal of
Bangladesh) receives heavy discharges from
different domestic and industrial sources to the
estuary. Second sampling station (St-2) located at the
middle portion of the River where small city canal
falls into the river and carry industrial and city
wastes. Third sampling station (St-3) located at the
mouth of the estuary and receives discharges
composed of different kinds of city wastes through a
canal which ultimately fall into the estuary.
Fig. 1 Geographical location of the study area showing
different sampling stations
B. Data collection and analysis
Present work was carried from March to June 2012.
Water and soils samples were collected from three
stations (St-1, St-2 and St-3) of the Karnafuly river
~ 123 ~
estuary during this study period. In situ measurement
of water temperature was measured by centigrade
thermometer where water pH and salinity was
measured by pen pH meter and refractometer
respectively. Dissolve Oxygen (DO) concentration
was measured in laboratory by following standard
method [20]. Collected water and soil sample were
preserved and microbial analysis was conducted at
laboratory to identify the presence of Salmonella and
Vibrio in water and soil of the Karnafuly estuary.
Salmonella and Vibrio of water and soil identified by
standard plate count (SPC) techniques [20]. As the
Salmonella and Vibrio was very rare in water and
soils, so the author did the work without serial
dilution in respect of identify the growth of colonies
in selective medium. For this reason SPC was
conducted by making without serial dilution, plating
and identify colony by presence or absence. Presence
or absence of Salmonella and Vibrio was estimated
by using pour plate techniques. 1 ml. of water (1ml :
9 ml of Distilled Water) or diluted soil samples
(1gm : 9 ml of Distilled Water) were transferred by
sterile pipettes into Petridis and the plates were
poured with Brilliant Green Agar (BGA) media for
Salmonella and Thiosulphate Citrate Bile Salt
(TCBS) Agar media for Vibrio and incubated at room
temperature for 48 hours. Growth of Colonies having
a pink opaque color with surrounded by a bright red
color were confirmed as Salmonella sp. present and
colonies having a greenish centre were confirmed as
Vibrio sp. present.
RESULTS
A. Hydrographic conditions
Results from the water samples showed distinct
hydrographic conditions (Fig. 2). Water temperature
varies between 26.50C to 32.00C. Maximum water
temperature was recorded 32.00C in June at St-1and
St-3 where minimum temperature was recorded in
March at St-1. Monthly maximum average
temperature was found 31.67⁰C during May where
minimum 26.83⁰C during March. On the other hand
average maximum water temperature was recorded
29.25⁰C at St-2 and 3 and minimum 29.13⁰C at St-1.
No significant difference was observed in water
temperature among the stations but significant
difference was found among the months (F=23,
P<0.01). Salinity of the present study found between
01 ppt. to 05 ppt. Maximum was recorded (1.6 ppt)
in June at St-1,2 and minimum 0.3 ppt at St-1,4
during March and April. Monthly maximum average
salinity was found 1.67 ppt during May where
minimum salinity was recorded 0.33 ppt during
March and April. Mean maximum salinity was
observed 2.3 ppt at St-3 and no salinity was found at
St-1 and 2. No significant difference was observed
among the stations but have significant difference
among months (F=26, P<0.001) for salinity value.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) concentration in water
sample varies between 2.40 mg/l to 2.88 mg/l. The
maximum D.O. contents were recorded in 2.91 in
July at St-3 and minimum was recorded in June at
St-2. Monthly maximum mean DO was found 2.71
mg/l during June and minimum 2.02 mg/l during
May. On the other hand maximum mean DO 2.63
mg/l was recorded at St-1 where minimum 2.25 mg/l
at St-2. No significant difference was found in DO
among the stations though significant difference was
observed among months (F=25, P<0.01). Water pH
varies between7.5 to 8.5 and maximum pH value was
recorded 8.5 at St-3 during June and minimum 7.5
during March at St-3. Monthly maximum mean pH
was recorded 8.13 during May and minimum 7.2
during June. Average pH at maximum level occurred
at St-1(7.7) where minimum found at St-2 (7.6). No
significant difference was found in pH values among
the stations but significant difference was found
among the months (F=31, P<0.01).
Fig. 2 Physico-chemical parameters of Karnafuli River at different stations in different months
Fig. 3 Salmonella and Vibrio sp concentration (cells/ml) in water and soil sample at different stations during sampling period
~ 124 ~
B. Status of Salmonella and Vibrio colony in water
and soil sample
Status of Salmonella and Vibrio colony in water
and soil sample is shown in fig. 3. No Salmonella
was observed in water sample at station 2 and 3
during March to June, where it was absent for station
1 during March and June. Only 1 cell/ml and 3
cells/ml Salmonella was found in water sample of
station 1 during April and May respectively. In case
of soil sample, 2, 5 and 3 cells/ml Salmonella was
found at station 1 during March, May and June
respectively where it was absent for the month April.
During March and April Salmonella was absent in
the soil sample of station 2 but only few (2cells/ml
and 1cell/ml) was observed during May and June. No
concentration of Salmonella was found in soil sample
of station 3 during the present study period.
 Vibrio concentration was found nil during March
and June in water sample of station 1 but 4 cells/ml
and 6 cells/ml concentration was observed during
April and May. On the other hand this species was
absent in stations 2 during May and June but very
few concentration (2 cells/ml and 3 cells/ml) was
found during March and April. No Vibrio was found
throughout the study period in water sample of
station 3. In soil sample of station 1, Vibrio was
found at a concentration 3, 5, 7 and 4cells/ml for the
months of March, April, May and June respectively.
During March and June occurrence of this species
was nil but 3 and 4 cells/ml concentration was found
during April and May months. Only 1 cell/ml Vibrio
was found in soil sample of station 3 during May and
was absent for other months.
Fig. 4 Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) ordination
of species concentration and water parameters
Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA)
ordination of species concentration and water
parameters is shown in figure 4. In CCA, species
concentration plotted closer to the vector, have
stronger relationships with them. Species
concentration located near the origin either do not
show a strong relationship to any of the variables or
are found at average values of water
parameters. CCA eigenvalues of the first and second
axis was found 0.02 and 0.008 respectively.
Species concentration and water parameters Pearson
correlation coefficients for the first and second axis
were found 0.62 and 0.41 respectively. The first and
second axis modeled 72.01 and 27.94% data
respectively. Water pH was found significantly
correlated with Vibrio concentration in water sample
where significant relationship was found for station 2
and total Vibrio concentration with water temperature.
Salinity showed significant correlation with station 1
and 3 and Vibrio concentration in soil. Total
Salmonella concentration and its occurrence in soil
~ 125 ~
sample was found significantly correlated with
dissolve oxygen concentration.
SIMPER analysis (Table 1) showed that Vibrio in
soil contributed 40.46% where it contributed 26.77%
for water sample. Salmonella contributed 24.76%
and 8.01% for soil and water sample respectively.
Among two species Vibrio contributed 67.23%
where Salmonella contributed 32.77%.
Table 1 SIMPER analysis of Vibrio and Salmonella
concentration in water and soil sample
Groups Average Contribution
dissimilarity (%)
Vibrio in soil 24.88 40.46
Vibrio in water 16.46 26.77
Salmonella in soil 15.23 24.76
Salmonella in water 4.927 8.01
Vibrio in soil 41.34 67.23
Total Salmonella 20.157 32.77
DISCUSSION
From the present physio-chemical study of the
water quality of the Karnafuly, it can be concluded
that the condition of the Karnafuly River is critical.
Decreasing trend of DO of the Karnafuly river water
was observed from the present and previous study
[21] Minimum DO value found for the Karnafuly as
low as 2.40mgL-1. This indicates the critical
condition of this River. DO values in the range
(2.74-5.12mg/l) and (3.95-5.97mg/l) for river water
samples and (3.73-5.01 mg/l) and (5.04-5.49 mg/l)
for lake water samples in the dry and rainy seasons,
respectively [22]. Mean pH value of the Naf River
water was found in the alkaline range. Similar pH
values 7.5-8.5 were also reported by [23]. For the
Naf River which almost similar to the present
findings. Reference [24] stated that salinity of an
estuary ranged between 0.50 ppt to 35 ppt. Reference
[25] showed the salinity ranged between 14.43 ppt to
25.92 ppt salinity of the present work found at
similar value. Reference [26] also reported variation
of water temperature for seasonal change. Reference
[27] and [28] observed seasonal variation of water
temperature ranged between 7.54ºc and 10ºc. During
the present study monthly variation of water
temperature was observed.
Several non-point and point sources can contribute
to the presence of Salmonella and Vibrio sp. in aquatic
systems that can be detrimental to public health such
as: humans, agriculture, water run-off, tidal actions,
animal traffic, sustained winds, boats, dredging and
polluted groundwater and environmental sources
such as soil. Toxic metals pollution is predominant in
the Karnafuly river water as the toxic metals were
included form drainage of domestic waste. A large
number of chemical and fertilizer industries have
been established since the independence on both the
banks of the Karnafuly. Effluents from these
industries are reportedly being directly discharged
into this river. Huge amount of solid wastes and
effluents are discharged through Chaktai, Sundari,
Noakhal, Mazirghat, Gupta, Mohesh, Shikalbhaha
and Ferighat canals into the Karnafuly River; as a
result pollution of this river is increasing day by day.
Leaking and leaching of oil from ships and boats are
also polluting the water of the Karnafuly River. Due
to the climate change during flood, soil erosion and
land slide increases the suspended solids, metallic
and other pollutants. Polluted water and soil create a
favorable condition for Salmonella and Vibrio sp.
multiplication.
In Karnafuly estuarine area, a lot of people used
estuarine water and soils for drinking, bathing and
various houses hold purposes. Estuarine resources
and fish species are contaminated by some
pathogenic bacteria because water and soils are the
potential career of such types of bacteria. Health
hazard indicating bacteria are those which are
pathogenic to organisms including fish species,
human etc. or create health hazard disease including
diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, typhoid etc. So estuarine
water and soils were should be free from such types
of microorganisms. During the study period (2012),
it was observed that Salmonella and Vibrio were very
rare and sometimes absent in different station. The
presence or absence of Salmonella and Vibrio were
also observed in all the sampling stations during the
study period. The presences of these health hazard
organisms indicate truly polluted aquatic
environments because of producing many serious
diseases in animal and human body. In the present
investigation, Vibrio was found more than
Salmonella. Salmonella was not found both in water
and soils at St-3. The abundances of Vibrio were high
in St-1 both in water and soil sample where always
unhygienic conditions indicate. Reference [29]
reported that, Vibrio sp. is a pathogenic organism that
distributed in the coastal and brackish water
environment. Salmonella was also found more
frequently during the investigation about the estuary
[30]. He reported that, a great number of Salmonella
present in the estuarine environment. Seafood
processors also reported Salmonella contaminates in
their sea food harvested from the offshore water [31].
References [32-34] were also reported the occurrence
of Vibrio in the aquatic environment of Bangladesh.
CONCLUSION
Water of Karnafuly river estuary for any purposes
people may be affected by several health hazard
diseases like diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, typhoid etc.
In the present work with compare between the water
and soil, it was found that soil sample carries more
presence of bacterial colony in different stations than
water sample. In Karnafuly river area, people
suffering by various health hazard diseases due to
uses of water for drinking, bathing, washing and soil
for various houses hold purposes. Water and soil
resources and fish species of Karnafuly estuary are
~ 126 ~
contaminated by Salmonella and Vibrio. During the
study period, it is concluded that Salmonella and
Vibrio bacteria from three stations of the Karnafuly
exceed the standard level in some stations both in
water and soil so this water is polluted and
unhygienic for drinking and even washing without
treatment which directly effects on human health.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful for the technical lab and
instrument support of Institute of Marine Sciences
and Fisheries (IMSF), University of Chittagong,
Bangladesh to complete the research work
successfully. The Authors also accords their obliged
admiration to all facuties of IMSF for their helpful
suggestion and earnest co-operation in carrying out
this study.
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 E25
An Investigation of the Reproductive Physiology of
Endangered Mud Eel Monopterus cuchia
Md. Mahmudunnabi Mithu1, Md. Jahangir Alam1, Mohammad Abu Taher Siddique2,
Zahid Parvez Sukhan2, M. Shalauddin Kabir1, MAR Hossain1, and H. Rashid*
1Faculty of Fisheries, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2002, Bangladesh
2Sharnalat Agro Fisheries Ltd., Radhakanai, Fulbaria, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
*e-mail: rashid@bau.edu.bd
Abstract
Reproductive physiological characteristics such as external sexual characters, monthly gonado-somatic index (GSI), egg
diameter, and fecundity of an endangered fish, mud eel Monopterus cuchia were studied to identify the peak breeding
season. The most distinct feature to separate the sex is the shape of genital papilla. The female genital papilla became
rounded and swollen and the male papilla was sunken and elongated during April-May. The highest GSI of 6.00±1.67%
was observed in mid-May and the lowest of 0.23±0.01% in September. Fecundity was calculated during mid-March to
mid-May and it ranged between 132 (body weight 240g, mid-April) to 461 (body weight 380g, mid-May). Ova diameter
was measured during the breeding season which ranged between 3.1 (mid-May) to 3.9 mm (mid-April). Relationships
between gonad weight and mean ova diameter indicated that ova diameter increased with the increase in gonad weight.
Fecundity vs body weight, total length and gonad weight relationships revealed 33%, 25% and 16% variations in fecundity,
respectively. However, reproductive physiology information of this experiment indicated the mud eel having peek breading
season from late-April to mid-May.

INTRODUCTION helpful in evaluating the commercial potentialities of

Mud eel, Monopterus cuchia is an endangered fish
of Bangladesh [1] and considered as a nutritious and
high valued fish. In Bangladesh, mud eel is collected
form nature and exported to China, Hong Kong and
Taiwan. Despite the increasing demand in the
international markets, artificial breeding and culture
technique of mud eel has yet not been developed.
Due to over exploitation, and various ecological
changes in natural habitat, this species become
threatened. As the natural production of mud eel is
decreasing day by day, it is important to develop
artificial breeding and aquaculture technique.
It is important of know the reproductive
physiological factors of a fish such as fecundity,
gonado-somatic index (GSI), external sexual
characters, gonad developmental stages, growth rate,
food and feeding habit etc. to develop artificial
breeding technique. Fecundity is one of the most
important aspects of fish biology that explains
variations in the level of production, success of
induced breeding etc., it also help to explain the
breeding cycle [2].
GSI is the indicator of the state of maturity,
gonadal development and onset of spawning season.
As the weight of the ovary increases with the
advancement of maturity, it might be possible to
detect the stages of maturation and spawning season
by histological process. To determine the breeding
season, it is necessary to know the condition of the
female, its ovary and egg size [3]. Knowledge on
gonadal development and spawning season of a species
is necessary to determine the spawning frequency of
its population. GSI values also helps to know the
breeding biology and breeding season of a species.
Overall, the study of reproductive physiology is
its stock, life history, culture practice and management
of its fishery and is also helpful in achieving basic
information on the breeding season, breeding potential,
gonadal maturity and reproductive performance of
fish which will serve as indirect indicators on the
recruitment of new fish into the stock.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
D. Animal, study area, and period
Mud eel, Monopterus cuchia were bought from eel
sales center that was collected from the seven largest
beels namely Phenar beel, Bisundar beel, Panahara
Beel, Katia Beel, Khaikuri Beel, Deoramara Beel
and tarakanda Beel of Phulpur upazilla under
Mymensingh District. Collected fish were stocked in
experimental ponds and cistern of the Field
Laboratory of Faculty of Fisheries, Bangladesh
Agricultural University, Myemsingh. Mud eel were
reared and sampled every month.
E. Observation of external sexua l chara cter
The shape of genital papillae of male and female
mud eel were distinguished and light pressure was
given on the abdomen by thumb from upward to
downward motion of male and females to observe the
milt and ova during the breeding periods. The
conditions of ready to spawn were noted.
F. Gonado-somatic index (GSI)
The fish were weighed, dissected out carefully and
the gonads were taken out, placed in petridish, and
weighed. The GSI of each female fish was calculated
during March 2011 to February 2012 using following
formula.
GSI = × 100

~ 128 ~
G. Fecundity and ova diameter Table 1. Mean (±SD) body weight, ovary weight and GSI
(%) in Monopterus cuchia
The ovary was taken out carefully, moisture was
removed with blotting paper. Eggs were counted Fish Mean body Mean ovary GSI
Months
directly spreading the eggs on the tray. The weight examined weight (g) weight (g) (%)
148.33 0.32 0.28
of the extracted ovary of each fish was recorded January 3
± 138.05 ± 0.22 ± 0.12
in g and egg diameter was measured using slide 246.66 0.96 0.41
calipers. The fecundity was plotted against total February 3
± 127.01 ± 0.41 ± 0.07
length, body weight and gonad weight of the fish. 213.33 2.94 1.53
March 6
H. Data analysis ± 80.10 ± 1.57 ± 0.87
244.16 9.16 4.48
The mean values were calculated with the MS April 6
± 98.40 ± 5.67 ± 3.16
Excel computer based software. 140.00 8.21 6.00
May 2
± 22.62 ± 0.98 ± 1.67
RESULTS 341.00 2.63 0.76
June 2
A. Sexual dimorphism ± 12.72 ± 0.74 ± 0.18
293.33 1.67 0.57
Sex identification by external characters of mud eel July 3
± 56.86 ± 0.39 ± 0.11
could only be possible during the breeding season. 263.33 1.24 0.47
Between June-December, its sex could not be August 3
± 56.86 ± 0.37 ± 0.06
identified. But, sex can be differentiated with some 154.50 0.36 0.23
September 2
external sexual characters during breeding season. On ± 7.77 ± 0.042 ± 0.02
gentle pressure, yellowish fluid from female 235.33 1.34 0.57
October 3
genital papilla and liquid milt from male genital ± 30.86 ± 0.22 ± 0.02
191.67 1.36 0.71
papilla came out. The female papilla becomes November 3
± 11.54 ± 0.163 ± 0.05
rounded and swollen; on the other hand, the male 175.00 0.57 0.32
genital papilla is elongated and sunken (Fig. 1). December 2
± 14.14 ± 0.14 ± 0.05

C. Fecundity and ova diameter

Fecundity of M. cuchia was ranged from 132 to
461 during mid-March to mid-May (Fig. 3). The
mean ova diameter was 55±0.34 mm (Fig. 4). All the
eggs of an individual were found to be having similar
diameter.
400

350

300
Fig. 1. Genital papilla of male and female mud eel.
250
Fecundity

200
B. Gonado-somatic index (GSI)
150
Month wise changes in mean GSI values of female
100
mud eel are presented in Table 1 and Fig. 2. Values
50
of GSI ranged from 0.23±0.02 to 6.00±1.67% in mud
0
eel during the experiment period. In this time, the Mar (mid) Mar (end) Apr (mid) Apr (end) May (mid)
highest GSI value (6.00±1.67%) was observed during Month

May and the lowest (0.23±0.02) were observed in Fig. 3. Monthly fluctuations in fecundity of cuchia during
September. the breeding season

Fig. 4. Relationship between gonad weight and mean ova

Fig. 2. Monthly mean GSI of female mud eel
diameter for mud eel

~ 129 ~
D. Relationship between fecundity (F) and body
weight (BW), fecundity and total length (TL),
and fecundity and gonad weight (GW)
The fecundity of fish was increasing with the
increase of body weight, total length and ovary weight.
The relationship of body weight, total length, and
gonad weight with fecundity are shown in following
the equations, respectively.
F = 0.618BW + 127.8; R² = 0.334; r=0.578 (Fig. 5)
F = 5.868TL - 67.81; R² = 0.255; r=0.505 (Fig. 6)
F= 7.651GW + 205.9; R² = 0.162; r=0.402 (Fig. 7)
The co-efficient of correlation between fecundity
and body weight, fecundity and total length and
fecundity and gonad weight was found to be 0.58,
0.51 and 0.40, respectively. The r values of body
weight-fecundity relationship and length-weight
relationship are significant at 5% level of significance.
However, the r value of gonad weight – fecundity
relationship is not significant at 5%.
Fig. 6. Relationship between body weight
and fecundity of mud eel
Fig. 7. Relationship between total length
and fecundity of mud eel
Fig. 8. Relationship between gonad weight
and fecundity of mud eel
~ 130 ~
DISCUSSION
A. Secondary sexual characters
During our study, male and female mud eels were
not identifiable externally before March. Abdomen
of female cuchia was found round and swollen
during April – May. The shape of genital papillae of
male was sunken and that of female cuchia was
swollen. On gentle pressure, yellowish fluid from
female genital papilla and transparent liquid milt
from male genital papilla came out. Appearance of
external sexual characters and separation of male and
female by color of genital papilla and abdomen shape
in April – May further emphasizes our finding on
GSI that this fish breeds during this period. Rahman
[4] reported that mud eel and found yellowish egg
from female genital papilla and whitish milt from
male genital papilla coming out on gentle pressure
during breeding season.
B. Gonado-somatic index (GSI)
GSI, which is indicative of the breeding season of
the fish, has been calculated from March 2011 to
February 2012 for female mud eel. Values of GSI
ranged from 0.232±0.015to 6.002±1.672 in female
mud eel during the experiment period. During this
time, the highest value of GSI was observed in May
which was 6.002±1.672 and the lowest value was
observed in September which was 0.232±0.015. The
highest GSI value in May is indicative of the fact that
mud eel may have peak breeding season in May. This
result is very similar to those obtained by Rahman
[4], on the other hand, Alam [5] reported that the
peak breeding season of mud eel is from late April to
mid-May.
C. Fecundity and ova diameter
The fecundity of M. cuchia ranged from 132 to
461 for the period from mid-March to mid-May.
Nasar [6] calculated the fecundity of M. cuchia
ranging 118 to 687 eggs. The highest mean fecundity
was observed in mid-April and lowest in mid-May.
The findings of fecundity are found to be similar
with the findings of Alam [5]. In a study with M.
albus (rice field eel) in Vietnam, the value of average
fecundity was found 589 and egg was not uniform
[7]. They also found highest fecundity in March and
September. Unlike M. albus, mud eel eggs were
uniform during the peak breeding season and highest
fecundity was found in mid-April having only one
spawning season in a year.
The ova diameter in mud eel was found to be
3.55±0.34 mm. The highest ova diameter of 3.9 mm
was found in mid-May and lowest 3.1 mm was
observed in mid-April. All the eggs of an individual
were found as same diameter. Relationships between
gonad weight and mean ova diameter indicated that
ova diameter increases with increase in gonad weight.
The maximum mean ova diameter of M. cuchia was
3.40 (±0.11) during the month of March and April
[4] which is very similar to our estimated ova
diameter. In case of M. albus, ova diameter was 3 to in endangered mud eel Monopterus cuchia. MS
4 mm and eggs were not uniform [7]. The ova Thesis, Department of Fisheries Management,
diameter in M. albus is close to M. cuchia but they Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh,
Bangladesh. 33-36 pp.
differ in uniformity of egg size.
[6] SST Nasar. 1997. Backyard eel culture: International
D. Fecundity (F) vs body weight (BW), total length Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silag, Cavity,
(TL) and gonad weight (GW) relationships: Philippines. 88 pp.
33%, 25% and 16% variations in fecundity were [7] NH Khanh and HTB Ngan. 2010. Current practices
of rice field eel Monopterus albus (zuiew, 1973)
found due to variation in BW, TL and GW. The culture in Vietnam. 48-51pp.
relationship between BW and F was found to be the [8] MA Karim and A Hossain. 1972. Studies on the
most significant than that of other factors with biology of Mastacembelus pancalus (Spiny eel) in
fecundity. The regression equation and scattered Artificial Ponds. Part 11. Sexual maturity and
diagram showed a positive body weight –fecundity fecundity. Bangladesh J. Biol. and Agril. Sci., 1:
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in body weight is also reported in various fishes [9] G Mustafa, KR Islam, S Ali and AKM
notably, Mastacembelus pancalus [8], Puntius Ashraftil-Alain. 1983. Some aspects of the biology of
Puntius sarana (Hamilton): 1. Food and feeding
sarana [9], Sarotheradon nilotica [10]. The fecundity habits in relation to fish size and fecundity.
increased with the increase of the total length. Bangladesh J. Zool., 10: 92- 100pp.
Similar results were obtained in Heteropneustes [10] AM Mian and S Dewan. 1984. Studies on the
fossilis [11, 12]. Fecundity was increased with the fecundity of Sarotherodon nilotica (Linnaeus) in a
increase of gonad weight of M. cuchia, similar fish pond. Bangladesh J. Zool., 12(2):99-103pp.
relationship was also reported in Puntius stigma [13]. [11] MA Azadi and MS Siddique. 1986. Fecundity of
In the present study, fecundity of M. cuchia showed a catfish (in Bangladesh), Heteropneustes fossilis
positive and linear relationship with BW, TL and (Bloch). Bangladesh .J. Zool., 14: 33-39pp.
[12] MS Das, S Dewan and SC Debnath. 1989. Studies on
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CONCLUSION minipond of Bangladesh Agricultural University,
Mymensingh. Bangladesh J. Agril.Sci., 16:1-6pp.
Mud eel, M. cuchia has already entered into the [13] M Shafi and MMA Quddus. 1974. Fecundity of the
export channel. Since this fish is not cultured due to common punti (Puntius stigma). Bangladesh J. Zool.,
lack of fry, the export market is totally dependent on 2: 133-145pp.
wild catch. A success in fry production and
subsequent development of aquaculture technique of
mud eel will not only save it from extinction but also
keep the export channel sustained towards earning of
foreign currency. The findings of the current research
on different aspects of reproductive physiology will
help further studies for artificial propagation and fry
production of this fish. Studies on identification of
neuroendocrine parameters are required for pin
pointing the factors for triggering ovulation and
hence induced of this high priced but endangered fish
species.
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female Dover Sole, Microstomus pacificus, with an
evaluation of assumptions and precition. Fish. Bull.,
U.S., 92:101-108.
[3] MK Islam and M Das. 2006. Fecundity of gulsa
Mystus cavasius from the Bramaputra and Kongsa
rivers. J. Bangladesh Agril. Univ., 4 (2): 347-355.
[4] MM Rahman. 2007. Reproductive biology and fry
rearing of freshwater eels Monopterus cuchia (Ham.)
and Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep.) of Mymensingh,
Bangladesh. PhD Dissertation, Department of
Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural
University, Mymensingh. 173pp.
[5] MJ Alam. 2012. Histological study of gametogenesis

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 E26
Effect of the Insecticide, Sumithion on Larval
Development in Heteropneustes fossilis
Md. Farajul Kabir1, Lipi Rani Bhowmik1, Md. Abdul Motin1,
Muhammad Shahidul Haq1, Kudrat E Alahe2, Tanmi Shahrin3, Harunur Rashid1*
1Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
2The M.O. Agro Fisheries & Hatchery, Trishal, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
3Department of Fisheries, Govt. of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh

*e-mail: rashid@bau.edu.bd; Tel.: +88-01924429971

Abstract
Sumithion, an organophosphate insecticide, widely used in agriculture and fish larvae rearing ponds in Bangladesh. Present
experiment was conducted to observe the effects of sumithion on larval development and developmental deformities of
Heteropneustes fossilis larvae. Three different concentrations of sumithion (T1, 145µg/L; T2, 230µg/L; T3, 314µg/L)
against a control (C, 0µg/L) each having three replications were carried out in glass aquaria. Exposure experiment was
continued upto the absorption of yolk sack. Different forms of deformities, viz. edema, notochord deformity, caudal fin
damage, yolk sac damage, posterior region damage, tissue fragmentation, and black pigmentation on yolk sac were evident
in the sumithion-exposed larvae during the course of development. The mortality rates of the larvae gradually increased
(32%, 52.86%, 57.86%, and 65.72% for C, T1, T2 and T3, respectively) in response to increased sumithion concentrations.
Moreover, around 30% of the total H. fossilis found to be deformed permanently that reared in sumithion-treated
aquaculture ponds. The results of the current study denote that sumithion exerts developmental toxicity to H. fossilis larvae;
sumithion exposure results in deformities in H. fossilis larvae; sumithion results in mortality of H. fossilis larvae; and the
toxic effects of sumithion to shing is irreversible.

INTRODUCTION market demand due to its deliciousness and less spine

In Bangladesh, a large number pesticides are used
for crop protection in agricultural field. Over 98% of
sprayed pesticides and 95% of herbicides reach a
destination other than their target species, including
non-target species, air, water, bottom sediments, and
food [1]. Sumithion, the O, O Dimethyl
O-(3-methyl-4- nitrophenyl), an organophosphate
insecticide, is widely used in agricultural field and
aquaculture pond as well. It is effective against a wide
range of pests, i.e. penetrating, chewing and sucking
insect pests on cereals, cotton, orchard fruits, rice,
vegetables, and forests. It may also be used as a fly,
mosquito, and cockroach residual contact spray for
farms and public health program. In Bangladesh,
sumithion is also widely used in aquaculture ponds for
eradication of aquatic insect, mainly back swimmer
prior to release of larvae.
Sumithion is considered somewhat toxic to fish [2]
and found most toxic among 6 widely used
organophosphate pesticide [3]. A large number of
experiment has been carried out on the effect of
sumithion on fish and other aquatic vertebrate.
Sumithion exposure can decreases the hemoglobin
content of tilapia [4] and 30 ppm sumithion is
sufficient to kill all test fishes within an hour [5],
ovarian recrudescence was observed in Channa
punctatus when treated with LC50 dose of sumithion
[6], sumithion exposure showed deformities such as
loss of balance, abnormal behavior, curvature of the
body axis, poor pigmentation, feeble circulation in
the tail, distension of body cavities and retarded
growth in frog [7].
Stinging catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis is one of
the important catfishes of Bangladesh with good
[8]. It breeds in shallow inland waters during the
onset of monsoons and also capable of breeding in
ponds when sufficient rainwater accumulates [9].
Their eggs, embryo and larvae are often exposed to
the toxicity of pesticides in nature when pesticides run
off into natural waterbody from agricultural field.
Furthermore, in all H. fossilis nursery pond, sumithion
usually applied to control back swimmer and it
exposed to the toxicity of sumithon. Considering the
toxic effects of sumithion, an experiment was
conducted on the effect sumithon toxicity on the
larval development and developmental deformities of
of stinging catfish H. fossilis.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted in Faculty of
Fisheries (FoF), Bangladesh Agricultural University,
Mymensingh and Sharnalata Agro Fisheries Ltd.
(SAFL), Radhakanai, Fulbaria, Mymensingh. To
conduct this experiment, healthy and mature broods
of H. fossilis were selected from SAFL brood pond
and reared in resting hapa. After six hour of resting
period, male and female fishes were injected with
HCG solution at the doses of 500 and 3000 IU/kg
body weight, respectively and was placed spawning
tanks. After 12 hours of hormone administration,
spawning and fertilization takes place in the
spawning hapa and after 24 hours of fertilized, larvae
hatched out. Hatched out larvae were then
transported to the FoF using oxygenated bag. Twelve
glass aquaria (36×10×12 inch3) were used for this
experiment. Three concentrations of sumithion
(T1=145µg/L, T2=230µg/L, and T3=314 µg/L) each
having three replications against a control (C=0µg/L)

~ 132 ~
were exposed to observe the degree of deformity of
larvae. Sumithion solution was prepared by serial
dilution in 40L water for each aquarium. Then the
hatched out larvae of same number were released in
each aquarium very carefully and ensured continuous
oxygen supply. Larval samples (5 larvae) were
collected from each aquarium at certain hrs interval
(6, 12, 24, 36, 60, 84 hrs) until yolk sac absorption.
Collected samples were observed under a digital
microscope (Olympus CX 41) fitted with a camera
(Magnus analytics, Model-MIPS). The development
stages of H. fossilis were determined according to
embryonic and larval stages of this species [10].
Some deformed adult fishes that were exposed to
sumithion at their larval stage in ponds were
collected from SAFL.
RESULTS
A. Sumithion exposure effect after 6 hours of hatching
After 6 hrs of hatching (Fig. 1), larvae were
brownish in colour and mouth yet to delveop,
yolk-sac was brownish and oval. In T1, yolk-sac was
found as abnormal (AY), black pigmentation was
evident in the yolk-sac, and notochord deformation
was observed. T2 showed damaged yolk-sac (YD),
notochord deformation (ND) and damaged caudal fin
(CD) on tail region. In T3, yolk-sac was normal but
caudal fin was not well developed (CD), end of
posterior region of larvae was deformed (PD).
C(a) C(b) T1(a)
T2(a) T3(a) T3(b)
Fig 1. Deformities after 6 hrs of hatching in different stages
of larval development in H. fossilis exposed to sumithion.
C(a) Anterior part of larvae; C(b) Posterior part of larvae;
T1(a), notochord deformity (ND), and abnormal yolk sac
(AY); T2(a), Damaged yolk sac (YD), deformed notochord
(ND) and damaged caudal fin (CD); T3(a), Anterior part of
larvae; T3(b) damaged caudal fin (CD) and deformed
posterior region (PD). C, control; T1, treatment 1; T2
treatment 2; and T3, treatment 3.
B. Sumithion exposure effect after 12 hours of
hatching
After 12 hrs of hatching (Fig. 2), in control,
pigmented eyespot appeared on the anterior part of
the head, buccul invagination appeared, upper jaw
and lower jaws were formed. In T1, black
pigmentation (BP) was found at the yolk sack,
pigmented eyespot did not appear, and the end of the
~ 133 ~
posterior region was deformed (PD). Degradation of
tissue (DT) was evident at the middle portion of the
body in T2. In T3, the entire body was deformed (BD)
and caudal fin was not developed (CD).
C. Sumithion exposure effect after 24 hours of
hatching
After 24 hrs of hatching (Fig. 3), in control (C),
the yolk-sac became reduced, dark pigmented and
prominent spherical shaped eyes appeared, and the
posterior part of body was well developed. In T1, few
deformities were observed, viz., entire body was
deformed (BD), edema (E) formed on the yolk sac,
no organ developed normally. In T2, eyes were not
well developed, caudal fins were invisible (CI) and
the end of the posterior region was deformed (PD). In
T3, yolk sac became deep dark in colour and
damaged in different areas (AY), notochord
deformation (ND) was evident at the anterior part of
the body.
C(a) C(b) T1(a)
T1(b) T2(a) T3(a)
Fig 2. Deformities after 6 hrs of hatching in different stages
of larval development in H. fossilis exposed to sumithion.
C(a) Anterior part of larvae; C(b) Posterior part of larvae;
T1(a) Black pigmentation (BP), T1(b) deformed posterior
region (PD); T2(b) Tissue degradation (DT); T3(a)
deformed caudal fin (CD) and deformed body (BD).
C(a) C(b) T1(a)
T2(a) T2(b) T3(a)
Fig. 3. Deformities after 24 hrs of hatching in different
stages of larval development in H. fossilis exposed to
sumithion. C(a) Anterior part of larvae; C(b) Posterior
part of larvae; T1(a) Deformed body (BD), and edema (E);
T2(a) Anterior part of larvae; T2(b) Invisible caudal fin (CI)
and deformed posterior region (PD); T3(a) Deformed
Notochord (ND) and abnormal yolk sac (AY).
D. Sumithion exposure effect after 36 hours of
hatching
After 36 hrs of hatching (Fig. 4), in control, yolk
sac found to be absorbed, eyes were dark pigmented
and spherical in shape, pectoral fin was oval shaped
and actively used for free movement, heart was
clearly visible located behind the head and showed
regular beats. Whereas, in T1, abnormal notochord
formation was evident at the anterior part of the body
(ND), Edema (E) formed, and heart was invisible; in
T2, notochord was curbed (ND), deformed posterior
region was observed (PD), and heart was not visible;
and in T3, edema (E) found on the yolk sac and
formed abnormal notochord (ND).
E. Sumithion exposure effect after 60 hours of
hatching
After 60 hrs of hatching (Fig. 5), the mouth of
larvae found well developed with lower jaw in
control (C), further, barbles became elongated and
prominent around mouth, and yolk has further
diminished in size. In T1, deformities observed as
degradation of tissue (FT) at the anterior part of the
body, damage of caudal fin (CD); in T2, damaged
yolk sac (YD) were found, heart was not clearly
visible; notochords became curbed (ND) in both T2
and T3, and also deformed body structure was found.
C(a) T1(a) T2(a)
T2(b) T3(a) T3(b)
Fig. 4. Deformities after 36 hrs of hatching in different
stages of larval development in H. fossilis exposed to
sumithion. C(a) Anterior part of larvae in control; T1(a)
Deformed notochord(ND), edema(E); T2(a) Deformed
notochord (ND); T2(b) Deformed posterior region (PD);
T3(a) Edema (E); T3(b) Deformed notochord (ND).
C(a) T1(a) T1(b)
T2(a) T2(b) T3(a)
Fig. 5. Deformities after 36 hrs of hatching in different
stages of larval development in H. fossilis exposed to
sumithion. C(a) Anterior part of larvae in control; T1(a)
Tissue degradation (DT); T1(b) Damaged caudal fin (CD);
~ 134 ~
T2(a) Yolk sack (YS); T2(b) Deformed notochord (ND);
T3(b) Deformed notochord (ND) and damaged caudal fin
(CD).
F. Sumithion exposure effect after 84 hours of
hatching
After 84 hrs of hatching (Fig. 6), the body was
brownish in colour and the mouth and anus fully
functional in control (C), the head was prominent and
free movement of the eyeball was observed and four
pairs of barbells were noticed. The yolk has fully
diminished. Deformities were found in different
larvae that were exposed to sumithion. In T1,
degradation of tissues (DT) and damaged caudal fin
(CD) was evident; notochord became curbed (ND)
and deformed body structure was observed in T2 and
T3. Abnormal movement of larvae was evident.
C(a) T1(a) T1(b)
T2(a) T3(a) T3(b)
Fig. 6. Deformities after 84 hrs of hatching in different
stages of larval development in H. fossilis exposed to
sumithion. C(a) Anterior part of larvae in control;
T1(a) Tissue degradation (DT), T1(b) Damaged caudal fin
(CD); T2(a) Deformed notochord (ND); T3(a) Deformed
notochord (ND); T3(b) Deformed body (BD).
G. Larval mortality
Mortality rate were 32%, 52.86%, 57.86% and
65.72% for C, T1, T2 and T3, respectively. Therefore,
mortality rate of H. fossilis larvae exposed to all
concentrations of sumithion were more than the
control and increased with increasing concentrations
(Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Mortality rate (%) of larvae exposed to different
concentrations of of sumithion (C, 0 µg/L; T1, 145µg/L; T2,
230µg/L; and T3, 314µg/L).
H. Water quality parameters
Change of water quality parameters were noticed
with the change of sumithion concentration (Table
1).
Table 1. The water quality parameters in control (C) and
three concentrations of sumithion (T1, 145µg/L; T2,
230µg/L; and T3, 314µg/L) during the experimental period.
Parameters C T1 T2 T3
Temperature (ºC) 25.2 25.4 25.00 25.2
pH 8.00 7.5 7.2 6.9
Dissolved O2 (ppm) 10.5 9.8 9.4 9.00
DISCUSSION
In the present study, different types of deformities,
specially curved notochord, deformed mouth and tail
region, damaged caudal fin, etc. were evident in
stinging catfish larvae those exposed to different
concentrations of sumithion. The formation of mouth,
eye and burble were comparatively slow on
sumithion exposed larvae than control. Spinal
deformity was evident in case of diazinon treated
medaka (Oryzias latipes) larvae, after hatching,
affected larvae showed dorsal displacement of the
spine [11]. Developmental abnormality (i.e. curved
body axis) was observed in larval stages of zebra fish
exposed to bifenthrin [12]. Different developmental
abnormalities, such as abnormal notochord, poor
pigmentation, loss of balance, feeble circulation in
the tail, retarded growth, damaged caudal fin,
abnormal behavior etc. were evident in frog
(Microhyla ornata) due to exposure to sumithion [7].
Edema formation on the yolk sac was also
commonly found in sumithion exposed larvae of H.
fossilis. Edema on yolk sac in medaka was a major
evidence of diazinon toxicity exposed during the late
embryonic period [11] and also to N-nitroso
compounds [13] and thiobencarb [14]. Black
pigmentation on yolk sac was observed in sumithion
treated larvae in H. fossilis larvae. Similarly
observation was reported in Spodoptera exigua and
Tenebrio molitar larvae that exposed to sumithion
[15]. In present study, sumithion treated larvae
showed abnormal swimming behavior in the aquaria;
similar type of behavior was observed in other
studies [16–18].
The mortality rate of H. fossilis larvae was higher
those exposed to sumithion. Clarias gariepinus
showed more mortality than H. fossilis larvae,
observed 47% and 87% mortality of at the doses of
67.2 ppm and 134.4 ppm of basudin 10G (diazinon)
within 96 hours of exposure [19], Catla catla
fingerlings showed 80% and 40% mortality of at
doses of 4.20 ppm and 2.1 ppm of basudin 10G
within 96 hours of exposure [17].
~ 135 ~
CONCLUSION
The result of this experiment provides clear
understanding of the developmental toxicity of
sumithion to early life stages of H. fossilis and
different deformities were observed. It will help the
policy makers to make people conscious about
impact of indiscriminate use of pesticide in
agriculture and fish culture pond.
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[2] WT Thomson. 1989. Agricultural Chemicals. Book I:
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[3] N Aziz, SMH Kabir, and M Ameen. 1984. Effects of
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[4] PR Koundinya and R Ramamurthy. 1978. Effect of
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[5] MZ Haque and G Barua. 1988. Toxic and sub-lethal
effect of sumithion on Oreochromis nilotica (Lin.).
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[6] AB Saxena and R Sehgal. 1986. Pesticide toxicity to
a freshwater fish Channa punctatus in the river
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65-66 pp.
[7] KR Pawar and M Katdare. 1982. Effect of the
insecticide sumithion (fenitrothion) on embryonic
development in a frog. Cell. Mole. Life Sci., 39(3):
297-298.
[8] SH Tripathi, N Ross and N Hasan. 1997. The role of
small indigenous species in food and nutritional
security in Bangladesh. NAGA News Letter, July-
December. 13 pp.
[9] PK Talwar and AG Jhingran (eds.) 1992. Inland
fishes of India and adjacent countries. Vol. 2. Oxford
and IBH publishing CO. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, India.
1158p.
[10] S Puvaneswari, K Marimuthu, R Karuppasamy, MA
Haniffa. 2009. Early embryonic and larval
development of Indian catfish, Heteropneustes
fossilis. EurAsia. J. BioSci. 3: 84-96.
[11] JT Hamm and DE Hinton. 2000. The role of
development and duration of exposure to the embryo
toxicity of diazinon. Aquat. Toxicol, 48: 403-418.
[12] M Jin, X Zhang, L Wang, C Huang, Y Zhang and M
Zhao. 2009. Developmental toxicity of bifenthrin in
embryo- larval stages of Zebrafish. Aquat. Toxicol,
247-254 pp.
[13] GD Marty, JM Nunez, DJ Lauren and DE Hinton.
1990. Age-dependent changes in toxicity to
Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) embryos. Aquat.
Toxicol, 17: 45–62.
[14] SA Villalobos, JT Hamm and DE Hinton. 2000.
Thiobencarb induced embryotoxicity in medaka
(Oryzias latipes): Stage specific toxicity and the
protective role of the chorion. Aquat. Toxicol, 48:
309–326.
[15] Z Adamski, K Ziemnicki, K Fila, V Zikic and K
Stajn. 2003. Effects of long-term exposure to
 fenitrothion on Spodoptera exigua and Tenebrio
molitor larval development and antioxidant enzyme
activity. Biol. Lett., 40(1): 43-52.
[16] SMA Kabir and R Begum. 1978. Toxicity of three
organo-phosphorus insecticides to singhi fish
(Heteropneustes fossolis). Dacca University Studies,
Part B. 26: 115-122.
[17] Z Hossain and GC Halder. 1996. Impact of
chloropyrifos (Lorsfan 10G), Cadusofos (ruzby 10G)
and diazinon (basudin 10G) on three Indian major
carps, Bangladesh J. Environ. Sci., 2: 98-101.
[18] M Gonzalez-Doncel, E Pena, C Barrueco and E
Hinton. 2003. Stage sensitivity of medaka (Oryzias
latipes) eggs and embryos to permethrin. Aquat.
Toxicol, 62: 255-268.
[19] F Lovely. 1998. Toxicity of three commonly used
organophosphorus insecticides to Thai sharpunti
(Puntius gonionotus) and African catfish (Clarias
gariepinus) fry. An M.S. Thesis Submitted to the
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Faculty of Fisheries. Bangladesh Agricultural
University, Mymensingh. 83pp.

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 E27
The Characterization of Dwellers in the Reserve Forest
of Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh
Masakazu Tani1, Md. Zulfikar Rahman2,Abu Zofar Moslehuddin3,
Kazuo Asahiro4, and Hiroshi Tsuruta5
1Kyushu
University, e-mail: tani@design.kyushu-u.ac.jp
2BangladeshAgricultural University, e-mail: zulfikar64@yahoo.com
3Bangladesh Agricultural University, e-mail: abunazia@yahoo.com
4Kyushu University, e-mail: asahiro@design.kyushu-u.ac.jp
5Kyshu University, e-mail: jacobie.landscape@gmail.com

Abstract
This paper analyzes human groups and their economic activities in a reserve forest area, part of Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary,
in the west coast of the Teknaf Peninsula based on data generated by a household survey in three settlement clusters in the
South Silkhali village, Baharcharra Union in Teknaf Sub-Disctrict, Cox’s Bazar. The analysis shows that dwellers of that
area are represented by three ethnic groups and three religions. Because the reserve forest is legally closed for private
activities except for those with special permission as “forest villagers,” about the one-half of the dwellers are “illegal”
residents, encroachers. Further analysis shows that many of those encroachers moved in relatively recently and their in-flow
does not seem to tapering off. Increase in encroachers appears a major threat on forest regeneration of this area.

INTRODUCTION Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary (formerly Teknaf Game

The southern half of Teknaf Peninsula of Reserve) and analyzes dwellers of that area in terms
Bangladesh has been suffering from long-term of their attributes and economic activities. This
deforestation. Although an extensive forest reserve analysis first classifies dwellers into groups by their
was instituted in the area, most large trees had been ethnicity and legal status. Thus, using these groups as
cut by large scale illegal logging and sold away in the units of comparison, the characteristics of human
1980s. Large scale illegal logging is not currently activities in the reserve are analyzed.
going on partly because Bangladesh Forest
Department (FD) conducts tighter surveillance and
because there are not enough mature trees to cut any
more. Deforestation affects human lives in this area.
Serious outcomes of deforestation include water
shortage, soil erosion, shortage of fuel wood and
building materials, intrusion of wild elephants into
human settlements and the depletion of nutrients for
marine resources in the coastal area. Despite of
various efforts, forests in this area have not been
coming back. Environmental research in this area
argues that all kinds of human activities affect the
conditions on the hills [1-7].
Areas in the reserve forest are institutionally
closed for human activities unless the FD grants
special permits. In reality, although the area is not
under open access, the system of reserve forest is not
working in preserving trees for many reasons. Many
people live in the supposedly closed reserve forest,
and they make their living using resources in the
forest. Because the human use of the reserve area has
been practiced for a long time, it may not be realistic
to ban all the activities in the area. It seems crucial to
somehow control human activities if the forest
Fig. 1. Map of Teknaf Peninsula and the study area
should regenerate in the near future.
But, the analysis of human activities in reserve
forests has not been reported very much (but, see [8]). MATERIALS AND METHODS
Therefore, the objective of this paper is to The study area is in the middle section (Ward 5) of
characterize human activities in the reserve forest to Baharchara Union, Teknaf Upazila (sub-district) in
provide a specific case study. In order to accomplish the District of Cox’s Bazar (Fig. 1). Baharchara
it, this study takes up an area of the reserved forest in Union occupies a narrow long belt along the west

~ 137 ~
coast of the peninsula. Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary
comprising 11,610 ha is established in the middle of
the peninsula. The area encompasses several unions
of the Teknaf Upazila including Baharchara Union.
A household survey was conducted in three
settlements (para) in South Silkhali village of
Barharchara Union in September 2012. These three
paras (Chakma, Naya and Mat paras) were chosen
for the study because they are contiguous and located
entirely in the TWS’s reserved forest. The survey
used a questionnaire and recorded 172 households in
these three paras. Items recorded in this survey are
listed in Table 1.
Table 1. List of recorded categories in the survey.
- Location of the household
- Religion
- Ethnicity
- Habitation history
- Legal status
- Income
- Occupation
- Collecting activities
- Farming activities
- Paan cultivation
- Water sources
- Environmental perception
This survey recorded the legal status of dwellers as
living in the reserve forest. Although the reserve
forest is basically closed for private activities, “forest
villagers” are registered by the Forest Dept and
allowed to live in the area in exchange for their
duties of forest conservation. A forest villager’s
family lives in a lot allocated by the FD, and can
engage in private economic activities, such as
farming within the designated lot. This status of a
forest villager can be inherited. Those who are other
than forest villagers are, in theory, illegal
encroachers. But, there are gray zones.
The only one of the descendents of a forest
villager, for instance, can inherit the status, and
others do not. While, in a strict sense, those who do
not inherit the status have no right to live in the
reserve forest, these non-heir descendents tend to live
where they are grown up. This study includes this
kind of forest villagers’ descendents in the category
of “forest villagers” as well. Another kind of the gray
zone is the timing of the initial habitation. The
current reserved forest system was first established
by the Forest Act in 1927 by the then-British
Colonial Govt. Therefore, if someone started to live
in a location, say, 100 years ago, such presence
should be beyond the jurisdiction of the current act as
the Article 5 of Chapter II of the Act specified it as
an exemption. This study, therefore, separates six
those families who claim that they have lived in this
area for a long time or more than 100 years in this
place as “τld” families although there is no
documentation to substantiate their claims in hand.
~ 138 ~
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Three ethnic groups, the Bengali, Chakma, &
Rohingya, and three religions, Muslim, Hindu, and
Buddists are identified in the survey. Hindu is not
included in the following analysis because there is
only one household. That makes a total of 171
households included in this study. As legal status,
“forest villager” is recognized as entitled to live in
the reserve forest. All other households except for 6
households claiming long-term residence, are
categorized as “encroachers.” Because all Chakma
households are either forest villagers or their
descendants, there is no household in the category of
Chakma-encroacher. In this way, 5 groups are
distinguished as the unit of comparison (Table 2).
Chakma-Forest Villager (FV), Bengali-FV, and
Bengali-Encroacher (ENC) are three major groups in
this area, while the other two groups, Bengali-Old
Families (OLD), and Rohingya are small including 6
households, respectively. By comparing and contrasting
these groups, this study attempts to characterize
attributes of dwellers in the reserved forest.
Table 2. Groups of dwellers in the reserved forest used in
the analysis
Group Ethnicity Legal Status HHs*
1 Chakma Forest villager 26
2 Bengali Forest villagers 54
3 Encroachers 79
4 “τld” families 6
5 Rohingya Encroachers 6
*HH: household
A. Household income
Income of each household was recorded
separately by categories. Those categories include
“farming,” “paan,” “fishing,”, and other cash earning
activities including day labor, business, service, and
other miscellaneous activities. For the first three
categories, the respondent was asked to estimate the
gross sales of products, and the cost of operating
such activities. Income was derived by the amount of
sales deducted by the cost. For cash earning activities,
the respondent was asked the earning of a unit time
(day, week, month, and so on), and the total length of
period in a year engaged in such an activity for each
cash earner in the respective household. These
figures are added together to derive the total annual
income of the household (Table 3).
The mean total annual income of all households is
105,176 BDT. Among three major groups, Chakma,
Bengali-FV, and Bengali-Encroachers, Bengali-FV
households are better off than the other two. Chakma
households earn much less than other groups, less
than the half of the mean (Table 3). Even Rohingya
households, refugees from Myanmar, earn 60% more
than the Chakma. The difference between the two
Bengali groups, FVs and encroachers, is statistically
significant (t=2.2312, p=0.0141). The mean income
of the encroachers is 30% less than that of Bengali villagers, both Chakma and Bengali, used more
FVs. The highest income is earned by Bengali-OLD owned land than leased one for cultivation. The other
being 262,667 BDT. three groups use more leased land for rice.
Bengali-ENC households own only small amount of
Table 3. Mean annual income by category and by dweller
groups in Bangladesh Taka (BDT) land and the Rohingya own no land for agriculture.
Farming Paan Business Labor Other Total Table 5. Mean cropping area of rice and paan by dweller
groups in “kuni” (10 kuni = 1 acre)
1 7512 17523 692 18327 846 44900
Paan Cropping Area

Group
2 31639 40956 27472 18074 19167 137307 Rice Cropping Area
(paan boroz)
3 11953 27266 25463 11523 17342 93546 Own Lease Total Own Lease Total
4 69500 55833 86000 50000 1333 262667 1 2.1 0.9 3.0 0.4 0.6 1.1
5 20367 0 0 46133 6333 72833 2 3.9 1.7 5.6 1.0 0.1 1.1
All 19808 30153 23562 17191 14462 105176 3 0.4 1.8 2.2 0.2 0.4 0.6
4 2.0 2.7 4.7 0.5 0.9 1.4
B. Income sources
In terms of income and the composition of income 5 0.0 2.3 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
sources, characteristics of each group are as follows. All 1.8 1.7 3.5 0.5 0.4 0.9
The Chakma group, earning the least amount of
income, heavily depends on paan cultivation and day D. Residential history
labor, both comprising about 40% of their income. While all households in the Old family group have
The Bengali-FV group earns income from different lived in this area for a “long time by definition, most
sources relatively evenly with the main emphasis on Chakma families settled for more than 50 years
paan, rice and other agriculture. The Bengali-ENC (Table 6). For Bengali FV families, the length of
group earns less than the Bengali-FV, and as the living is distributed widely, and those with living
Bengali-FV earns income from different sources history being less than 25 years comprise 28%. On
evenly, but the Bengali-ENC puts less emphasis on the other hand, many of encroachers are relatively
agriculture, and more emphasis on business. The new comers; among Bengali those living less than 25
income composition of the Old families is years are 58%. All Rohingya households have lived
characterized by much earning from business (Table in this area less than a few years.
4). The composition of income sources of Rohinyga
is very different from any other groups. More than Table 6. The number of households by group and by length
60% of all income of the Rohingya solely comes class of habitation
from day laboring. While this is supplemented by Years Chakma B-FV* B-ENC* Old Rohingya
some agricultural income, there is no income neither <10 0 7 15 0 6
from paan cultivation, nor business.
10-24 0 8 27 0 0
Table 4. Proportions of types of income-earning activities
25-49 3 13 22 0 0
in household income
50-99 10 12 9 0 0
100
Farming Paan Business Labor Other
1 17% 39% 2% 41% 2% 13 13 0 6 0
*B-FV: Bengali, Forest Villager
2 23% 30% 20% 13% 14% *B-ENC: Bengali Encroachers
3 13% 29% 27% 12% 19%
E. Implication on forest regeneration
4 26% 21% 33% 19% 1%
About the one-half of dwellers in this area are not
5 28% 0% 0% 63% 9% officially entitled to live there. In general, human
All 19% 29% 22% 16% 14% activities affect in two ways. The first is that people
consume forest products for various purposes, such
C. Agricultural land as fuel, building materials, agriculture, etc. The
With regard to rice cropping area, the mean area second way is to occupy the area which was once
for all households is 3.5 kuni (0.35 acres), forested. But, people clear the land to make
Bengali-FV households use the most area, 5.6 kuni agricultural fields and homesteads. As long as they
and the Bengali-ENC and Rohingya crop rice least in stay in the area, the forest is never regenerated.
2.2 and 2.3 kuni. For paan, the two Fv groups use The total area under cropping rice and other crops
about the same size of area, the Old families use 305 by all dwellers is 655.2 kuni (65.5 acres, 26.5 ha),
more, and the Bengali-ENC crops paan in about the and the area of paan boroj is 145.8 kuni (14.6 acres,
half of that of the FVs (Table 5). The owned-lease 5.9 ha). Because flat areas suitable for rice and other
pattern of rice cropping area shows that forest crops are limited, it is not possible for further

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expansion. On the other hand, because paan can be
cultivated on a sloping ground, there may be further
potential of expanding paan cultivation as long as the
water becomes somehow available. In order to
cultivate paan, many kinds of forest products
including wooden poles, bamboos, leaves, and
sungrass are necessary to build facilities to provide
shade for paan plants, pan boroj. Thus, the expansion
of paan cultivation will affect the state of the forest
negatively [9-11].
Although this area is closed for human activities
except for forest villagers, new encroachers do not
seem to stop flowing in. Twenty % of all encroachers
have lived there in less than 10 years. Once
encroachers move in, they attempt to make their
living in this area. While they tend to rely more on
business and other activities than agriculture
compared to forest villagers, they establish
homesteads and agricultural fields by clearing the
land, and obtain forest materials for paan boroj, and
collect fuel wood from the forest. Therefore, new
encroachers are serious new sources of forest
destruction.
CONCLUSION
This study shows that the half of dwellers in a
reserved forest area usually closed for human
activities are not entitled to live in that area. While a
small fraction of these dwellers may have started
their habitation before the law prohibited such an act,
most of them are encroachers. The FD, however,
does not seem to control people’s movement into the
reserved area effectively. As this analysis shows, the
inflow of encroachers steadily continues. It is feared
that such new settlers in the reserved area would
further degrade the condition of already damaged
forests because of the very presence of their
homesteads and the pressure exerted by paan
cultivation on the forest.
[4] IPAC. 2009. Site-level field appraisal for protected
area co-management: Teknag Game Reserve, Cox’s
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[5] MA Mannan. 2006. Plant biodiversity management
at Teknaf Peninsula ECA. Coastal Wetland
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Conservation Management Plan. Submitted to
Coastal and Wetland Biodiversity Management
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[7] Nishorgo Support Project. 2006. Management plans
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[8] S Akhter, MSI Sohel, MP Rana, and M Alamgir.
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Ukhia and Inani Forest Range under Cox’s Bazar
(South) Forest Division, Bangladesh. Proc. Pakistan
Acad. Sci., 46(1):13-22.
[9] M Tani, MZ Rahman, A Rahman, K Asahiro, and S
Akhter. 2011. Deforestation by daily activites in the
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73-75.
[10] H Tsuruta, M Tani, and MZ Rahman. 2012. The
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local forest in the Teknaf Peninsula. Proc. ICEAB
2012: 51-53.
[11] MA Rahman, M Tani, K Asahiro, AZM Moslehuddin,
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Peninsula. Proc. ICEAB 2013 (to be published).

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study is in part supported by JSPS grant for
scientific research to the senior author (#24401040).

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