Power Electronics HB 02-20

Where fixed-ratio converters fit in high-power delivery systems Page 20 The try-before-you-buy route to energy efficient power design
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POWER ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
Why we don’t need energy

eff iciency standards for lighting
HEADLINES WERE MADE RECENTLY when two national associations The 40-W incandescent versions seem to run around a dollar. If you’re
dropped a lawsuit attempting to squash light bulb efficiency standards in curious about the payback time for these LED bulbs, we did a back-of-
the-envelope calculation using the 16.7 cents/kWh average power cost
California. The California standards supposedly save Californians billions
in California. It turns out that a 4.5-W, three-dollar LED candle bulb pulls
of dollars on their energy bills and avoid millions of tons of carbon- even in cost with a 40-W, one-dollar incandescent version after about
warming pollution. 336 hours of use at those rates. That works out to being switched on
eight hours daily for about 42 days.
The suit was brought by NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Those economics will probably convince most consumers to make
Association) and the American Lighting Association. At issue were the switch to LEDs, with or without regulations in force. Thus the $2.4
lighting regulations which had been expanded to cover specialty light billion that the Natural Resources Defense Council claims Californians
bulbs like those used in bathroom vanities and recessed lighting, as well will save on annual utility bills thanks to regulations would probably
as candle-shaped lights. The DOE recently eliminated these bulbs from happen even if regulators sat on their hands.
national lighting efficiency standards. And that brings us back to the recently dropped lawsuit. I suspect
Green advocacy groups crowed about this legal development. NEMA and the ALA looked at prices of specialty LED bulbs, shrugged,
Said the director of the Center for Energy Efficiency Standards at the and decided to forget the whole thing. Besides, California’s lighting
Natural Resources Defense Council, “The lighting industry finally came efficiency regulations are completely unenforceable unless, of course,
to its senses and discontinued its desperate efforts to block California’s the State plans to somehow prevent online vendors from shipping
common-sense light bulb efficiency standards, which are poised to save incandescent bulbs to Californians.
consumers billions of dollars on their utility bills.” If that’s the plan, good luck.
Hold on there, Kemosabe. The thing to note about specialty light
bulbs is that they are frequently in places where they’re not turned on
all that often. As is in any energy consuming application, energy costs
are only one part of the equation. The initial cost of the bulb also factors
in. If an energy efficient bulb costs sufficiently more than a less-efficient
version, buyers may be better off spending more on energy, particularly
if the the bulb isn’t used much.
This reality hit home for me because of a light bulb in a tiny cellar
under the porch of my house. That bulb is on for a total of about ten
minutes a year. For awhile, it looked as though I would be forced to
replace the inexpensive incandescent bulb lighting it (at about 50 cents
each) with an awful compact fluorescent light bulb (at a few dollars),
back when there was talk of regulating all incandescent bulbs out of
existance. Fortunately, cooler regulatory heads prevailed.
At a total on-time of ten minutes annually, it’s doubtful that a CFL
in my cellar would have paid back its additional cost in my lifetime, and
I plan to live a long time. The cost equation for energy efficient lighting
has improved since those days – you can find 60-W equivalent A19 LED
bulbs for less than a dollar if you shop around. But I’m pretty sure most
consumers would rather choose the kind of light bulb installed in their
own home, rather than let some bureaucrat do it.
The irony is LED bulb replacements for specialty incandescents are
readily available now, no thanks to regulators. For example, I was able
to find candle-shaped LED bulbs for less than three bucks each online.
LELAND TESCHLER | EXECUTIVE EDITOR
2 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 2 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

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CONTENTS
POWER ELEC TRONICS HANDBOOK | FEBRUARY 2020
6
20
38
32
02 WHY WE DON’T NEED ENERGY

EFFICIENCY STANDARDS FOR LIGHTING
06 THE MOVE TO SYNCHRONOUS

POWER SUPPLIES IN SMART FACTORIES
The need for high efficiency is pushing industrial
28
power supplies toward synchronous topologies that
minimize the need for heat sinking and cooling.
10 CAN A THREE-PHASE POWER SUPPLY

OPERATE FROM WYE AND DELTA AC INPUTS?
A few guidelines help clarify what three-phase input
28 HOT TOPIC: ELECTRIC VEHICLE COMPONENTS
GET MORE SOPHISTICATED THERMAL MODELS
The high electrical currents of fast charging are forcing
voltage best suits a particular large power system. designers to invent standard techniques for predictably
modeling heat and cooling.
14 THE BASICS OF GROUND-FAULT INTERRUPTION

Not all ground-fault interrupters are designed to protect
living beings. Specialized industrial versions are optimized 32 APPLYING LARGE BANKS OF SUPERCAPACITORS
It pays to know techniques for mitigating leakage
for maintaining the health of machinery and processes. current and over-voltages in uses where several
supercapacitors work in parallel.
20 WHERE FIXED-RATIO CONVERTERS FIT

IN HIGH-POWER DELIVERY SYSTEMS
Fixed-ratio converters are often the best way of 38 THE TRY-BEFORE-YOU-BUY ROUTE TO ENERGY
EFFICIENT POWER DESIGN
minimizing the electrical current sent over significant Evaluation platforms help pick SiC components in
distances in the interest of better power efficiency. power conversion circuits.
24 COMPARING POWER
SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES 44 THE 40-YEAR BATTERY PACK
Not all primary batteries offer the low annual self-
discharge rate needed for the lengthy lifespan of remote
Cutting-edge power device technologies all have a
niche. Here’s a rundown on the applications in which wireless devices consuming microamp-level currents.
each one likely fits.
eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 2 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 5

The move to synchronous

power supplies in smart factories ANTHONY “THONG” HUYNH MAXIM INTEGRATED
The need for high BUILDINGS, FACTORIES, AND INDUSTRIAL There are several techniques and technologies
efficiency is pushing equipment are getting more space efficient, that can ensure power supplies will meet the
industrial power supplies driving a move toward miniaturizing
efficiency and size requirements of industrial
toward synchronous equipment. They help realize the high efficiency,
the underlying components that enable low power dissipation, and small form factor
topologies that minimize
intelligence and automation. This trend needed to address modern design targets.
the need for heat sinking
challenges the power supplies for these The task of reducing analog IC size
and cooling. hasn’t been easy—particularly because power
designs. The power ICs must, of course, management components consume a significant
provide the necessary output voltages, and portion of PCB area. To illustrate this point,
also must be small and capable of performing let’s examine the power supply requirements of
some typical application areas, as well as what’s
well in thermally difficult environments.
needed to address their demands.
Compact power circuits help trucking

companies manage their fleets with
vehicular asset-tracking devices.
| JohnnyH5/iStock

SYNCHRONOUS POWER
Industries that require non-

contact level sensing--such as oil
and gas, mining, and waste water
processing--are driving demand
for ultrasonic sensors. These
types of sensors emit frequencies
ranging from 30 kHz up to a few
megahertz and interpret reflected
signals as a sensing method. For
Small, efficient power ICs level sensing, a single transducer is
support intelligence at the edge sufficient. After the transducer emits
of automated factories such as the ultrasonic signal, it measures
this car manufacturing plant. reflection time from the surface of
| onurdongel/iStock the liquid. Flow sensing typically
relies on two transducers because
this process uses the time-of-flight of
the ultrasonic wave and its variation
First consider vehicular asset-tracking devices. These aftermarket (depending on the flow rate of the medium).
items let companies managing large vehicle fleets keep close tabs on Ultrasonic sensors include an analog front-end that encompasses
their cars, trucks, and vans. Data collected can enhance fleet efficiency, transmission, receiving, and control circuits, plus an MCU for the
ensure vehicles undergo regular maintenance, and locate vehicles in calculations. Increasingly, these sensors must be small enough to fit
the event of theft or other issues. The devices themselves are usually into compact quarters and in narrow openings. Their power supplies,
powered by the vehicle battery (12 V for cars and 24 V for many trucks) therefore, must be small, rugged, and dissipate minimal heat. There are
and have a rechargeable backup battery. They’re typically installed under a few other power considerations to note. Fan-less ultrasonic sensors
the dashboard, so heat dissipation is critical to keeping the device in its are typically powered by a supply of 10 to 30 V and consume a few
proper temperature range. hundred milliamps of load current. With system operating temperatures
The power circuit for asset-tracking devices can include step-down up to 70°C, the power components should be rated for at least 125°C.
dc-dc converters and LDOs (low dropout regulators) to convert 12 and These systems also need protection from reverse polarity connections,
24-V supplies to lower voltages for powering various digital logic and over-voltages, and electromagnetic interference (EMI).
analog ICs. LDOs are, indeed, an option, as they’re typically easy to use Today’s smart buildings are defined by intelligence that controls
and inexpensive. However, LDOs dissipate appreciable power when used the lighting, temperature, security systems, access mechanisms,
directly from the main battery voltage, the primarily means by which and more. The sensors, controllers, and interfaces that make these
these asset-tracking devices are powered. This application would be well capabilities possible are often tiny and, thus, require small, efficient
served by highly integrated power ICs. Among
today’s dc-dc regulators, there are devices that
integrate the power MOSFETs, compensation
circuit, and other external components,
minimizing the discrete parts. In fact, new
technologies push the envelope even further
for efficiency and space savings.
As intelligence continues to move to
the edge of the digital factory, installations
require a plethora of high-performance
sensors, actuators, I/Os, and programmable
logic controllers (PLCs). The insights they
deliver allow factory equipment to become
self-aware and deliver benefits such as
greater productivity and up-time, predictive
Industries such as waste water processing
maintenance, and adaptive manufacturing.
rely on ultrasonic sensors for level sensing.
The power ICs for this equipment must be
| BKhamitsevich/iStock
small, efficient, robust, and able to handle
conditions such as drops, shock, and vibration.

Efficiency comparison Nonsynchronous buck converter

95 VIN
90 SYNCHRONOUS BUCK
IC
EFFICIENCY (%)
T
85 NONSYNCHRONOUS BUCK
CONTROL
80
MAX17506 L VOUT
75 VIN =24V
VOUT = 5V NONSYNCHRONOUS BUCK
D
70 COUT
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
OUTPUT CURRENT (mA)
The most common step-down architecture is the nonsynchronous buck converter

Synchronous buck converter
partly because semiconductor manufacturers can easily design nonsynchronous
buck regulators for high voltages. Here, the low-side rectifier diode is outside the VIN
IC. Synchronous architectures replace the diode with a low-side MOSFET acting as
a synchronous rectifier. The voltage drop across the MOSFET’s T2 on-resistance,
RDS(ON), is less than that of the diode the MOSFET replaces. Naturally, the goal is to IC
fully integrate the entire synchronous rectification half-bridge (T1 and T2) into the
T1
IC, in a fully integrated synchronous converter. An efficiency comparison of the
MAX17506, a synchronous step-down converter, versus a nonsynchronous design CONTROL
shows a higher efficiency for the synchronous solution across the higher load range. L VOUT
For both devices, the test conditions are 24 V input and 5 V, 4 A output. At full load
(4 A), the efficiency of the synchronous solution is above 92% while that of the
nonsynchronous device is only about 86%.
T2
COUT
power sources. Sensors generally receive often limited in these industrial designs,
power from 24-Vdc sources and must be making it impractical to dissipate heat via
able to operate in environments where techniques such as heatsinks. Forced-air fans
there will be high-voltage transients. also aren’t viable where sealed industrial
Non-critical industrial equipment typically enclosures prevent ingress of dust and
demands a maximum operating range pollutants. The only real option is a power
from 36 to 40 V. Critical equipment-- supply with high efficiency. Fully integrated synchronous
which includes controllers, actuators, and The input and output voltages involved buck converter
safety modules--must support 60 V. On in these industrial designs make it necessary
VIN
the output-voltage side, you’ll commonly to use a step-down, or buck, voltage
find 3.3 and 5 V with currents from 10 regulator. The most common type of step-
mA in small sensors up to tens of amps down architecture is the nonsynchronous
IC
in applications such as motion control. buck converter, with the low-side rectifier
These parameters point to use of a step- diode external to the IC. These devices are T1
down voltage regulator that can withstand fairly easy to design for high voltages. In a
CONTROL
voltage transients (42 or 60 V, typically) for design with a 24-V input and a 5-V output, L VOUT
building and industrial control applications. the buck converter works with a duty cycle of
approximately 20% and the external rectifier
ENHANCING POWER diode conducts the remaining 80% of the
SUPPLY EFFICIENCY time (this accounts for most of the power T2 COUT
Clearly power supplies for these applications dissipation). To greatly minimize the power
share qualities that include small size, power dissipation, synchronous topologies replace
efficiency, wide input-voltage range, and the rectifier diode with a synchronous
reliable operation in harsh and thermally rectifier (such as a low-side MOSFET).
challenging environments. Board space is Consider an example with a 4-A load

SYNCHRONOUS POWER
Smart building applications such as automated

lighting, security, and temperature control
benefit from step-down voltage regulators
that can withstand voltage transients.
| zhudifeng/iStock.
and a Schottky rectifying diode that has a voltage drop of about Integrated power modules can handle such demands while
0.64 V. At 80% duty cycle, the conduction loss is roughly: reducing overall circuit size by eliminating the need for many
discrete components. For example, the Maxim Himalaya uSLIC
(0.64 V) ×(4 A) × (0.80) = 2 W dc-dc power modules integrate a synchronous wide-input Himalaya
buck converter—including built-in FETs, compensation, and other
Replacing the diode with a low-side MOSFET serving as a functions—together with the output inductor. These modules
synchronous rectifier replaces the 0.64-V drop with a drop across reduce the power supply size by up to 2.25× compared to discrete
the MOSFET transistor’s on-resistance, RDS(ON). The MOSFET’s approaches. The family of power modules supports input voltages
RDS(ON) is just 11mΩ. As such, the voltage drop is: from 2.9 to 60 V and, as such, can support low-voltage applications
such as consumer devices as well as higher voltage industrial
(11 mΩ) × (4 A) = 44 mV applications.
All in all, integrated power modules help meet the input
And the power loss is: voltage, heat dissipation, and size requirements of the industrial
applications that are bringing greater operational efficiency to our
(0.044 V) × (4 A) × (0.80) = 141 mW factories, vehicle fleets, buildings, and more.
In our example, the MOSFET power loss is about 14× smaller than
the Schottky power loss at full load. Such are the power-efficiency
REFERENCES
Maxim Integrated Himalaya power modules,
benefits of synchronous rectification.
https://www.maximintegrated.com/en/
A cautionary word about handling maximum input voltage:
products/power/power-modules.html
Though 24 V is the nominal rail for factory applications, it would be
prudent to choose from the 28-V, 36-V, 42-V, or 60-V input power
management modules now available. In fact, unless you know or
will be able to model all possible surge scenarios that can stem from
long cables and PCB traces, devices with a 42-V or 60-V maximum
operating range should be the best bet—28 V is too close to 24 V to
provide a reliable margin, and 36 V is risky when working with sensors
and encoders on a 24-V rail. (This approach could expose equipment
to excessive voltages, even with surge protection in place.)

Can a three-phase power

supply operate from wye
and delta ac inputs?
TDK LAMBDA TECHNICAL MARKETING
A few guidelines help clarify what

three-phase input voltage best suits a
particular large power system.
AC-DC POWER SUPPLIES rated higher than 2.5 kW

frequently have a three-phase ac input. In the U.S. the
voltage can be 208/220 Vac or 480 Vac. In Europe it is a
“harmonized 400 Vac” which really is 415 Vac in the U.K. An HWS1800T-24
and 380 Vac for Europe. A higher input voltage allows three-phase
more power to be drawn from the incoming ac at a lower power supply.
current. These three-phase ac voltages can be one of two

configurations – delta or wye (pronounced “why”).
Typically high-voltage power is transmitted from the

power generation plants to local substation transformers
(where it is reduced in voltage) and then to facilities in a
delta configuration. Note that a delta configuration only
uses three wires and has no neutral or ground wire. This
saves the cost of a fourth wire, which is unneeded during
transmission.
Consider the U.S. first. At a typical large power A TPS4000-24
consumer such as a factory, a 480-Vac delta three- three-phase
wire feed enters the facility. (It comes to the facility power supply.
from the local utility substation.) From the facility’s
incoming distribution panel, 480 Vac delta is supplied
Genesys+ programmable power supplies
GH1.5kW / G1.7kW 1ø 85 to 265Vac

G2.7kW / G3.4kW: 1ø 170 to 265Vac or 3ø 208Vac or 3ø 400Vac
G5kW / GSP10kW & 15kW: 3ø 208Vac, or 3ø 400Vac or 3ø 480Vac

THREE-PHASE POWER
Power distribution in a major power user (US)

Incoming distribution panel Distribution panel
3-phase delta power input
from substation (480-Vac)
Phase A Line 1 L-N Loads

(120-Vac)
Phase B
Neutral L-L Loads
Phase C (208-Vac)
Line 2
Line 3
A typical U.S. power
Step down Delta-Wye transformer distribution scheme for
large power users such
as factories locates a
Small
Large 3-phase loads step-down delta-wye
3-phase loads (208-Vac) transformer on site. The
(480-Vac) transformer is generally
large enough to sit on its
own concrete pad, often
outside the facility.
Power distribution in a major power user (Europe)

Distribution panel
Phase A Line 1 L-N Loads

(120-Vac)
High voltage (kV)
power input Phase B
from grid Neutral L-L Loads
(208-Vac)
Phase C
Line 2
Line 3
Step down Delta-Wye transformer
A typical European major power-using facility has its 3-phase loads

400-Vac
own delta-wye step-down transformer, like its U.S.
(380 / 415-Vac)
counterpart, but the outputs are at different voltages.
directly to electrical equipment needing a large amount of power. in addition to being able to supply 208-Vac phase-to-phase, can also
Typical loads requiring this much power might include large supply 120 Vac. The 120 Vac is available by connecting to either one of
ovens, test equipment for semiconductors, burn-in chambers, and the output Lines (L1, L2 or L3) and neutral N.
machines fabricating metal (including laser cutting and additive As a rough order of magnitude, 208 Vac three-phase would
manufacturing). It is important to note that connecting equipment be used for mid-sized loads exceeding 5 kW but less than 25 kW.
to this incoming voltage feed, rather than just the reduced Single-phase 208 Vac is generally for smaller loads exceeding 1.5
wiring gauge, can minimize the size of the delta-wye step-down kW. The 120-Vac wall outlet can support around 1 kW. The amount
transformer, cutting costs while saving energy and floor space. of power depends on the wiring size and fusing—consult your local
Power for the rest of the facility comes from a second distribution qualified electrician!
panel. This panel receives input power from a step-down delta-wye Some facilities may also contain a second delta-wye transformer.
transformer that converts a 480-Vac delta configuration to a four-wire This transformer provides 277 Vac feeds to lighting and HVAC
208-Vac phase-to-phase wye configuration. The distribution panel, (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning) equipment. And in Europe

Phase relationship in wye output (US) Phase relationship in wye output (Europe)
120Vac
Line L1
Line L1
380 / 415-Vac
208Vac
Neutral N - often grounded Neutral N - often grounded
Line L3 Line L2
120 Vac Line L3 Line L2 120Vac 220 / 240-Vac 220 / 240-Vac
Lines coming off the wye step-down transformer In Europe the phase-to-phase wye output
connections measure 208 Vac phase-to-phase. voltages are 380/415 Vac (Europe/U.K.) with
Installations obtain 120 Vac by making connections 220/240 Vac available between L1 and neutral.
between neutral and L1.
the arrangement and voltages are different The distribution panel, in addition to units have different input voltages covering
than in the US. supplying 380/415 Vac phase-to-phase, most of the global input voltages.
In European power distribution, the grid can also provide 220/240 Vac through Regardless of the supply maker, there
provides major power consumers with a high connections to either one of the output are a few points users of three-phase
voltage (11 kVac in a delta configuration in Lines (L1, L2 or L3) and neutral N. supplies should keep in mind. Ensure the
the UK). A step-down transformer delivers manufacturer has internal fuses fitted, as
three phase in a four-wire wye configuration TYPICAL THREE-PHASE SUPPLIES some low-cost power supplies do not. A
to the facility’s distribution panel. Mainland For examples of three phase ac-dc power high-voltage fuse is required for each phase.
Europe mainly uses 380/220 Vac while the supplies that would work on the distribution They are bulky and are not inexpensive.
U.K. uses 415/240 Vac. systems outlined above, we shall review With these points in mind, users of
some examples from TDK-Lambda’s three-phase supplies might be tempted
product offering. The HWS1800T-24 is a to take a second glance at those big grey
Delta phase relationship 1.8-kW-rated power supply accepting a mystery boxes – which you’ll now understand
170-265 Vac three-phase input. This kind are step-down transformers — surrounded by
of input would be suitable for operation chain-link fencing and high voltage warnings
from a standard U.S.- type of 208-Vac in the company parking lot!
three-phase wye input. It could also
operate in Europe but would require a 400
REFERENCES
480Vac -to-220 Vac three-phase wye-wye step-
TDK-Lambda Americas Blog,
US down transformer.
https://power-topics.blogspot.com/
The TPS4000-24 is a 4-kW-rated power
Phase A Phase B supply accepting a 350-528 Vac three-
phase input, either delta or wye. This
supply would be suitable for operation in
the U.S. and in Europe without changing
Phase C connections to the power supply or
additional transformers.
The Genesys+ series of programmable
Delta wiring configurations measure power supplies encompasses a large
480 Vac phase-to-phase in the U.S. number of models ranging from 1.5 kW to
15 kW. Depending on the power level, the

A57_DesWrld9x10_875.qxp_Layout 1 1/4/20 8:53 AM Page 1
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The basics of
ground-fault interruption
WILL DELSMAN NK TECHNOLOGIES
Not all ground-fault interrupters are designed

to protect living beings. Specialized industrial
versions are optimized for maintaining the
health of machinery and processes.
GROUND FAULTS ARISE when current flows from an energized Just a little current can kill
conductor to ground inadvertently. The return path of the fault
current is through living beings or equipment touching the 8000
grounding system. Ground fault detection is critical to protecting
people and animals from shock or death.
It doesn’t take much ground-fault current to cause harm. Extensive

research in the 1960s determined the amount of current and
voltage needed to cause ventricular fibrillation (where a heart
stops beating) in humans. These studies found that as little as 800
70 mA through the heart was enough to cause fibrillation. The
refinement of transistor technology provided a means of sensing
Current milliamperes
500 and higher

currents as low as 0.003 A (3 mA) to energize a relay that would Probably fatal
decouple the power supply.
OSHA documents spell out the general relationship between
the amount of current received and the reaction when current
flows from the hand to the foot for just one second. 150
• At 1 mA you feel a slight tingle.

• At 5 mA you feel a slight shock, not painful but
disturbing. The average individual can let go, but 50
20-55 possibly fatal
involuntary reactions can lead to injuries.
30 30 standard
• At 6–25 mA there is painful shock, and muscular control Equipment protection
is lost. 20
• The 9–30 mA level is called the freezing current or “let- 5-20 can’t let go
go” range. At this level many humans cannot get their 9
muscles to work, and they can’t open their hand to let go
5 Slight shock felt
of a live conductor. 1 Barely feel tingle
• At 50–150 mA there will be extreme pain, respiratory
arrest, and severe muscular contractions. The individual
cannot let go, and death is possible.
• At 1,000–4,300 mA there is ventricular fibrillation (the
pumping action to the heart ceases). Muscular contraction
and nerve damage occur. Death is most likely.
• At 10,000+ mA there will be cardiac arrest with severe
burns and probable death.

GROUND-FAULT INTERRUPTION
Typical industrial ground-fault interrupter
Ground fault sensor The current transformer in a ground-fault sensor detects

any imbalance through the conductors of interest,
Sensor power
measuring current leakage to ground. The sensor may
then trigger a contactor to disconnect power or send an
alarm to controls that initiate an appropriate action.
Electrical
components
be considered a UL943 GFCI. UL requirements for GFCI listing now

Contractor
include a self-test feature which must be included in the sensing and
conditioning circuits.
EQUIPMENT ENCLOSURE
Leakage
PROTECTING PROCESSES
to ground While personnel safety is a major concern of ground fault protection,
industrial settings dictate additional considerations. Manufacturing
facilities normally employ a variety of safety protections for employees
working with electrical machinery. Personal Safety Devices (PSD) used
properly help minimize exposure to electrical dangers and allow fault
Besides endangering lives, ground faults can also lead to costly fires current trip levels to be safely raised, minimizing nuisance trips and
and other equipment damage. Numerous safety regulations and preventing undesired process interruptions. Ground fault detection
electrical codes exist to prevent and protect against ground faults. can also be used to initiate controlled stops, alert other upstream
processes, and even predict equipment failures.
GROUND FAULT REGULATIONS Underwriters Laboratories has established standards under
The size of conductors, set points, and subsequent actions are all UL943 for personnel protection (avoiding shock to humans) as well
considerations for a ground fault sensor. What do the local codes as for equipment protection at various fault levels and reaction time
require for protection and disconnect? What is the main goal in setting limits. The primary aim of equipment protection is to keep a fault from
up a ground fault device? Is it focused on personnel protection or damaging machinery. Circuits supplying heating loads (heat strips,
electrical device/process protection? heat trace and snow melting equipment) are usually not disconnected
In North America, ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCI) have been until the fault current exceeds 30 mA or more. Electric vehicle charging
required by the National Electric Code (NEC) since the late 1960s. As the stations are now required to have GFCI personnel protection according
technology became more reliable, the NEC mandated GFCIs in many to 625.22.
more applications to reduce the number of deaths from electrical shock.
GFCI receptacles and circuit breakers were a huge step forward Torrids in place
with a significant reduction in fatalities leading to a greater interest in
ground fault protection. The NEC sets standards for where a GFCI is
required and how quickly it should disconnect the circuit. The system
design engineer follows the NEC Code requirements based on UL943.
The UL specification designates what fault current level will cause the
circuit to be de-energized and how quickly it must disconnect. NEC
refers to personnel protection as ground fault circuit interrupters tested
to UL943A requirements.
A GFCI is designed to disconnect a circuit if current to earth
exceeds 6 mA at 120 Vac. At a low level of fault current it may take
a few seconds (UL943A states just under a minute) before the circuit
is de-energized, while at a higher fault current (20 mA or higher) the
circuit disconnects more quickly.
Industrial ground fault sensors should be marked as recognized
under UL1053, UL508 , or one of the other categories of UL943:
subsection B, C or D. UL1053 is specific for ground fault sensing and
relaying equipment with no stated current levels or time to operate. It’s possible to place a toroid over each conductor for sensing
UL508 is an even broader category that covers a variety of automation ground-fault current, then connect their secondaries in parallel.
components. A sensing device then monitors the resulting circuit. However,
When using a ground fault sensor to control a shunt-trip breaker, this multiple-toroid method is inherently less precise than using a
both components (sensing device and circuit breaker) must be single toroid because of manufacturing and material tolerances.
tested together to verify the circuit is interrupted quickly enough to

Shunt trip with auto-rest ground fault

The 2017 NEC states the following: Article 426.28: Ground-fault
protection of equipment shall be provided for fixed outdoor electric
Control power transformer deicing and snow-melting equipment. Article 427.22: Ground-fault
protection of equipment shall be provided for electric heat tracing
and heating panels. This requirement shall not apply in industrial
establishments where there is alarm indication of ground faults and
the following conditions apply:
1) Conditions of maintenance and supervision ensure that only
qualified persons service the installed systems, and 2) continued
Out to circuit operation is necessary for safe operation of equipment or
monitored processes.
load (heating Article 555.3: The over-current protective devices that supply
elements) the marina, boat yards, and commercial and noncommercial docking
facilities shall have ground-fault protection not exceeding 30 mA.
The NEC calls for ground-fault protection for high-current
supplies, too: Article 215.10 and 230.95 deal with current of 1,000 A
and voltages of 480 or higher. Article 517.17 stipulates where fault
detection is required in hospitals and other health care facilities.
The importance of protecting an electrical system against
faults-to-earth cannot be overstated. This type of fault sensing is
not over-current detection, so fusing or circuit breakers will keep the
Shunt trip conductors and insulation from being damaged.
operating solenoid
DETECTION METHODS
Circuit breaker The primary method of fault detection utilizes a single ring of
magnetically permeable material wound with many turns of small
gauge wire (forming a current transformer or toroid) surrounding all the
current-carrying conductors. If there is more current supplied to the
load than is returned to the source, this sensing toroid produces a low
voltage in the windings. This voltage is amplified and used to trigger
an action such as energizing a solenoid to open a set of contacts.
A shunt-trip breaker lets a remote control open It is also possible to place a toroid over each conductor
a circuit in the same manner as when there is connecting the secondaries together with a sensing device installed
an over-current condition. This action generally to monitor the resulting circuit. Each toroid or current transformer
employs a magnetically operated solenoid to must be rated to handle the maximum current in each conductor. The
push or pull a latching mechanism to open the accuracy of this multiple toroid method is inherently less precise than
breaker contacts. The shunt-trip devices are also using a single toroid due to manufacturing and material tolerances.
sometimes used to turn off loads in an emergency. A similar approach can be used to monitor the entire load
of a machine or distribution panel supplied by a wye-connected
(star) transformer and bonded to earth at the machine location.
Passing only the bonding conductor through a ground fault sensor
will perform the same function as using a large toroid over all the
conductors.
In most industrial applications, the ground-fault sensor output
performs one of two operations: A contact closes a circuit to energize
the operating solenoid of a shunt trip circuit breaker or, a contact
opens a circuit powering a contactor or motor starter operating coil.
How the sensor output interacts with the rest of the control system is
completely at the discretion of the system designer.
Circuit breakers come in a variety of styles. Some can accept
feature-enhancing accessories (such as for under voltage trip, alarm
contacts, and interchangeable trip plugs). Most common is the
shunt-trip breaker that allows the circuit to be opened from a remote

Commercial kitchen application
In one commercial kitchen application,

designers used an NK Technologies Tri-Set
Grill
ground-fault sensor with a range jumper
installed at the highest setpoint (30 mA),
allowing the equipment to operate during its
initial burn-in. With the burn-in complete, the
sensors were readjusted to a 5-mA setpoint.
An example of a sensor that works well for
such uses is the AGLD.
to the monitored load is turned off, and the change state unless there is a fault-to-ground
only way to restore power is to reset the exceeding the trip point.
Neutral circuit breaker. Using a shunt-trip accessory The normally energized version is
bar Shunt trip effectively transforms an automatically sometimes referred to as fail-safe. Here, the
operating solenoid
resetting sensor into a latching device. output changes state when the sensor first
Even if the cause of the fault is powers up. The output returns to normal
Circuit breaker
removed from the load and the sensor or “shelf-state” condition when one of two
remains powered from an isolated source things happen: the sensed fault current
(recommended for all installations), the load exceeds the trip point, or the power to the
cannot be energized until the breaker is sensor is removed.
reset. A latching output sensor, like the auto- In the case where a normally open,
location (acting as if there was an over- reset models, is typically equipped with an normally energized solid-state output model
current condition). This action is commonly integral test button. Two additional terminals opens the circuit powering a contactor coil, the
accomplished by a magnetically operated allow attachment of an external contact, output contact would be open at shelf state
solenoid that pushes or pulls a latching usually a button mounted to the enclosure and closed when the monitored circuit is not
mechanism to open the breaker contacts. In door, enabling the sensor to be reset after a passing current to ground and the sensor is
some applications the shunt-trip device turns fault is detected without opening the panel. energized. The sensor output will open, turning
off a load in an emergency. Another common method used off the monitored load, if the sensor power is
For example, most auto fuel dispensing with a ground fault sensor is to have the interrupted or if the monitored load passes
stations have an emergency switch that contact open the circuit providing power current to ground exceeding the trip point. It
disconnects all fuel pumps if there is a to a contactor coil, de-energizing the load is important to understand that the monitored
problem. This switch closes the circuit to – typically multiple heating elements or circuit might not energize if the sensor did not
operate a shunt-trip breaker, removing a motor-driven pump or fan. Opening a see power first, as energizing the sensor closes
power from the pumps. The circuit breaker contact in a control system sounds easy, but the output contact. More commonly the sensor
must be reset manually once the fault in most ground-fault sensing applications, selection would be normally closed, normally
condition has been addressed. the contact must be closed before the de-energized (solid-state) with the contact
When a shunt-trip is used with an auto- monitored load is energized. opening only when current exceeding the trip
reset ground fault sensor, the sensor contact Manufacturers offer both normally point passes to ground.
closes the circuit to the shunt solenoid when energized and normally de-energized With electromechanical relay outputs the
it detects a fault over the sensor trip point. versions of auto-reset ground-fault sensors. operation is the same. In normally energized
As in other cases, the breaker must be The more common of the two is normally de- versions, the output relay is energized with
reset manually after the cause of the fault is energized in which the output, whether solid- sensor power applied so the contacts change
determined and mitigated. Because power state or an electromechanical relay, does not state when the sensor has power. The relay will

then return to shelf state when there is a loss protection level of each piece of equipment. to cause ground leakage. Wet environments
of power to the sensor or the fault current Heating elements seldom leak low-level pose additional concerns as potential shock
exceeds the trip point. current the way motors and transformers do. In hazards multiply.
When an auto-reset sensor output most cases when heaters fail, there is a direct Unlike moisture sensors that must be
controls a contactor, it’s best to use a three- short-to-ground or the circuit is completely wired back to the motor control center,
wire connection method (like a standard open. Heat trace cable runs do tend to leak the ground fault sensor installs directly
momentary motor-start/stop-button setup) so small amounts of current to earth or there may in the control panel, minimizing wiring.
the contactor must be re-engaged after the be capacitance losses in long runs. Industrial electrical heaters are prone to
sensor trips. Alternatively, a latching-output With loads such as motors and ground leakage from the breakdown or
version of the sensor is an option. transformers, small imperfections in the contamination of insulation. The on/off output
In some code jurisdictions a contactor varnish insulation of the windings can let low of the ground-fault sensor can be used to
might not be considered a circuit disconnect. levels of current pass to earth. While humans trigger a circuit interruption device (such as
The local inspector, specifier, or AHJ can seldom feel 3 or 4 mA currents, this low a shunt-trip breaker) or a monitoring device
(authority having jurisdiction) has the final current leakage can rise over time until it (like a PLC) to determine the required action.
say. The best place to monitor a circuit for becomes a concern both to personnel and the
ground faults is close to the load rather than a equipment itself. SPECIAL SITUATIONS
distance upstream. The ability to precisely monitor ground- It can be useful to review how ground-
Many system designers tend to specify fault leakage lets the operator decide how fault equipment has served in particular
sensors that will monitor several loads to handle any ground-fault conditions. In applications that each have unique needs.
simultaneously by installing the sensor applications where deterioration over time is For example, recent updates to NEC Code
before a final distribution point. The problem expected, the monitoring of ground leakage 555 require that marina owners consider
is that any minor leakage in each load levels can determine specific maintenance ground-fault protection at both the individual
accumulates, resulting in a higher leakage or replacement needs and prevent costly slips and at the power distribution center
current level overall. unexpected equipment failure and shutdowns. feeding the separate branches to each slip’s
As an example, visualize a machine There are numerous applications where power pedestal. Typical power feeds now
that produces silicon wafers for electronics. leakage-to-ground can exceed 30 mA yet require sensors that can handle conductors
Several heating elements warm chemical not cause harm. And in some circumstances, carrying more than 300 A, necessitating use
wash processes, several motors perform disconnecting power prematurely may cause of additional components.
product positioning, and there are significant machine or process damage. To address this problem, NK design
transformers adjusting voltage levels for Environmental conditions, such as excessively engineers developed a sensor with an
various process controls. Sensors can be set humid or wet conditions caused by washdown, aperture measuring four inches in diameter
to trip at relatively low levels if the motors, or failing enclosure seals may elevate leakage. allowing conductors (carrying 800 A or more)
transformer loads, and heating elements In applications where actions are required to easily pass through the sensor.
are monitored for faults individually. But if a at predetermined or specified leakage levels, These large-aperture AG-LC sensors
single sensor protects all loads, the trip point the factory calibrated setpoint will simplify can monitor the main circuit feeding the
likely must be set much higher, reducing the setup. Once the setpoint is established, the pedestals and energize a shunt trip breaker
designer chooses how to specifically protecting the entire docking facility. Smaller
handle the fault. Local codes may aperture sensors can monitor individual power
determine the sequence of events once pedestals at each slip, with the sensor output
a fault occurs. energizing a shunt-trip breaker at the pedestal.
Environments characterized by In the case of kitchens, NFPA NEC
widely ranging temperature and 2017 Sec. 210.8 requires GFCI for personnel
moisture conditions wreak havoc protection in commercial kitchen equipment
on electrical systems. Changes with “single-phase receptacles rated 150 V
in heat and humidity eventually to ground or less, 50 A or less, and three-
break down protective insulation phase receptacles rated 150 V to ground
An example of a ground-fault sensor designed for use for industrial

settings is the AGT model which has a 0.74-in (19 mm) aperture. It
responds withing 600 msec to a 90% step change in current and
puts out an analog signal proportional to the sensed current.
18 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

Marina application or less, 100 A or less.” Prior to this change, mounted in wet conditions be protected with
only 15- and 20-A single-phase circuits of ground-fault circuit interrupters. If ac current of
125 V or less needed this level of protection. 4 to 6 mA passes to ground, a circuit breaker
Circuit breakers and receptacles meeting or the contacts in the power receptacle open
this requirement are readily available and before there’s an electrocution. Most electrical
quite common. Requirements above 20 A or heating elements must also be protected to
Ground fault detection needing three-phase protection are a more keep equipment from damage in the event of
at main feed location —
difficult issue. a fault.
transformer primary
Additionally, commercial kitchen steamers In contrast, trying to detect the same
Main transfromer and grills sometimes retain humidity while fault condition in a dc circuit with a floating
to boat slips stored prior to installation. So units must be ground is not as simple. With the proliferation
“burned in” or energized for at least two hours of photovoltaic panels and other alternative
Ground fault detection before normal use. The additional moisture power sources, the need for ground-fault
at main feed location — present during this process increases the detection in dc-powered systems is critical.
transformer secondary
ground-fault leakage to a point above the Solar panels or battery-operated systems
5-mA trip level. To avoid nuisance tripping use positive and negative conductors that
during the burn-in cycle, a ground-fault sensor are insulated. When connections get wet,
must allow a temporary rise in the setpoint. this insulation becomes compromised and
To handle such situations, some current can pass to earth. Water is the most
To power sensors offer adjustable capabilities as a common cause of dc fault current, while
pedestals standard feature. A factory placed range deteriorating insulation and contaminants
jumper is installed at the highest setpoint on battery housings are additional factors.
120v (30 mA) allowing the equipment to operate Because dc current leakage to earth presents
Ground fault detection during the initial burn-in. With the burn-in a dangerous situation, early fault detection
240v at each power pedestal complete, the sensors can be readjusted to is essential. Fault detection that doesn’t add
the 5-mA setpoint. impedance to the monitored circuit is the
Power The fabrication of silicon wafers into safest approach.
pedestals semiconductor chips involves hazardous
120v chemicals and extreme heat. The SEMI REFERENCES
Ground fault detection standard S22-071b provides guidelines NK Technologies, www.nktechnologies.com
240v at each power pedestal regarding the safety of semiconductor
processing equipment, including Emergency
Mains Off (EMO) circuitry design. This
standard requires a means for the operator
to easily disconnect mains power should any
To handle new code requirements
problem arise during processing.
for marinas, NK Technologies design
Because there are electrical heating
engineers developed a sensor with
elements throughout the fabrication
an aperture measuring four inches in
equipment, ground fault protection is
diameter. This allowed conductors
paramount. The elements are monitored in
carrying 800 A or more to easily pass
each process segment, and fault detectors are
through the sensor. The large-aperture
set at fairly low trip points. If there is a fault-
AG-LC sensors can monitor the main
to-earth through the heating element, sensors
feeding circuit to power pedestals at each
selectively shut down only the affected part of
slip and energize a shunt-trip breaker
the process. If several heating processes short
protecting the entire docking facility.
simultaneously, a sensor with a bit of delay
and higher trip point shuts off the main power
feed. Here, sensors with adjustable setpoints
and delays help manage the controlled shut
down of the system in case of critical failures.
It is relatively easy and quite common to
detect low-level current in ac circuits. In North
America, codes require all electrical outlets

Tethered drones are an

example of a situation where
power cables must be as light
as possible. High-voltage
converters can help reduce the
size and weight of the tethering.
Where fixed-ratio converters fit

in high-power delivery systems
Fixed-ratio converters are often the best way of minimizing the electrical current
sent over significant distances in the interest of better power efficiency. PHIL DAVIES VICOR CORP.
THE VAST MAJORITY OF electromechanical or Many power system designers consider regulated dc-dc converters as essential
semiconductor loads require stable dc-dc voltage to their overall systems design. However, PDN regulation is not always necessary
for providing the right level of voltage to the PoL regulators nor imperative to an
conversion and tight regulation to operate reliably.
intermediate distribution-bus voltage. With this in mind, power system engineers
The dc-dc converters that perform this function are should consider implementing fixed-ratio dc-dc converters, which can offer
commonly called point-of-load (PoL) regulators and are significant advantages to the overall performance of the PDN.
designed with a maximum and minimum input voltage PDN performance is commonly measured in terms of power loss, transient
response, physical size, weight and cost. One major design challenge impacting
specification defining their stable operating range. The
PDN performance is the number of times the network needs voltage conversion
power delivery network (PDN) to these regulators can and tight line/load regulation. Engineers spend a great deal of time optimizing
vary in complexity based on the number and type of bulk power voltage conversion, dynamic regulation and distribution qualities to
deliver high performance and reliability.
loads, overall system architecture, load power levels,
If system load power is in the multi-kilowatt range, designing the bulk PDN
voltage levels (conversion stages), as well as isolation to handle a high voltage reduces the current the system must distribute (P= V×I).
and regulation requirements. Consequently the PDN size, weight, and cost (cables, bus bars, motherboard

FIXED-RATIO CONVERTERS
Paralleled bus converters

PC
copper power planes) can be reduced (PLOSS = I2R). Thus designers
strive to keep as much circuitry as possible operating at high- L_1 BCM_1
voltage/low-current, only converting to low-voltage/high-current +IN +OUT
close to the load. +IN –IN –OUT +OUT
However, bringing a high-voltage and high-power PDN close
to the load requires a dc-dc converter with high efficiency and high PC
power density. If the circuit demands a large step-down in voltage,
L_2
as from 800 or 400 V to 48 V, the converters able to do the job and BCM_2
having the highest efficiency would be fixed-ratio converters. These +IN +OUT
converters provide no regulation and dissipate little power. Their –IN –OUT
high efficiency figure-of-merit enables higher power density and

easier thermal management.
PC
WHAT IS A FIXED-RATIO CONVERTER?

L_N
A fixed-ratio converter operates much like a transformer but instead BCM_N
+IN +OUT
of ac-ac conversion, performs dc-dc conversion with the output
–IN –OUT
voltage being a fixed fraction of the dc input voltage. As with a
transformer, the converter provides no output voltage regulation, –IN –OUT
and the input-to-output voltage transformation is defined by the
“turns ratio” of the device. This turns ratio, referred to as the K PC
BCM converters are
factor, is expressed as a fraction relative to its voltage step-down easy to parallel to meet
capability. K factors can range from a K = 1 to as low as K = 1/72 higher power demands.
and are selected based on PDN architecture and the PoL regulator
design specifications. Typical PDN voltages are categorized as low
voltage (LV), high voltage (HV) and to ultra-high voltage (UHV).
Fixed-ratio converters can be isolated or non-isolated and also
capable of bidirectional power flow with reverse voltage conversion.
Bus converters in series
For example, a K = 1/16 fixed-ratio converter with bidirectional
PC
capability can be operated as a boost converter with a K of 16/1.
Additional design flexibilities include easy paralleling to meet BCM_1
higher power demands and the option of connecting converter +IN +OUT
outputs in series to boost output voltages by, in effect, changing +IN –IN –OUT +OUT
the K factor.
Power delivery networks are undergoing significant changes PC
due to the soaring power demands within many end markets and
BCM_2
applications. EVs (electric vehicles), mild hybrid and plug-in hybrid
+IN +OUT
vehicles are using higher PDN voltages such as 48 V. The 48-V level
–IN –OUT
meets the SELV (Safety Electrical Low Voltage) standard required by
many systems, and the simple power equations of P = V×I and
PLOSS = I2R explain why higher-voltage PDNs are more efficient.
PC
For a given power level, the current is four times lower at 48 V
than in a 12-V system and has losses 16 times lower. At one-quarter BCM_N
of the current, the cables and connectors can be smaller, weigh less +IN +OUT
and be inexpensive. The 48-V battery used in hybrid vehicles has –IN –OUT
four times the power of a 12-V source, and the added power can be
–IN –OUT
used in powertrain applications to reduce CO2 emissions, improve
gas mileage, and handle new safety and entertainment features.
The addition of AI (artificial intelligence) in data centers has BCMs with outputs connected in
driven rack power dissipation above 20 kW which has made the use series for higher output voltage
of a 12-V PDN bulky and less efficient. Use of a 48-V PDN brings enable more design flexibility.
the same benefits here as with hybrid vehicles. In both automotive
and data center applications, the preference is to keep 12-V legacy

Going from 48 to 12V
The Vicor NBM2317 enables efficient conversion

from 48-to-12 V and vice versa as it is a bidirectional
converter. The bi-directionality enables integrating a
legacy board into a 48-V infrastructure or the latest
GPU into a legacy 12-V rack.
loads and PoL commodity buck regulators to minimize the

amount of change.
Because 48 V is SELV-compliant, a non-isolated fixed-ratio
converter is a good choice for the 48-to-12-V dc-dc conversion
stage, as today’s PoL 12-V regulators can handle the variation
in input voltage. A non-isolated, unregulated fixed-ratio
converter is the most efficient high-power bus converter. It
lowers power dissipation, boosts power density, and cuts
costs. Its high density allows new decentralized distributed
power architectures in hybrid automobiles where non-isolated
fixed-ratio converters can sit near the loads, making possible smaller HIGH-VOLTAGE APPLICATIONS THAT REQUIRE ISOLATION
and more efficient 48-V PDN wiring throughout the vehicle. In server The world is now equipped with 4G radio and antenna towers which
blades, a small non-isolated 48-to-12-V fixed-ratio converter can sit on must be upgraded with new 5G systems consuming 5x the power of
the motherboard close to the buck regulators. 4G equipment. The 4G PDN is 48 V and is delivered via cable from a
Many new AI accelerator cards, such as the SXM from Nvidia ground-based power system. The significant rise in power consumed
and the OAM cards from Open Compute Project (OCP) members, by 5G equipment would force use of a large-diameter and heavy
are designed with a 48-V input because the AI processors consume power cable were the PDN to stay at 48 V. So telecommunications
500 – 750 W. Cloud computing and server companies still using 12-V companies are currently looking at using a 380-Vdc PDN to
PDN backplanes in their racks require 12-to-48-V conversion to employ significantly reduce the cable size.
these high-performance cards. Equipping these accelerator cards with Use of a bidirectional K 1/8 fixed-ratio converter in boost mode lets
a bidirectional K = 1/4 non-isolated fixed-ratio converter acting as a the ground-based 48-V power system deliver 380 V (K: 8/1) to the top of
12-to-48-V boost converter (K = 4/1)—or within a distributed higher the tower. A 380-to-48-V regulated converter at the top of the tower will
power 12-to-48-V module—enables older rack systems to incorporate allow both 5G and 4G systems to receive a regulated 48-V supply and
AI capability. realize less expensive power delivery via a small 380-V power cable.
Tethered drones are another high-voltage
Typical EV 48-V system application that requires isolation. Power cables
for tethered drones can be over 400 m long, and
the drone must lift this cable weight when flying.
Use of a high voltage such as 800 V helps reduce
A decentralized 48-V architecture the size and weight of the tethering power
places multiple smaller, lower-power cables. A compact onboard fixed-ratio converter,
converters closer to the 12-V loads. typically K = 1/16, can step power down to 48
V for the onboard electronics and video payloads.
In EVs, high power demands make 400 V a
common choice for battery voltage. The 400 V
is then converted to 48 V for distribution to the
various loads around the powertrain and chassis.
For fast-charging, the 400-V battery is charged
from a charging station having a regulated 800-V
dc output via an 800-to-400-V converter.
In both the 400/48-V and 800/400-V
applications, a parallel array of isolated K:
1/8 (400/48) and K: 1/2 (800/400) fixed-ratio
converters with high power density and efficiency

PowerShuntAd_DesignWorld2_20.qxp_Layout 1 1/10/20 4:42 PM Page 1
Power Shunt
FIXED-RATIO CONVERTERS
Fixed-ratio converter
Current Sense Resistors
K=1/16
High-voltage side Low-voltage side
K=16/1
A bidirectional fixed-ratio converter operating as a

step-down converter with K = 1/16 can also serve
as a boost converter with a K of 16/1.
above 98% can work effectively. Regulation comes either

before or after the fixed-ratio converter stage. The power
density and efficiency gains of not having regulation also
simplifies thermal management.
Exascale High Performance Computing (HPC) systems use
380 Vdc as the main PDN because rack power levels typically
exceed 100 kW. In these applications, isolated fixed-ratio
converters of K: 1/8 and K: 1/16 are integrated onto the server Help you Make the Leap from
Concept to Reality
blades or on mezzanine cards distributed through the rack to
deliver either 48 V or 12 V to the motherboards. Regulation
then comes via a 12-V multiphase buck converter array or
advanced higher-efficiency 48-V-to-PoL architectures. The
KOA Speer’s continually expanding line of Power Shunt Current
density and efficiency of the fixed-ratio converter again plays a
Sense Resistors are the ideal solution to help you optimize your
critical role in enabling this type of PDN architecture to deliver
power system design. Our new Power Shunt Current Detectors
high performance.
are designed for DC to DC converters, inverters, batteries,
Advanced systems in enterprise and high-performance
motor controls, automotive modules, power supplies or any
computing, communications and network infrastructure,
other power management application.
autonomous vehicles and numerous transportation applications
KOA Speer Power Shunts Deliver:
are just a few of the high-growth industries clamoring for
more power. These applications have a common thread: Each • High Power: up to 10W
has extreme power requirements and benefits from a small, • Ultra Low Resistance: 0.5mΩ ~ 1mΩ
power-dense dc-dc converter that can save space and weight. • 4 Terminal, 2726 size - PSG4
Power system engineers should consider fixed-ratio converters 2 Terminal, 3920 size - PSJ2
as an important and flexible way of enabling high-performing
• Wide Temp Range: -65°C ~ +175°C
PDNs that provide a competitive advantage in overall system
performance. Check out the new products from the industry’s most
award winning passive component supplier… KOA Speer.
Visit KOASpeer.com
REFERENCES
Vicor Corp., www.vicorpower.com
Vicor NBM2317,
http://www.vicorpower.com/industries-and-innovations/nbm
DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 23

How wide bandgap technologies stack up
A comparison of
Si, SiC and GaN
material qualities.
Comparing power
semiconductor technologies
DR. GERALD DEBOY, DR. PETER FRIEDRICHS INFINEON TECHNOLOGIES
Cutting-edge power device THE PROCESS OF converting electrical power to different ac and dc
technologies all have a niche. Here’s levels and to mechanical motion has changed dramatically over the
a rundown on the applications in years. The development of “switched-mode” techniques has been
which each one likely fits.
among the most disruptive changes. Switched-mode techniques
exponentially boost power conversion efficiency and make practical
developments such as isolated dc-dc conversion without motor-
generator sets.
Semiconductor switches are, to a large degree, what makes switch-

mode conversion possible. Today we have a wide range of power
switches from which to choose. They include IGBTs (insulated-gate
bipolar transistors) and silicon MOSFETs, as well as wide-bandgap
devices based on both silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN).
The application determines which technology may be more reliable,
efficient and economical. Design engineers choosing a power switch
must evaluate each device’s operating range, properties, challenges
and benefits, as well as specific application needs.

POWER SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES
Where power technologies excel
The power handling and

switching frequency ranges
now predicted for power
switches technologies.
recovery currents of differing amplitudes and
durations. However, IGBTs have no intrinsic
diode. As the device switches off, a current
“tail” causes high power dissipation. Si
MOSFET body diodes have a high reverse
recovery charge and are relatively slow,
causing losses especially at high frequencies.
SiC MOSFETs have negligible reverse
recovery charge, but the diode has a high
forward-voltage drop when it conducts,
again dissipating energy. Thus, designers
increasingly use synchronous rectification
(replacing diodes with actively controlled
switches) which, in turn, lowers static
losses below that when diodes are used in
combination with IGBTs.
On the other hand, GaN conducts in
the third quadrant with a drop defined by
low channel resistance and with no reverse
SEARCHING FOR THE IDEAL SWITCH in multilevel topologies, like NPC or ANPC recovery at all. Both effects help minimize
Power converters are becoming a focal (neutral-point-clamped and active neutral- power losses. GaN and SiC are, therefore,
point for saving energy, lowering costs and point-clamped). Here each component excels ideal solutions for optimizing efficiency with
minimizing environmental impact. High- at different points in the topologies. half-bridge-based topologies, particularly
efficiency converters also bring smaller, GaN is best for new designs. Simply under “hard” switching conditions. With
lighter and cheaper products without a power replacing IGBTs or Si MOSFETs with GaN “soft” or resonant switching, Superjunction
consumption penalty and deliver more power devices and adjusting the gate drive probably Si MOSFETs are still the optimal choice up to
in the same volume for the same temperature won’t bring benefits and may just increase about 250 kHz.
rise. Power density is also an important metric EMI. But existing topologies may see benefits Current and voltage ratings also limit
in applications such as cellular infrastructure, from replacing Si IGBTs with SiC. There can GaN applications, making IGBTs and SiC the
EV/HEVs and edge computing. be significantly less loss even with no change dominant technologies for higher currents and
When evaluating power switches, many in either switching frequency or turn-on/turn- voltages.
believe wide bandgap semiconductors based off times.
on SiC and GaN are ideal. GaN seems to be In some applications, the device’s THE IMPORTANCE OF POWER DENSITY
the clear winner in applications requiring a bidirectional capability, or how it operates in Although efficiency is key, high power density
650-V blocking voltage while SiC is superior its so-called “third quadrant,” is critical. This is sometimes the actual design aim. The
above 1,000 V. However, practical components mode of operation arises when both the drain maximization of power density involves a
have several qualities that may affect their voltage (collector for IGBTs) and current are choice between high-frequency operation with
performance in specific uses. In many negative in n-channel devices, a condition GaN, potentially reducing the size of passive
applications the latest-generation Si MOSFETs, happening under “commutation” in half- components, or operating Si or SiC MOSFETs
with lower blocking voltages and high-voltage bridge networks. This operation mode appears at lower frequencies with slightly larger
IGBTs, may cost less and perform better. in many common circuits such as inverters, passive components. SiC and GaN circuitry,
Power converters use four main switch motor drives, totem-pole PFC stages, and the with typically better efficiency, allows use of
types, Si IGBTs, Si MOSFETs, SiC MOSFETs or now widely used LLC, phase-shifted bridge smaller heatsinks. But the thermal design of
GaN HEMT (high-electron-mobility transistor) and active-clamp flyback converter topologies. associated components must be done with
cells. In addition, there are hybrids of the Si and SiC MOSFETs have integral body care. The selection of topology and control
technologies. Examples include IGBTs with diodes that conduct under these negative strategies for hard or soft switching (where the
integrated parallel SiC Schottky barrier current/voltage conditions. These diodes also voltage or current through the device is zero
diodes or IGBT and SiC switches combined exhibit a varying voltage drop and reverse when it switches) also play important roles.

Energy in power devices The relative performance of IGBTs,

Si Superjunction MOSFETs, SiC
MOSFETs and GaN HEMTs (with
and without losses in the RC
circuit) from Infineon in terms of
gate charge and driving power
(inset).
A power converter’s total cost of ownership (TCO) will include A similar FOM given by RDS(ON)×EOSS combines conduction
not only acquisition cost and energy wasted through inefficiency, losses with switching loss generated by the dissipation of stored
but also the amortized design, development, and qualification energy, EOSS, in device output capacitance each switching cycle.
expenses along with the cost of scraping obsolete equipment. The lower the FOM, the lower the losses. EOSS itself, the energy
Higher power-converter efficiency speeds payback especially in stored in device output capacitance, is a similar indicator of turn-
energy-hungry applications such as hyper-scale data centers. on losses. Total gate charge QG(TOT) affects gate drive power PG
For example, consider the energy efficiency efforts of the required, according to:
Open Compute Project, where OCP members share designs for
data center products. The trend is to integrate power converters PG = QG(TOT) × F × VGSW where F = frequency, Hz; and VGSW = gate
into the rack, with projected lifetimes of six to eight years, instead voltage swing, V.
of the typical two-to-three-year life of power supplies mounted
directly on motherboards. This relationship is important because gate-drive power
At an efficiency level close to 98%, GaN designs pay for can affect system efficiency. GaN has a low threshold voltage of
themselves after around three years depending on electricity costs. around 1.5 V and extremely low QG(TOT). So gate-drive power is
Their reduced converter size and higher efficiency can also allow just milliwatts even at high frequencies. On the other hand, IGBTs
more server blades to fit in each rack, boosting data throughput. can require several watts of gate drive, even at low frequencies,
The same benefits are available in other applications. In because of their typical gate-voltage swings between +16/-9 V and
motor drives, for example, more efficient GaN technology could gate charge measured in microcoulombs.
substantially reduce inverter temperature rise and allow twice SiC lies between the two. The charging and discharging of the
as many drives to sit in a cabinet, greatly reducing the need for capacitance associated with QG(TOT) through device and external
expensive factory floorspace. gate resistance also affects switching speed and EMI generated.
The markets are growing for Si, SiC and GaN alike. Analysts
FIGURES OF MERIT at Research and Markets, for example, expect the market for
The figure of merit (FOM) for a power-handling devise is the IGBTs to grow at a CAGR of more than eight percent and amount
product of ON-resistance and die area – RDS(ON)×A. FOM is a to nearly US$10 billion by 2023. Si MOSFETs are still preferred
good indication of how much power the device handles for for certain applications. Potential applications for wide bandgap
a given voltage rating. A low value implies a smaller die with semiconductors continue to expand, so active development of new
correspondingly smaller device capacitances and higher switching products with improved specifications continues across the board.
speeds. It also implies more die per wafer for a given power rating, To get a feel for the direction of the trend, consider work underway
potentially lowering device costs. at Infineon. Infineon aims to move towards ever-better RDS(ON)×EOSS

POWER SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES
Performance roadmap
How Infineon Si-Superjunction
MOSFETS have improved over time.
and RDS(ON)×A. Infineon pioneered Si-Superjunction technology

and expects to halve the RDS(ON)×A FOM to about 5 mΩcm² in the
future. New Trenchstop-based IGBT topologies also improve the
VCE_SAT vs. QTOT trade off. And Infineon continues work on wide
bandgap devices as GaN and SiC technologies are still far from the
theoretical performance limits for RDS(ON)×A FOM.
All in all, the selection of a solid-state power switch involves
device qualities, including TCO, system implications, and
performance requirements. Optimal electrical performance will
come with ground-up designs using wide bandgap devices.
REFERENCES
Infineon power, https://www.infineon.com/power
Open Compute Project, https://www.opencompute.org
Research and Markets global IGBT market forecast,

https://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/4718358/
global-igbt-market-forecasts-from-2018-to-2023
2 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 27

A typical high-voltage connector for

an EV. Real-life use differs dramatically
from conditions in derating tests where
1.4-m-long cables extend from either
side of the connector.
Hot topic: Electric vehicle

components get more
sophisticated thermal models
DR. MICHAEL LUDWIG, T&C CORE TECHNOLOGIES TE CONNECTIVITY
The high electrical currents of fast THE ONLY WAY electric vehicles (EVs) will ever catch on is if
charging are forcing designers to invent consumers can charge them up quickly. Consequently, manufacturers
standard techniques for predictably are developing high-power charging (HPC) schemes which would
modeling heat and cooling.
enable users to get 300 km of range in less than 10 minutes. The
current generation of dc chargers work with 50 kW and 125 A in
majority, but the next generation is expected to involve up to 350 kW.
Simultaneously, designers of EVs are trying to boost range by reducing
component weight and increasing efficiency. All of these changes will
directly impact the design of the vehicle’s energy backbone.

EV THERMAL MODELS
But the drive to reduce weight and improve power. Traditionally, terminals and connectors the ambient environment plays a dominant
electric drivetrain performance makes thermal have power ratings derived from derating role in many applications. Cooling strategies
issues tougher to manage. Higher electrical measurements such that the terminals and employing forced convection can boost
currents generate more heat, while lighter and connectors operate at less than their maximum current carrying capability, whereas cable ducts
smaller components make heat sinking more capabilities to prolong operating life. This hinder convection. The derating scenario has
problematic. practice has led to robust designs that have limited usefulness because it considers only
Thermal considerations for future EV significant safety margins. But this practice free convection when deriving HV connector
charge cables will only grow more stringent. doesn’t consider common applications in specifications.
Connectors attached to cables with an effective which the plug mounts to an aggregate; the In the characterization of current-carrying
cross-section of 95 mm2 are carrying loads of interactions with busbars; and the transient capabilities, conditions based on derating
up to about 400 A in lab conditions. However, behavior of components. consider only steady-state temperatures.
they are not generally rated to be used under TE Connectivity is collaborating with ZVEI, However, the transient behavior of components
these loads. The current-carrying capability a leading German association for electrical is actually more important.
is derated to compensate for degradation and electronic manufacturers, to develop a To illustrate, when a current of 400 A is
over a lifetime and provide a safety margin for framework that overcomes these limitations. applied to a connector through 1.4-m of cable,
application-specific characteristics that might The framework will enable effective evaluation it takes more than an hour for the assembly to
impact the cooling behavior. Derating factors of how wires and connectors perform when they reach a steady state. In real life, a high-power
vary regionally between 0.8 and 0.9. are integrated in relevant applications, while charging solution will complete the charging
Aluminum wires are appealing to also considering their specialized boundary operation within 10 minutes. So charging
automakers as they are beneficial in regard conditions. finishes long before components reach a steady-
to weight and cost. However, they should be Today’s testing models have limitations. state temperature.
used for smaller diameter cables and wiring Typical applications for high-voltage (HV) In addition, real driving cycles often are
with lower electrical loads as the characteristics connectors in EVs involve mounting one side characterized by highly dynamic load changes.
of the material and the interconnection to of the connector to a busbar, such as at the These changes produce high-amplitude current
aluminum needs to be carefully thought-out battery, the inverter, or the onboard charger. peaks that last for a few seconds. The need to
for thermal considerations when joule heating This application differs strongly from the accommodate these peaks is an application-
becomes dominant phenomenon. derating test scenario in which cables 1.4 m specific requirement that doesn’t show up in
These complications certainly affect long are applied to both sides of the connector. conventional specification methods.
terminals and connectors used to handle EV In addition to boundary conditions, The new approach to evaluating HV
Typical EV electrical systems

A block diagram of the
typical electrical system
for an electric vehicle.
Onboard charger Charging inlet

(AC/DC) (AC/DC)
compressor
Climate
Heater
Motor
HV battery system, including:
• Cell connectivity Motor

• Module connectivity
• Battery management system (BMS)
Power
distribution AC
AC DC
DC DC
DC to 12 volt - further system not displayed Inverter
Inverter Converter

Abrupt load changes characterize driving cycles

50
40 A graph from the worldwide

harmonized light vehicles
test procedure (WLTP) driving
power / a.u.
power / a.u.
30 cycle reveals the abrupt
0 load changes characterizing
real driving cycles. Here,
20 vehicle speed is in blue and
normalized power dissipation
is in red.
10
0
0 50 100 150 200
time / sec
connector performance uses thermal equivalent circuits (TEC) which modular fashion to build thermal models and customize then to
are analogous to electrical equivalent circuits. These TECs consist of specific application conditions.
thermal resistances, the equivalent to ohmic resistances, and thermal A harmonized simulation model helps find the best thermal
capacities, the equivalent to capacitors. solution and analyze the effects of various influencing factors.
Heat is generated at various positions within the TEC according Influencing factors, which can be adjusted easily, typically
to the law of Joule heating. Additionally, the modeled part interacts include current profiles linked to charging or driving cycle data,
with the ambient environment via radiation and convection at the parameters which underly aging effects, effects tied to wire length
surface. A third and dominant heat transfer mechanism is heat or cross-section, application of a radiator to improve convection,
conduction towards the aggregate system and individual cables. and other variables.
Values for the thermal resistors can be derived from geometrical A non-obvious advantage of this method is that it makes it
considerations and specific thermal resistance, while the capacitor possible to measure the temperature of inaccessible components.
values can be estimated based on specific heat capacity and weight. Parts with low mass react immediately to thermal stresses before
These considerations are valid for primary heat transport along the conduction can cool them off. Measurement of physically inaccessible
current-carrying path. However, another approach is needed to components lets manufacturers better understand overall
derive parameter values for heat transport mechanisms involving temperature generation and distribution and find performance
isolation and shielding. Consequently, there is a second approach bottlenecks without the need for extensive FEM simulations.
that relies on data generated by finite element methods (FEM) and The TEC is simple enough that there are no special hardware
empirical data generated on a dedicated test bench. requirements to make it work. Simulations containing models for
an aggregate, a harness, and a connector can run within a few
A HARMONIZED SIMULATION MODEL seconds, simulating a transient current profile over a few hours with a
ZVEI is defining harmonized TECs for connectors and cables. As resolution of seconds or even less. From a software perspective, any
a result, products are characterized not only by derating curves SPICE simulation environment can be used as well as any physical
but also by a parameter set describing the component behavior. modeling software.
Engineers can use component TECs and parameter sets in a In a nutshell, the evolution of EVs will require new approaches
Thermal equivalent circuit for EV connections

Harmonized TECs for EV
Aggregate connectors and cables are
Connector Connector simple. Simulations containing
Aggregate Aggregate
header plug models for an aggregate, a
harness and a connector can
Aggregate
run within a few seconds.

EV THERMAL MODELS
Real part geometry Thermal equivalent circuit

Heat source
Current I/O Current I/O
Heat flow I/O Resistance Resistance Heat flow I/O

An example of a thermal equivalent circuit
(TEC) and the part it represents. Here,
thermal resistances are analogous to ohmic
resistances and thermal capacities are Capacity
analogous to capacitors. The mathematics
of both kinds of circuits are the same.
Initial temperature TO
to developing and testing high-power

connectors which cannot be addressed
using conventional specification methods. A
methodology based on thermal equivalent
circuits helps designers assess transient
behavior stemming from highly dynamic
driving profiles or short high-power charging
SORBOTHANE CAN PROTECT PRODUCT PERFORMANCE
applications.
TE Connectivity is collaborating with ZVEI
FROM SHOCK AND VIBRATION HARM
to develop a general guideline to standardize
models for both connectors and for shielded
and unshielded cables which will enable
more accurate testing and fit-for-purpose
engineering. The thermal analysis reflects
specific properties of various connectors
through use of an intrinsic parameter set
applied to the standardized models. PROVIDING
SHOCK,
Manufacturers can execute simulations
using any SPICE or physical simulation software
VIBRATION
on an office PC or desktop. The ability to
do efficient computations also lets teams
& NOISE
simulate large systems, including aggregates,
connectors, and wires, as well as the thermal
SOLUTIONS
response to current profiles over a few hours,
as recorded in real driving cycles.
REFERENCES
TE connectivity solutions for hybrid and electric Visit sorbothane.com
mobility, www.te.com/high-power-charging
for Design Calculators MADE IN
and Technical Data THE U.S.A.
800.838.3906
sorbothane.com
DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 31
Sorbothane_DesignWorldAd_A.indd 1 12/11/19 2:04 PM
Applying large banks of

supercapacitors
It pays to know techniques for mitigating leakage current and over-
voltages in uses where several supercapacitors work in parallel.
MICHELE KINMAN ADVANCED LINEAR DEVICES INC.
IN APPLICATIONS REQUIRING rapid charge/ Precision dual SAB overt voltage protection PCB
discharge cycles or short-term energy storage, you’ll SABMBOVP2XX schematic diagram
often find supercapacitors connected in series or V+
J1
parallel. However, there’s a potential problem when VA
supercaps are wired together in banks: No two J2
R X1 R X2 ON1
supercaps are identical, a fact that may lead to a J6
3 D1
slight voltage imbalance between them. Q1
C1
8,2 M1
More specifically, these imbalances arise because 4
the individual capacitors in capacitor assemblies OP1
each have minuscule variances in their make-up R P2 R P1 J7
that contribute to slight differences in their electrical
properties such as capacitance, internal resistance, VB
and leakage current. In particular, supercapacitor
J3
leakage current depends on parameters such as R X3 R X4 ON2
aging, the material/construction of the supercapacitor,
6 J8 D2
and the operating bias voltage. Leakage current is Q2
C2
also a function of the charging voltage, the charging
7
current, operating temperature range, and the rate-of- M2
1,5
change of many of these parameters. OP2
The usual way of accommodating these
R P4 R P3 J9
changing conditions is with a balancing circuit. Here,
added balancing circuitry ensures weaker capacitors VC
don’t drain stronger units during discharge and that
J4
individual capacitors don’t see overvoltages during
J5
charging. Large-cell supercapacitors, in particular,
V-
require over-voltage balancing because these cells
can incur large energy flows.
The SABMBOVP2XX schematic. The circuit can be viewed as a precision
The simplest supercapacitor balancing circuit
voltage clamp that functions like a Zener diode. Typically, the clamp
consists of a resistor put in parallel with the capacitor
current changes from a few nanoamps to over 100 mA (about 1,000,000
terminals. Resistors with the same value in parallel
times higher) at the clamp voltage within a 100-mV transition.
with all cells allow cells with higher voltages
to discharge through the external resistor at a
higher rate than the cells with lower voltages, thus
distributing the total capacitor bank voltage evenly
across the capacitors.

APPLYING SUPERCAPS
GPS
The GPS gives the vehicle’s position down
to a few meters and allows the vehicle to
plan its route. The maneuvering required
to follow the route is supported by the
Automation control unit sensors and data fusion.
Houses the vehicle’s
on-board intelligence and
executes all automation Mobile data link
and assistance functions. The mobile data link is the vehicle’s communication channel
Collects data from the for receiving transport missions, reporting its status and
vehicle’s numerous performance, and sharing perception data with other
sensors and combines it autonomous vehicles.
to give a comprehensive
view of the surrounding
area. The control unit Powertrain system
also receives transport Scania’s intelligent powertrain handles the truck’s pro-
missions from the off- pulsion with the highest precision and energy efficiency.
board logistics system
The central powertrain control system controls the
and translates them
engine, gearbox, clutch, and auxiliary brakes.
into instructions that
the vehicle systems can
understand.
Short range radar

Mounted at each corner of
the vehicle, the short-range
radars provide 360-degree
detection of other vehicles
and pedestrians. They
function in all weather and
light conditions.
Inertial sensors
Multi-lens camera
The inertial sensors measure
Mounted behind
the rotation and accelaeration
the windscreen, the
of the vehicle to help the
multi-lens camera
automation control unit
monitors the area in
calculate how it is moving.
front of the vehicle
to detect objects,
Long range radar
vehicles, pedestrians
With its range of
and lane markings.
up to 200 m in
Automation control unit With stereoscopic
front of the vehicle,
Wheel speed sensors EAS is an electrohydraulic system that vision, it can see the
the long-range
By measuring the rotation of each wheel, enables the automation and assistance shape of the ground
radar enables high
the automation control unit can calculate functions to safely steer the vehicle along in much the same
speed driving.
how the vehicle moves and turns. roads and around obstacles. way a human can.
An autonomous heavy duty vehicle

The problem with this scheme is that the resistor constantly three times as many base as envisioned by Scania in Sweden.
dissipates power as it conducts. When capacitance values of stations for the same coverage
supercapacitors become larger, for values ranging from 100 F to 1,000 as LTE due to the higher
F, the capacitor mismatch problem becomes more pronounced and frequencies used. In addition, typical 4G base stations now use four
more difficult to correct, especially if capacitor balancing also requires transmitter and four receiver (4T4R) elements, while 5G is expected to
ultra-low power consumption. The typical approach is to devise a use 64T64R MIMO arrays.
balancing circuit containing a switch (usually a MOSFET) in series with Consequently, there is much interest in making 5G base stations
a resistance. The switch keeps the balancing circuit off, and dissipating super energy efficient. One point to note is that today, a 4G base station
no power, unless cells are out of balance. consumes a significant amount of energy even when there is no output
One difficulty with this approach is that the small MOSFET current power. The reason is that most 4G circuitry remains active to transmit
meant for correcting leakage current imbalances may be too small mandatory idle mode signals -- such as those for synchronization,
if there is too much variation among the supercap cell tolerances. reference, and system information --defined in the 4G standard.
Designers avoid this problem by characterizing the supercaps they use But 5G NR base stations (i.e. those that are not backward-
and ganging together those having capacitive values that are close to compatible with LTE) will be in a sleep state when there is no traffic
each other. to serve. NR entails far fewer always-on signaling transmissions than
LTE (where required signal transmissions are typically less than 1 msec
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS apart). Thus 5G NR base stations are expected to see both deeper and
Experts say 5G base station infrastructure could consume three times longer periods of sleep with little or no ongoing data transmissions,
more power than its 4G LTE predecessor. One reason is that 5G needs significantly enhancing overall network energy consumption.

5G NR base stations coming out of sleep mode will have spiking for its capacitor-assisted battery (CAB) technology that it intends to
power demands that are well suited to power supplies incorporating use on future GM vehicles. This hybrid cell increases cold-cranking
supercapacitors. Here, use of supercaps can enable use of a power battery performance and allows the electrical power system to offset
supply that is smaller than would otherwise be necessary, further temperature impacts on lithium-ion battery supplies. Developed at
boosting energy efficiency. Ditto for the UPS used to back up 5G NR GM’s China Battery Lab, the new hybrid cell is expected to impact low-
base stations. voltage and hybrid electric vehicle systems, as well as non-automotive
Other examples of applications that need large supercapacitor applications requiring high-power response. It has already been licensed
banks and near-zero power waste include autonomous transport to two global battery manufacturers for mass production.
systems ranging from large off-road vehicles to small robotic rovers In autonomous transport systems, supercapacitors must also
loading and unloading trucks, as well as automated guided vehicles be able to work over a high duty cycle and handle frequent deep
that roam the factory floor. Supercapacitors, typically with values of discharges. Supercapacitors help power start/stop systems as well as
3,000 F at 2.7 V, are linked in series and parallel in these applications. help regenerative braking systems work better.
Large trucks and off-road vehicles today still generally have a Railways are exceptionally energy efficient in terms of energy per
propulsion system incorporating an internal combustion engine and passenger mile. (The American Bus Association puts energy use of light
an intelligent powertrain which needs a high-precision and energy rail at about 1,800 btu/passenger mile. For comparison, ABA estimates
efficient power supply; it can be challenging to design their energy the average car trip at about 3,800 btu/passenger mile.) Rail cars use
storage systems to handle high-transient-current conditions such as regenerative braking to absorb energy and store it in both batteries
cold starts. (Electric locomotives have similar starter systems.) In this and supercapacitors. Supercapacitors are perfect in this application.
regard, supercapacitors will instantaneously supply pulse power to Besides sitting on the train itself, banks of supercaps can be installed at
kick-start these large engines, even from a cold start. stationary points along the track.
This past Dec., General Motors won a 2019 R&D 100 Award Consider traction power substations, which provide power to the
Proven integrity AND

industry know-how
Electrocube is one of the most respected design manufacturers
of passive electrical component products for a wide range of
standard and custom applications – from aerospace and audio
to elevators and heavy equipment – as a capacitor supplier,
resistor-capacitor distributor, and more.
Bishop Electronics, Seacor, Southern Electronics, F-Dyne
34 DESIGN WORLD — E
EELNETWORK 0 0 . 5 1 5 . 1 1 1 2 | I N F O @ E L E C T R O C Ueeworldonline.com
E C T R O C U B E . C O M |2 •82020 BE.COM | designworldonline.com
APPLYING SUPERCAPS
Light-rail electrical system

A typical dc light railway
electrification system. This is
Train (t) a single train which is traveling
between two substations.
Technical
electrical drive Motors
Running rail (rr)
GAP GAP
Third rail (tr) Contact shoe
Substation (ss) Substation (ss)

(Transformer rectifier) (Transformer rectifier)
overhead catenary system or third rail. The generators at power plants which rotate at the distributed L-C of the power line.
substation converts utility power from 13.2 same frequency as the electricity grid. Thus In this regard, supercaps can be
kVac to the 750 Vdc that the trains use and low-inertia systems are those with a significant positioned close to power loads to serve as a
transmits it via the contact system. Energy amount of non-synchronous renewable energy fast source of reactive current. Lowering the
generated by decelerating vehicles typically sources such as solar and wind. reactive current demand allows the delivery
feeds into the traction electrification system The problem with low-inertia grids is system to carry more real current and helps
incorporating supercapacitors. Supercaps they may not be able to provide the inertia the utility maintain its service voltage within
usually sit in substations to power rail cars. The to support grid frequency and can be required limits.
supercaps get energy both from the electrical susceptible to issues of power quality and Supercapacitors can as well play a role in
utility and fed from rail cars themselves as their blackouts. When power demands spike, renewable energy applications. Applications
regenerative braking systems decelerate them. the frequency of the grid tends to drop. powered by solar panels typically
Alternatively, some rail installations also In grids having a great deal of traditional incorporate deep-cycle batteries sized for
use capacitor-equipped rail cars to absorb rotating generator capacity, the rotating mass the application’s total watt-hours per day of
regen power. Placing supercapacitor units functions as a shock absorber in the event of use. Supercapacitors used as an addition to
onboard rail cars reduces power substation sudden heavy loads. the battery capacity brings several benefits.
loads and permits the light-rail system to Solar panels, of course, have no rotating Perhaps most obvious is that supercaps can
expand without the expense of additional mass. And because wind turbines connect to handle short-term spike loads to permit use
substations. the grid through a frequency converter, the of a smaller and less costly battery bank. The
One reason supercapacitors make sense wind turbine’s rotating mass doesn’t provide fact that supercapacitors use physical rather
for light rail is that rail cars might go through inertia when grid frequency drops. than electrochemical charge storage and so
100,000 to 300,000 cycles of acceleration, Supercapacitors can play a role in grid have a practically unlimited cycle life comes
running, and deceleration annually. Many stabilization by providing reactive power, in handy as well. And because supercap
battery technologies would wear out power attributed to ac current and voltage equivalent series resistance (ESR) doesn’t vary
quickly with this sort of load profile, but it that is out-of-phase with each other. Reactive appreciably with temperature, supercaps can
is no problem for supercaps. Additionally, power, measured in volt-amperes-reactive, sit outdoors near the solar array.
supercapacitors are lighter than a comparable helps regulate grid operation and is necessary In the same vein, supercaps can
battery, advantageous when the supercap sits for operating loads such as motors and serve as a backup source of dc power for
on a rail car. transformers. Reactive power does not travel data centers. The vast majority of power
Supercapacitor banks also have a place in as far as real power. Long transmission lines glitches (87%) last less than a second. A
low-inertia power grids. Here grid inertia refers operating at heavy loads can cause conductor supercop UPS system can sit in a smaller
to the kinetic energy in the electricity grid. heating and falling voltages because of the footprint and provide a higher power
This kinetic energy is that of the conventional reactive power component associated with the density than a battery backed-up UPS.

Example: Supercap power bufffer in energy harvesting

Supercapacitor with high C (energy) and low ESR (power) Using a supercapacitor
Energy harvesting buffers the source from the load. Source sees average
source must be able to as a power buffer.
power. Load sees low impedance source.
deliver average load
current = 420μA
electronics
DC:DC
Interface
converter can be Load.
sized for average Hi power peaks
load power
e.g. 60% efficient. i/p power= 0.75mW/60% = 1.25mW. Report status 1/hr with GPRS
Use a charge pump to charge supercapacitor. Input class 8; 3 sec SMS: 2A @ 3.6V/8 x
current ~ 420μA. 3/3600 = 0.75mW average power,
with 7.2W peak power
UPS electronics can typically work up to 35-

40°C without derating or a degradation in
performance. But a UPS with sealed lead-acid
(SLA) batteries has an optimum range of 20-
25°C – the recommended temperature range
for an SLA battery to reach its design life.
Finally, a supercap UPS recharges
almost instantaneously compared to the time
necessary for recharging a traditional battery
set through the UPS rectifier or external
battery charger.
These are only a small sampling of the
applications where supercapacitors contribute
to a reliable system design with a long lifespan.
One development that helps promote
reliable supercap applications comes
from Advanced Linear Devices which
has a precision dual-channel PCB called
the SABMBOVP2XX family that not only
automatically balances supercapacitors but
has an additional over-voltage protection
(OVP) feature. One more added benefit of
this series is that it performs all these tasks
at ultra-low power with leakage current
regulation. It can be said that this solution has
zero power burn.
REFERENCES
SABMBOVP2XX family,
www.aldinc.com/pdf/SABMBOVP.pdf

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40
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but just don’t know it!
YEAR
OPERATING
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emergency E-CALL system in your car.
If you have a GPS tracking device on
your trailer, container, or cargo.
If you have wireless sensors, controls, or
monitors in your factories and plants.
If you use electronics with real-time clock or memory back-up in your office.
If you have never heard of Tadiran Batteries, it is only because you

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* Tadiran LiSOCL2 batteries feature the lowest annual self-discharge rate of any competitive battery, less than 1% per year, enabling these
batteries to operate over 40 years depending on device operating usage. However, this is not an expressed or implied warranty, as each
application differs in terms of annual energy consumption and/or operating environment. www.tadiranbat.com
The try-before-you-buy route to

energy eff icient power design
XUNING ZHANG, LEVI GANT LITTELFUSE, INC.
Evaluation platforms help pick SiC

components in power conversion circuits.
THE QUEST FOR greener energy production and consumption

has put a premium on high-efficiency power circuitry. In that regard,
many modern power supplies and converters operate at much higher
voltages that allow use of lower currents to minimize I2R losses. Silicon
carbide (SiC) MOSFETs and diodes are important elements of these
new high-power, high-voltage power conversion circuits.
SiC MOSFETs provide low on-resistance and can switch back and
forth between on and off states rapidly. Consequently, they dissipate
much less power than insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) which
have slower turn-off speeds and higher turn-off switching power loss.
In addition, silicon carbide’s wide bandgap enables SiC devices to
operate at high voltages. In contrast, silicon-based MOSFETS can’t
realize both high blocking voltages and low on-resistances. As a result,
SiC devices are becoming integral in high-power applications.
Because of the high power levels SiC devices deal with, designers
must evaluate both the SiC devices themselves and their gate driver
circuits. SiC technology is still relatively new, and device performance
The gate drive evaluation platform includes the
under a wide range of conditions is not fully characterized.
motherboard, two plug-in gate driver modules, and the
An evaluation platform will enable design engineers to evaluate
heatsink and fan to support up to 5 kW of output power.
SiC MOSFETS, SiC Schottky diodes, and gate driver circuits under
continuous operation in converter circuit applications. The evaluation
platform will aid in accelerating design cycles for successful, SiC-
based power converter design and assist in speeding the time-to-
market for the end product.

SiC EVAL BOARDS
Typical gate driver evaluation setup
DC +
Simplified diagram of the gate drive

Gate
driver evaluation platform. The power
PWM & board configuration is a half-bridge
protection
output stage. Not shown are the
decoupling capacitors positioned
+12 V OUT close to the SiC devices to
maintain the supply voltage during
Gate device switching. The decoupling
driver capacitors and the capacitor across
PWM & board
protection the SiC devices act as a low-pass
filter to remove switching noise on
DC -
the dc supply line.
DESIGN CHALLENGES FOR POWER the platform allows analysis of the design for the voltage, current, and power specifications
CONVERSION CIRCUITS efficiency improvements, electromagnetic to meet the converter requirements. The gate
To maximize power output and efficiency of interference (EMI) emissions, cost, size, and driver has more sophisticated requirements. It
power conversion circuits, designers must weight. should have a wide voltage range and enough
ensure that: The gate drive evaluation platform is output current to drive the power MOSFET.
essentially a power stage reference design Recommended drive voltages are 15
• The power devices can perform at rated consisting of a motherboard with two SiC to 20 V to switch the MOSFET to its on-
power and current and deliver enough MOSFET-SiC Schottky diode pairs in a state and a voltage of 0 to -5 V to switch
power to the load half-bridge configuration. The half-bridge the MOSFET to the off-state. The peak
• The circuit minimizes internal power loss circuit can output a maximum of 5 kW with output current for the gate drive can range
for maximum efficiency an 800-Vdc bus voltage. The motherboard from 1 to 15 A depending on the MOSFET
• The design incorporates protection circuitry can accommodate two separate gate driver power handling capacity. The driver needs
for the SiC power devices module boards, one for each switch position. to provide a high pulse current to reduce
• Printed circuit board (PCB) layout Thus, different gate driver integrated circuits MOSFET switching loss during switching
minimizes parasitic inductances and and gate driver designs can quickly and transients. In addition, high continuous
capacitances easily mount on the motherboard to evaluate current with small external gate resistances
• EMI emissions are within allowable limits gate driver performance and how the driver
• The design uses a minimum of passive impacts output power.
components to help keep down cost, The third major element of the gate Parasitics in the gate drive loop
size, and weight drive evaluation platform is the thermal
• The gate driver helps realize the above management, a heatsink and a fan which
goals and assists in maintaining thermal cools the MOSFET-diode pairs. The heatsink-
VCC
performance within specified temperature fan subsystem enables the power circuit to
ratings. deliver up to 5 kW continuously with the Cgd_stray
MOSFET-diode pairs switching at frequencies
A gate drive evaluation platform helps up to 200 kHz. Rext Lstray
OUT
designers address all these challenges. The The gate drive evaluation platform’s
platform can operate at high power levels printed circuit board layout minimizes both Cgd_stray
continuously to characterize the performance loop inductance and coupling between the
VEE
of the selected SiC MOSFETS and diodes. power circuit and the gate circuit. The two gate
The platform also enables the comparison driver circuits allow independent evaluation of Driver IC
of different gate drivers under multiple test both the top and bottom gate-driving qualities.
conditions. Gate drivers can be evaluated for The selection of SiC MOSFETs and
thermal performance, EMI immunity, and the diodes and the selection of the gate driver are Gate drive loop parasitic capacitance
capability to drive the power components the most important decisions for the power and inductance in the gate drive loop.
so they operate at high efficiency. Finally, conversion design. The MOSFET must have

reduces driver temperature during high isolation. The new methods are known
frequency switching of the SiC MOSFET. as digital isolator techniques. The
The high dv/dt caused by fast SiC optocoupler and the digital isolator have
MOSFET switching makes high common- both advantages and disadvantages.
mode currents flow through the gate driver The optocoupler sources current which
and the rest of the power conversion circuit. makes its input less susceptible to EMI.
High common-mode currents can affect However, optocouplers can’t handle
the voltage reference node in the control data transmission rates as high as those
circuit, causing incorrect operation. The of digital isolators and bring longer
magnitude of the common-mode current is pulse-width distortion times. Pulse-width
determined by the MOSFET dv/dt and the distortion time refers to signal delay time
impedance in the common-mode current through the driver IC. In a half-bridge
path. Consequently, the gate driver IC and power conversion topology, excessive
its power supply both need a high isolation delay can create waveform distortion and
impedance to reduce common-mode low frequency noise.
Waveforms resulting from test conditions: current. The isolation capacitance of the Optocoupler performance varies with
input voltage = 800 V, output voltage = 400 gate driver should be less than 1 pF. The the drive voltage, temperature, and device
V, switching frequency = 100 kHz, and output isolation capacitance of the power supply age. Digital isolator-based drivers have
power = 2.5 kW. should be under 10 pF. more stable parameters over temperature.
Traditionally, optocouplers would Because digital isolators operate with
provide the isolation. Newer IC technology a voltage input, they can be more
can employ inductive or capacitive susceptible to EMI. But all in all, the digital

SiC EVAL BOARDS
Comparing switching transients (turn-on), IXDN614 and IXDN602
(a) 10 Ohm gate resistor (b) 1 Ohm gate resistor
MOSFET turn-on transient with two different MOSFET turn-on transient with two different
driver ICs and a 10-Ω gate resistor. driver ICs and a 1-Ω gate resistor.
isolator’s more stable operating parameters makes it a better choice De-sat protection circuitry turns off a MOSFET in the event of a
than optocouplers in gate drivers for power conversion circuits using SiC load short-circuit. Soft turn-off avoids a large transient voltage overshoot
MOSFETs. and turns off the MOSFET during a shoot-through failure (where both
With high-power circuits, protection mechanisms are necessary to MOSFETs are momentarily on simultaneously). A Miller clamp circuit
prevent device thermal runaway and device and circuit damage from prevents the shoot-through condition by draining current from the
fault conditions. Gate driver ICs that incorporate protection circuitry are parasitic drain-gate capacitance to avoid a transient rise in the gate
highly recommended. Gate drive ICs should have de-saturation (de-sat) voltage. The clamp circuit keeps the MOSFET from turning-on when it
protection, soft turn-off during a fault condition, a Miller clamp circuit, and should be in the off-state. If voltage supply for either the gate driver
under-voltage lock out (UVLO). input or for the isolated output circuit gets too low, the UVLO circuit

Evaluating switching losses
+12 V
power DC +
supply Gate
driver
board
DC link
capacitor
Digital +12 V OUT
controller power
or supply
function External
generator Gate
driver output
board filter
DC -
Load DC
Gate driver evaluation platform resistor source
Gate driver switching loss test using a buck converter as

a load. Visible here are the gate drive voltage, MOSFET Probes Oscilloscope
drain-source current, and MOSFET drain-source voltage.
turns off the gate drive to protect the MOSFETs from improper switch The 10-Ω gate resistor eliminates differences in the performance
timing. These protection circuits ensure a more robust and safe power of the gate drivers. The 10-Ω gate resistor does slow MOSFET transient
conversion circuit. switching speed which increases switching loss. The differences
PCB board layout has a major impact on the performance of between the high-output-current driver and the low-output-current
dynamic circuits such as high-efficiency power conversion circuits. driver are more significant. The MOSFETs switch faster when the high
Parasitic capacitance and inductance from PCB traces and ground output current driver is used with a lower gate resistance. The lower
planes add to the parasitic capacitance and inductance in the circuit. gate resistance does exhibit more ringing during a switch transition
Parasitic components in the gate drive loop degrade MOSFET switching than the higher gate resistance. The designer must find the optimum
performance. Gate-source capacitance forces a higher driving current combination of gate driver, gate resistance, and MOSFET to minimize
from the gate driver IC. Stray inductance boosts gate-source voltage switching loss.
overshoot and leads to ringing during MOSFET switching. The gate drive evaluation platform can help evaluate driver IC
To minimize the stray capacitance and inductance, keep the gate thermal performance thanks to the heatsink and fan that enable the
path as short as possible by placing the gate driver, the gate resistor, MOSFETs to operate in a continuous switching output state. The
and the decoupling capacitor close to the MOSFET gate. Minimize platform can also be used to test driver protection functions.
loop inductance by routing the gate return path directly below the In a nutshell, gate drive evaluation platforms are a tool that
gate supply trace. Maximize the distance between the MOSFET facilitates the evaluation of SiC devices and the gate drivers. With gate
gate traces and the drain traces to reduce the size of the gate-drain drive modules plugged into the motherboard, designers can easily
capacitance. This practice cuts the current entering the gate which compare efficiency and thermal performance with different gate driver
reduces the Miller effect. ICs. Designers can use the PCB layout techniques on the evaluation
Additionally, ground planes under power conversion circuits platform and the component recommendations to overcome the
add capacitive coupling; avoid use of ground planes for MOSFET design challenges of SiC devices to develop efficient, thermally-
switching-based power conversion circuits. All these PCB layout controlled, and protected power conversion circuits. As a result, the
recommendations have been implemented in the gate drive evaluation evaluation platform enables faster design of efficient power conversion
platform to avoid design, layout, and test of a custom test board. circuits and speeds product time-to-market.
The gate drive evaluation platform can easily compare switching
loss and switching transients using different gate drive ICs. Consider REFERENCES
the case of evaluating gate drivers for a buck converter operating Littelfuse application note on the gate drive
under continuous switching conditions. The buck converter operates at evaluation platform, littelfuse.com/gdevappnote
100 kHz and will output 2.5 kW.
The drive capabilities of driver ICs and the external gate
resistances used will influence the SiC MOSFET switching transients
and the overall switching losses. In this test, the first gate driver has a
drive current rating of 14 A and the second has a drive current rating of
2 A. Each gate driver was tested with a 10-Ω and a 1-Ω gate resistor.

A lot to see
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The 40-year battery pack

SOL JACOBS TADIRAN BATTERIES
Not all primary batteries offer the low annual self-discharge

rate needed for the lengthy lifespan of remote wireless devices
consuming microamp-level currents.
THE VAST MAJORITY OF remote wireless devices are powered Lithium-based batteries have high intrinsic negative potential,
by primary (non-rechargeable) batteries that range from consumer exceeding that of all other metals, with an operating current
grade to industrial grade. Consumer-grade alkaline batteries deliver voltage (OCV) ranging from 2.7 to 3.6 V. Lithium batteries are also
non-aqueous, with the absence of water enabling them to endure
higher discharge rates of energy, resulting in a short operating
extreme temperatures without freezing.
life. Also available are consumer-grade lithium batteries that
Among all commercially available available chemistries, bobbin-
deliver medium-to-high discharge rates of energy with short-to- type lithium thionyl chloride (LiSOCl2) cells are preferred for use in
medium operating life, including iron disulfate (LiFeS2), and lithium remote locations and extreme environments. Bobbin-type LiSOCl2
manganese dioxide (LiMNO2) chemistries. batteries feature the highest capacity and highest energy density of any
lithium chemistry, along with an extremely low annual self-discharge
Meanwhile, a growing number of industrial wireless sensors and rate (less than 1% per year), enabling certain devices to operate for up
devices are being designed to operate for decades without having to 40 years. Bobbin-type LiSOCl2 chemistry also features the widest
to replace the battery. They typically require only a low rate of possible temperature range (-80 to 125°C), along with a glass-to-
energy discharge and consume microamps of average current. Many metal hermetic seal that resists battery leakage. Common applications
of these devices sit in extreme environments and hard-to-access include AMR/AMI metering, M2M, SCADA, tank-level monitoring,
locations, often connected to the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT). asset tracking, and environmental sensors, to name a few.

40-YEAR BATTERY PACK
Medium rate bobbin-type lithium thionyl chloride

10
batte-year
ry lif
e
Load size The battery marathon
Self- analogy: Distance is
discharge equivalent to the battery/
device operating life. The
0 years 10 years energy necessary to run
up an incline is equivalent
Low rate / low self-discharge bobbin-type lithium thionyl chloride to the rate of battery
self-discharge. The higher
the self-discharge rate,
40
batte-year the steeper the incline. A
ry lif
e course with a lot of hills
can have runners walking
by the end of the race,
Self- and higher battery self-
discharge
discharge reduces the
0 years 10 years 20 years 30 years 40 years availability of useful power
for device operation and
thus reduces the operating
High rate / low self-discharge bobbin-type lithium life. Additionally, hurdles
thionyl chloride with hybrid layer capacitor can be thought of as
requiring energy pulses. The
40
batte-year higher the hurdle (obstacle)
Load ry lif
e the greater must be the
size
battery’s pulsing ability.
Self-
discharge
0 years 10 years 20 years 30 years 40 years

capacity of the cell, the length of storage,
storage temperature, discharge temperature,
and prior discharge conditions, as partially
TLM - lithium metal oxide discharging a cell and then removing the load
can boost the amount of passivation relative to
Load when the cell was new. Passivation can reduce
size 20
batte-year a battery’s self-discharge rate, but too much of
ry lif
e it can block energy flow.
Different bobbin-type LiSOCl2 batteries
can be designed with varying amounts of
Self-
discharge passivation and self-discharge. These cells
can be designed with medium energy flow
0 years 10 years 20 years rates and higher self-discharge (lifespan of
10 years) or with lower flow rates and lower
All batteries experience some amount the lithium anode, thus impeding the chemical self-discharge to run a marathon (lifespan of
of self-discharge, where cell capacity gets reactions that result in battery self-discharge. up to 40 years).
depleted even when the battery is not When a load is placed on the cell, the Battery self-discharge rate is also affected
connected to an external load. The ability passivation layer causes high initial resistance, by the quality of the raw materials and the
to control passivation (basically, reduction resulting in a temporary drop in cell voltage method by which the battery is manufactured.
of chemical reactivity) helps to lower self- until the discharge reaction slowly removes the For example, a lower-grade bobbin-type
discharge: a quality unique to bobbin-type passivation layer. The process repeats every LiSOCl2 battery can lose up to 3% of its normal
LiSOCl2 batteries. time the load is removed. capacity annually due to self-discharge, thus
Passivation arises when a thin film of Several variables can influence the exhausting 30% of its initial capacity every 10
lithium chloride (LiCl) forms on the surface of passivation effect, including: the current years, making 40-year battery life impossible.

Battery qualities that include self- The bottle analogy

discharge and operating current
are sometimes explained in terms
Comparing battery uses (opening size), flow (discharge),
of analogies to liquid in variously and self-discharge (evaporation)
sized beakers and bottles.
By contrast, the highest quality bobbin-type

LiSOCl2 battery can feature a self-discharge
rate of just 0.7% per year, thus retaining
93% of its original capacity after 10 years.
A 40-year operating life is feasible.
A 40-year operating life is analogous to
running a marathon. Distance is equivalent
to the battery/device operating life. The
energy necessary to run up an incline
is equivalent to the rate of battery self-
discharge. The higher the self-discharge
rate, the steeper the incline. A course with a
lot of hills can have runners walking by the
end of the race, and higher battery self-
discharge reduces the availability of useful
power for device operation and thus reduces
the operating life. Additionally, hurdles can
be thought of as requiring energy pulses.
The higher the hurdle (obstacle) the greater
must be the pulse ability of the battery.
Certain applications, such as medical
power tools and actuators, require a high
rate of energy drain as well as high pulses.
These applications draw average current
measurable in amps, making them well
suited for lithium metal oxide batteries.
Flashlights, toys, and other consumer
applications that require rates of discharge
measurable in milliamps to amps may be
best suited for alkaline, LiFeS2 and LiMNO2
batteries that can deliver medium pulses.
Many remote wireless sensors and other
ultra-long-life, low-drain applications with
average current measurable in microamps
require the use of standard bobbin-type
LiSOCl2 batteries that can run marathons
thanks to their extremely low self-discharge
rates. But their low-rate design prevents
these cells from delivering high pulses
without modification. However, standard
bobbin-type LiSOCl2 batteries can be
easily modified by adding a patented
hybrid layer capacitor (HLC). The standard
bobbin-type LiSOCl2 cell delivers the low
daily background current for a 40-year marathon while the HLC delivers selectively used in industrial applications due to performance limitations
periodic high pulses to power two-way wireless communications (steeple such as short-duration power, linear discharge qualities that prevent use of
jumping). The patented HLC also features a special end-of-life voltage all the available energy, low capacity, low energy density, and high annual
plateau that can be interpreted to deliver low-battery status alerts. self-discharge rates (up to 60% per year). Supercapacitors linked in series
Consumer applications often use supercapacitors that deliver high also require the use of cell-balancing circuits, which adds expense and
pulses electrostatically rather than chemically. Supercapacitors are only bulk and boosts their self-discharge rate.

40-YEAR BATTERY PACK
TLM - lithium metal oxide
15 A
MP
1 AMP
TLM Other AA sized

high rate cells
A hurdling analogy is often invoked for

lithium batteries optimized for handling
current pulses. For example, TLM Series
lithium metal oxide batteries are designed
to deliver high voltage (4.0 V), high current
pulses, and continuous high power without
any delayed response or passivation effect.
SHORT-TERM TESTS DON’T as reversible heat; cell over-protection, Ordinary lithium batteries used to provide
SIMULATE LONG-TERM often referred to as irreversible heat; and high-current pulses can run out of juice long
PERFORMANCE chemical reactions, including self-discharge before what might be expected using only
Long-term battery performance cannot reactions that affect cell capacity, and side specifications for average current drain.
be easily duplicated using short-term test reactions that do not affect cell capacity.
procedures, so specialized test methods Calorimeter testing can be especially
must be employed. Here are some proven useful for measuring losses in battery self-discharge. For example, batteries
test methods: capacity that arise during long-term storage deployed in pioneering AMR/AMI devices
Long-term laboratory testing – The or from operation (including self-discharge), from the 1980s exhibited significant
ideal way to monitor battery self-discharge measurable using thermodynamic amounts of unused capacity after 28 years
is to continually test batteries over time equations and cell voltage considerations. in the field.
under various conditions, covering almost To ensure accuracy, the batteries must be Another useful indicator of long-
every possible scenario. Over time, the stabilized for one year prior to testing, as term battery performance is the number
accumulated data points can be used to first-year self-discharge tends to be higher of Failures In Time (FITs), measurable
accurately predict performance based on than subsequent years. in billions of device operating hours for
cell size, temperature, load size, etc. Lithium titration. Lithium titration can devices in the field. Tadiran batteries
Accelerated testing - The Arrhenius be used to measure available cell capacity. have FIT rates ranging between 5 and
equation--which is based on a two-fold The battery is cut open, and then titration 20 batteries per billion, extremely low
increase of reaction rate for every 10°C rise is used to dissolve the remaining lithium compared to the industry average.
in temperature--is often used to simulate to determine its volume. The higher the Every application has unique
long-term battery operation. Arrhenius self-discharge rate, the less lithium will be power requirements, so it is important
tests are run at 72°C, equivalent to about found in in the cell. Lithium titration can be to determine whether you need a
32 times the theoretical lifetime of battery especially useful in special circumstances sprinter (high discharge potential); a
at 22°C. However, short-term tests using as when measuring the effects of extreme medium distance runner (moderate to
the Arrhenius method tend to show temperatures and/or prolonged high pulses. high discharge rate with fairly low self-
inaccurate results. Field results – Batteries working in discharge); or a marathoner (running with
Calorimeter testing. An extremely the field offer the best from of validation very low discharge for up to 40 years).
accurate test method is to measure the for test results. Tadiran has its customers
amount of actual heat energy lost using a provide randomly sampled batteries taken REFERENCES
state-of-the-art microcalorimeter, which can from long-term deployments to verify the Tadiran Batteries, www.tadiranbat.com
detect energy dissipation as low as 0.1 W. real-life impact of long-term exposure to
Heat energy is generated three extreme temperatures and to demonstrate
ways: entropy change, often referred to how such conditions accelerate battery

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POWER ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK | FEBRUARY 2020
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Electrocube, Inc. .......................................................... 34 Pico Electronics ........................................................... 13
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Master Bond ................................................................ 27 Tadiran ......................................................................... 37
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Power Electronics HB 02-20

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Where fixed-ratio converters fit in high-power delivery systems Page 20 The try-before-you-buy route to energy efficient power design

Battery Clips, Contacts & Holders

It’s what’s on the InsIde that counts

View our Dynamic Catalog M70 at www.keyelco.com

EE-DWTHiNK Fist+BCCH 2-20rFinal.indd 1 1/10/20 11:31 AM

Why we don’t need energy

2 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 2 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

EDITORIAL PRINT PRODUCTION MARKETING EVENTS

4 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 2 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

02 WHY WE DON’T NEED ENERGY

06 THE MOVE TO SYNCHRONOUS

10 CAN A THREE-PHASE POWER SUPPLY

14 THE BASICS OF GROUND-FAULT INTERRUPTION

20 WHERE FIXED-RATIO CONVERTERS FIT

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 2 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 5

The move to synchronous

Compact power circuits help trucking

6 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 2 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

Industries that require non-

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 2 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 7

Efficiency comparison Nonsynchronous buck converter

The most common step-down architecture is the nonsynchronous buck converter

8 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 2 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

Smart building applications such as automated

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 2 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 9

Can a three-phase power

A few guidelines help clarify what

AC-DC POWER SUPPLIES rated higher than 2.5 kW

current. These three-phase ac voltages can be one of two

Typically high-voltage power is transmitted from the

Genesys+ programmable power supplies

GH1.5kW / G1.7kW 1ø 85 to 265Vac

10 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 2 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

Power distribution in a major power user (US)

Phase A Line 1 L-N Loads

Power distribution in a major power user (Europe)

Phase A Line 1 L-N Loads

Step down Delta-Wye transformer

A typical European major power-using facility has its 3-phase loads

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 2 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 11

Neutral N - often grounded Neutral N - often grounded

120 Vac Line L3 Line L2 120Vac 220 / 240-Vac 220 / 240-Vac

12 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 2 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

The big name in miniature components.

TRANSFORMERS & INDUCTORS

VISIT OUR EXCITING NEW WEBSITE: www.picoelectronics.com

Not all ground-fault interrupters are designed

It doesn’t take much ground-fault current to cause harm. Extensive

500 and higher

• At 1 mA you feel a slight tingle.

14 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 2 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

Typical industrial ground-fault interrupter

Ground fault sensor The current transformer in a ground-fault sensor detects

be considered a UL943 GFCI. UL requirements for GFCI listing now

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 2 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 15

Shunt trip with auto-rest ground fault

16 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 2 • 2020 eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

Commercial kitchen application

In one commercial kitchen application,

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 2 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 17

An example of a ground-fault sensor designed for use for industrial

18 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com

eeworldonline.com | designworldonline.com 2 • 2020 DESIGN WORLD — EE NETWORK 19

Tethered drones are an