Ayushmita Choudhury

Scholar ID 2121505

Seminar CE 5513
M. Tech
Water Resource Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

National Institute of Technology,
Silchar

PROPOSALS FOR
ADVANCEMENTS IN WATER
SCARCITY MITIGATION
 ABSTRACT

Water scarcity is a growing threat to our global economy, society and even to the survival
of human beings. The crisis that we face today is mainly due to water pollution especially
in the field of agriculture. Pollution can be anything from oil, to carcasses, to chemicals
and to faecal matter, whatever the cause it majorly affects the global population. The
world is moving towards a direction where water is becoming costly hence not affordable
by the majority of people. The latest world water development reports from UN observe
how the various global crisis reported recently- in climate change, energy, food security,
economic recession and financial turbulence are related to each other and have impacts
on water. As far as India is concerned it is gifted with many water bodies but due to
improper management and unscientific industrial development. We are staring at the
increase in the death of rivers. Erratic development plans mean our future generation is
in major threat, sustainable development plans mean our future generation is saved from
such major threat, sustainable development is the hour of need. Apart from government
policies, the change needs to come from the grass-root level. This paper highlights the
importance and threats of water scarcity and the challenges that will be faced by future
generations, and proposes short-term, medium-term and long-term solutions for water
scarcity mitigation. The study also cites the water woes of Bengaluru, a fast-growing
urban city in India where there is a huge mismatch between demand and supply of water.

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 CONTENTS

• Introduction 3
• Causes of Water Scarcity 4
• Water Scarcity Management Solutions 9
• Conclusion 15
• References 16

2
 INTRODUCTION

India faces a serious and persistent water crisis owing to a growing imbalance of supply and
demand, as well as poor water resource management and climate change. India is projected
to face severe water stress by 2050. Although industry is the largest contributor to India’s
GDP, agriculture accounts for nearly 90% of water use. Two-thirds of India’s irrigation needs
and 80% of domestic water needs are met using groundwater, contributing to the significant
groundwater depletion rate. Although India has one of the world’s largest irrigation systems,
it is characterised by high levels of inefficient water use. Besides this, water quality is also an
issue. The discharge of untreated sewage into water bodies is the most important source of
water pollution in India; 80% percent of the sewage generated goes untreated. Finally, lack of
access to improved water supply and adequate sanitation persists. The existing policy
framework lacks a clear incentive structure for efficient and sustainable water use. Low or
absent water charging and energy subsidies for groundwater pumping drive severe depletion
of resources. Issues related to intra- and inter-state water sharing and lack of adequate
enforcement and monitoring of existing water policies undermine water governance. A lack
of sustainable financing for water infrastructure results in poor maintenance of existing
infrastructure and limits further investment.

Improving water security is essential for India’s development. With total water demand in
India expected to rise by over 70% by 2025, a huge demand-supply gap is expected in the
coming years. This will act as a potentially significant constraint on economic growth. The
alarming rate of groundwater depletion is also cause for serious concern. Declining water
tables mean increased cost of pumping, salty irrigation water as a result of over abstraction
leading to crop and revenue losses for farmers, and long-term consequences for water
availability. Poor water quality and lack of adequate access to sanitation are also major causes
of disease and poor health.

“Water scarcity” is defined as the point at which the aggregate impact of all users impinges
on the supply or quality of water under prevailing institutional arrangements to the extent that
the demand by all sectors, including the environment, cannot be satisfied fully. Whenever
there is a lack of access to potable water for drinking and sanitation, water is scarce. Water
shortage is a relative concept and can occur at any level of supply or demand. India is facing
a particularly difficult challenge as water crisis is threatening millions of lives and livelihoods.
Some 600 million Indians— about half the population—face high to extreme water scarcity
conditions, with about 200,000 dying every year from inadequate access to safe water. By
2030, the country’s demand for water is likely to be twice the available supply. As a result of
rapid development, increasing population, and inequitable distribution, the demand for water
far outweighs supply. Nearly 163 million people among India’s population of 1.3 billion lack
access to clean water close to their home.

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Figure 1

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 CAUSES OF WATER SCARCITY

Water scarcity is influenced by such factors as social, institutional, and policy

arrangements; lifestyles; and water quality. The main factors affecting water scarcity in
India are regional climatic disparities, over population, and water pollution.
Regional and climatic disparities.
Of the 495 trillion gallons of water reserves, in India, only an estimated 300 trillion
gallons can be exploited because of topographic constraints and distribution effects
(MWR 2006). However, changes in temperature and precipitation have affected regional
water resources and flood risk, exacerbating regional disparities in water availability
across the country. Most Indian cities depend on rainfall for their water supply. The long-
term average rainfall for India is about 46 inches (UNICEF et al. 2013), but owing to
physiographic factors, rainfall in India is highly variable.
Changing monsoons and water shortage.
For example, in 2008, rainfall measured from about 19.7 in. in eastern and western
Rajasthan to 150 in. in coastal Karnataka (CWC 2010). More than 80% of rainfall occurs
in the monsoon months of June to September, often causing floods. This is because
significant precipitation occurs over a short period, resulting in a high volume of runoff.
However, acute water shortages are common in many regions during the rest of the year.
For example, the south eastern coastal city of Chennai has suffered water shortages for
decades. The requirement for the city and the adjacent areas is around 388 mgd, which
includes commercial and industrial demand. But the city gets a daily supply of only 158.5
mgd from sources such as lakes and reservoirs, which depend on the erratic monsoons.
In addition, in many areas with sizable populations, the annual monsoon precipitation
occurs over just three to 27 days in a year, according to the India Meteorological
Department as reported in an article in The Indian Express. Many Indian cities and towns
often run out of water during the summer because of the absence of sufficient surface
water systems and infrastructure, leaving groundwater as the only feasible source. In
addition, monsoon rains can account for 70% of a region’s total annual rainfall; in dry
years, this often results in water shortage. Statistics for the century, so far, back this up:
2018 was the fifth consecutive year to register deficit monsoon conditions, and 13 of the
last 18 years have seen below normal rains. To begin addressing this shortfall, India
recently commissioned a desalination plant to add 26.4 mgd of reclaimed water to the
drinking supply.
Overconsumption
Groundwater is typically used to compensate for unreliable rainfall; however, this
practice has become unreliable and inconsistent in some areas. More groundwater
consumption than recharge has drastically reduced groundwater levels over the past 60
years. Of the 5,723 blocks assessed across India by the Central Ground Water Authority,
839 have been found to be overexploited, 226 are classified as critical, and 550 are
deemed semi-critical, meaning that approximately 29% of India’s groundwater blocks

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need better groundwater basin management (CGWB 2019). Increased groundwater use
and limited aquifer recharge lower the groundwater table so much that yields of many
tube-wells and borewells have decreased substantially, particularly during summer.
Because agriculture depends on irrigation, unsustainable extraction of groundwater is
reducing India’s arable land and affecting economic growth. Overexploitation of
groundwater has caused concentration of salts, fluorides, nitrates, total dissolved solids,
metals, and other chemicals found in the groundwater. Inefficient irrigation practices,
severe groundwater contamination, and uncontrolled exploitation of groundwater are
some of the major causes of water scarcity in India.
Overpopulation.
Population growth is causing tremendous stress on water supply. India is the second most
populous country in the world and had a population estimated at 1.31 billion as of July
2018 (US Census Bureau Current Population 2019), and increased life expectancy and
other factors contribute to rising population and overcrowding in many areas. In addition,
because of various socioeconomic factors, many urban centres have seen large influxes
from rural areas. The resulting development, too often poorly planned, has led to a loss
of ecosystems and biodiversity. Rapid urbanization, with the resulting increase in paved
areas and decrease in reservoir capacity, drainage, and space for recharge areas, has
resulted in an increase in local urban flooding. As the population continues to grow, and
migration of population in already-stressed urban centres continues, demands for water
will put additional strains on overallocated freshwater resources. As shown in Figure 2,
the per capita water availability in 1951 was about 1.4 mil gal but decreased to 0.6 mil
gal in 1991; by 2011, it had declined to approximately 0.4 mil gal. About 54% of people
in India are under the threat of water stress, and approximately 600 million people in the
northwestern and southern regions of India are under “extremely high” to “high” water-
stress conditions. Data from India’s Ministry of Water Resources, River Development,
and Ganga Rejuvenation indicate per capita water availability in 2025, and 2050 is
estimated to decrease from 2001 levels by 36 and 60%, respectively. Figure 2 presents
the projected population and per capita water supply per year in India until 2050. If India
can’t offset these future water demands, its agricultural, industrial, and domestic water
users will likely face increasingly frequent and more severe water shortages.

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Figure 2

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Water pollution.
India’s increasing population has resulted in excessive air and water pollution along with
deforestation. Sources of water pollution include nonpoint sources, such as pesticides and
fertilizers from farms, along with point sources such as industrial and human waste, a significant
amount of which is directly dumped into rivers without treatment. In India, about 114 tril gal of
groundwater is replenished yearly from rainfall and river flows, but 104 tril gal of that is used
each year, 82% for irrigation and agricultural purposes and 18% toward domestic and industrial
water use. Agriculture remains the predominant sector of employment, engaging more than half
of India’s workforce in some way. The deteriorating state of water management systems, which
serve the multiple needs of livelihood, security, and irrigation for many small-scale farmers, has
been another concerning trend (UNICEF et al. 2013). While oil spills and leakage from landfills
have seeped underground, polluting the groundwater in some areas, the largest source of water
pollution in India is untreated sewage. Untreated urban wastewater is often discharged to streams,
affecting downstream water quality and causing health problems. During summer months with
low-flow conditions, the contaminated discharge reaches high levels. Improper sanitation and
poor hygiene practices are common, and one-third of all deaths of children under age five in India
result from waterborne diseases like diarrhoea and pneumonia (UNICEF et al. 2013). Taken
together, ongoing water scarcity in India is a direct cause of hunger, poor health, poverty, and
ecosystem imbalances. Looking forward, higher temperatures will likely increase electricity
demand as a result of higher air conditioning use; at the same time, hydropower production may
be reduced because of decreased precipitation. In the next decade, water demand is expected to
grow by 20%, fuelled primarily by industrial water requirements, which are projected to double
from 6 tril gal to 12 tril gal. By 2025, domestic demand is expected to grow by 33% from 12 tril
gal (in 2014) to 16 tril gal, while irrigation demands are projected to increase by 10%, growing
from 147 tril gal annually (in 2010) to 161 tril gal, and industrial water demand is expected to
increase dramatically by 80%, from 10 tril gal (in 2010) to 18 tril gal. The situation is challenging
because a large portion of available water in India is not potable as a result of poor water quality.

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 WATER SCARCITY MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS

On the basis of current projections, per capita water supply could drop from an average
of 24 to 21 gpd by 2025 and 18 gpd by 2050. However, specific technical and policy
changes could improve the situation by controlling human interventions and behaviour
with institutional responses to natural phenomena.
Gray and green infrastructure
It is important to change institutional approaches from a strictly conservative approach to
more progressive, “green” solutions. Presently, water management remains heavily
dominated by traditional, human-built (i.e., “gray”) infrastructure, and the enormous
potential for working with nature remains underused. Tapping stormwater capture and
treating it by means of green infrastructure can augment a water supply portfolio by
supplying good-quality water to recharge the groundwater basin. Stormwater runoff not
otherwise captured from industrial, municipal, and residential areas; highways; and
construction sites can carry pollutants that degrade water quality and impede the
otherwise beneficial uses of these waters. As reported in the 2018 edition of the United
Nations World Water Development Report (WWAP 2018), some of the management
approaches toward water-shortage challenges in India could be nature-based solutions
(NBSs) across all sectors, including water needed for agriculture, sustainable cities,
disaster risk reduction, and water quality. The green-infrastructure approach under NBSs
promotes the natural movement of water by collecting and managing stormwater runoff
from streets, sidewalks, parking lots, and rooftops and directing it to engineered systems
that typically feature soils, stones, and vegetation. Use of green infrastructure reduces
polluted runoff from reaching water bodies through the separate storm sewer system. The
green-infrastructure approach uses natural processes to enhance water availability (e.g.,
soil moisture retention, groundwater recharge), improve water quality (e.g., natural and
constructed wetlands, riparian buffer strips), and reduce risks associated with water-
related disasters and climate change (e.g., floodplain restoration, green roofs). Green
infrastructure expands the low-impact development approach to a larger community scale
and presents similar sustainable opportunities to local governments and regional projects.
To develop a sustainable water supply scenario in India, the green infrastructure approach
can substitute, augment, or work in parallel with gray infrastructure in a cost-effective
manner. Both NBSs for conservation (e.g., harnessing the opportunities of the
hydrological cycle with rainwater harvesting, stormwater management, and so on) and
gray infrastructure upgrades (i.e., the improving operations of water distribution system
infrastructure) can together play a big role in better water infrastructure for India. The
goal of such sustainable development is to control human interventions with natural
processes and to find the most appropriate blend of green and gray investments to
maximize benefits and system efficiency while minimizing costs and trade-offs (WWAP
2018). NBSs mainly address water supply through managing precipitation; humidity; and
water storage, infiltration, and transmission so that improvements are made in the
location, timing, and quantity of water available for human needs. The various regulatory
programs have the same goals—to use stormwater as a resource and to reduce pollutants,

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fertilizers, debris, and other harmful materials draining into rivers, lakes, and oceans. In
addition to the benefits to water quality, green infrastructure beautifies streets and
neighbourhoods while improving water and air quality and aesthetics. Therefore, green
infrastructure could supplement grey infrastructure for water supply in India in a positive,
natural way.
National Water Policy
India had revised the NWP in 2002 with the following salient features (Government of
India, 2009. Establishment of National and State level data banks to monitor the demand
and supply. These are some key points for facilitation for the transformation of available
water resources into utilizable water and non-conventional methods for efficient water
use. Supply of water from water surplus areas to water shortage areas. Judicious
allocation of water for different uses and pricing of water is to ensure sustainable
development. Regulation on groundwater exploitation and close monitoring of water
table using modern scientific techniques. Sustainability of existing water bodies,
involving all the stakeholders and local communities. The master plan for flood control
is which mean linking different rivers and promoting soil conservation measures.
Reduces strain on Special Village Panchayats/ Municipal / Municipal Corporation water
supply.
Irrigation Techniques
Traditional irrigation techniques result in significant water loss from evaporation,
drainage, percolation, water conveyance, and excessive groundwater use. Potential
solutions include educating farmers on best practices, including micro-irrigation
techniques such as drip and sprinkler irrigation. A model developed by the International
Water Management Institute and Earthscan of water demand and supply for 118
countries, accounting for 93% of the world’s population, estimated that a 50% increase
in demand for water by 2025 can be met by increasing the efficiency of irrigation
(CAWMA 2007).
Augmentation of Water Resources
Increasing the water storage capacity, watershed development, control of water pollution,
desalination of sea water, research and development for respected areas of effective way
for reducing the water scarcity. Rainwater harvesting is the most important much needed
practice in the current situation. It is a technique of collection and storage of rainwater
into natural reservoirs or tanks, or the infiltration of surface water into subsurface aquifers
(before it is lost as surface runoff).
Aquifer Recharge
Rapid development has ignored traditional water bodies that have acted as groundwater
recharging mechanisms, so this connection must be reinforced or re-established as areas
grow. Governments and organizations can take measures to recharge aquifers by
infiltrating or injecting treated surface water into the underground aquifers. This may
include restoring watersheds and wetlands and supporting green infrastructure aimed at
reducing impervious surfaces. Permitting further construction of groundwater extraction
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structures and registration of drilling agencies should be made mandatory and enforced
in India.
Stormwater Management and Conservation
To encourage more pervious areas for infiltration, recharge shafts or trenches should be
constructed in paved areas, use of pervious pavement should be encouraged, and
stormwater drainage must be implemented along roads and footpaths. In addition,
dredging operations in large water bodies and reservoirs should be promoted to increase
water storage capacity. The Indian government needs to enhance its investment in
technology and include all stakeholders at the planning level to ensure efficient use of
existing resources. Education and public awareness campaigns must be put in place to
curb the pollution of water sources from domestic solid and sewage wastes and to promote
the conservation of freshwater.
Nonrevenue Water
The amount of nonrevenue water (NRW) is high for several reasons, including advanced
system age, poor maintenance, illegal connections, leakage, and lack of proper mapping.
Average NRW in India has been estimated at almost 32%. In some Indian cities, NRW is
more than half of water produced (ADB 2007). Part of the problem is a lack of metered
connections and the extent of distribution networks with inadequate pumping facilities.
These are major determinants of water utilities’ successful performance. It is estimated
that the typical Indian municipal water utility has the potential to improve water pumping
system efficiency by 25%, thereby increasing supply reliability (ASE 2008). Better water
accounting would support more economically viable water markets for an already
stressed water sector, and to this end, the creation of a robust water accounting framework
is integral to a better water policy for India. By contrast, such policies as providing free
electricity to farmers or giving financial support for groundwater extraction have resulted
in uncontrolled exploitation and waste of resources.
Water Reuse
Water reuse can help alleviate water scarcity. For example, non-potable water (grey-
water) produced from reclaimed water should be used for car washing, landscape
irrigation, industrial processing, and toilet flushing. Desalination of seawater or brackish
groundwater may be considered; however, the high costs of capital, operations, and
maintenance may make wide-scale use of desalination technology unfeasible. Recycling
sewage and grey water as only a fraction of Mumbai’s sewage is treated today, the sewage
dumped into the ocean damages the ecosystems in the coastal areas, creeks and rivers.
Yet treated sewage and grey water might represent a supply of water that is even cheaper
than fresh water, especially compared to the prices of water for industrial usage. The
construction industry, which is growing at 7-8% per year in India and requires large
quantities of water, could be a big user of treated greywater and sewage. Today, the
construction industry uses drinking water supplied by MCGM or ground water. Its official
water costs are Indian rupees 43.20 per 1000 litres whereas sewage treatment costs are
estimated at Indian rupees 5-6 per 1000 litres. Since the MCGM and ground water board’s
permission is required to use water, authorities could impose regulation that requires

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switching to treated greywater/sewage for such purposes. Cities like Bangalore and
Chennai already recycle city sewage for industrial purposes on a large scale and Mumbai
has commissioned a plant featuring a sewage treatment capacity of 1.5 million litres per
day (MLD) to supply water for the green belt of Raj Bhavan, Kamala Nehru Park,
Priyadarshani Park, State Ministers’ Garden and other nearby areas. Major companies
such as Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) and Rastriya Chemicals and
Fertilizers Limited (RCF) already treat city sewage and recycle for industrial use and are
building a new 22.75 MLD sewage treatment plant. Hindustan Coca-Cola Beverages Pvt.
Ltd (HCCBPL) has funded a 1 MLD sewage treatment plant at Mahim Causeway
Pumping Station. Treated sewage water will be distributed by tankers for green belt
development, cleaning of public places and other non-drinking and non-household
purposes for which fresh water is currently being used. To make a more significant impact
on the 2680 MLD of sewage Mumbai produces every day and to use it as a resource to
improve the water supply situation, many more of these initiatives would be needed.
Restrictions on Overdevelopment
Unplanned and unrestricted expansion of urban centres must be curtailed. Leaks in the
water distribution systems as well as in homes and businesses must be minimized. Water
conservation needs to be promoted among all water users. Specific proposals for water
conservation in India include widespread education and increased use of green
infrastructure like rainwater harvesting and stormwater capture. Investments must be
made to upgrade water distribution systems, data management, and metering
infrastructure. The utility budgets should include a billing system put in place to ensure
water use of all service users are fully accounted for. For a middle-income and water-
stressed country like India, efficient use of water resources in the most sustainable way
is the way forward.
Technology Based Solutions
As the main issues of water scarcity are related to water security, water quality, water
sanitation, and water resource management. It is possible to group all the water related
issues under these categories. Advanced technologies are capable of providing a solution
to these issues provided the Government is prepared to invest in water infrastructure for
the city. Pricing policy has to be devised so that people are responsible for water
consumption for Industrial, domestic and irrigation purposes. Some of the technology
solutions which have been successfully implemented across the globe in various
organizations and countries have been taken as a benchmark to propose the solution given
here under the four perspectives related to water.
Block chain can be extensively used with respect to data generation and sharing. The data
could be collected by installing smart meters in households. This would be help in the
right pricing for the right person instead of inflated bills. With water trading coming into
play, Block Chain will play a major role in the responsible pricing aspect. As data is
shared across networks for water consumption and wastewater re-use the technology
brings in data transparency too.

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 Figure 3

Sensors fitted in various devices and pipes will help the consumers as well as authorities
to identify locations where water leak could happen. IoT devices are the origin of data
generation and data measurement. These sensors ensure right measurement of
consumption of individual consumers and can enable the pricing strategies based on over
consumption or shortage. Due to excess rain, if there is a need to store water sensors could
be activated to rationalize the storage process across locations leading to water sharing.

Figure 4

Machine Learning is one of the most important concepts under Industry 4.0. These
techniques help authorities predict water demand in multiple locations. There is a

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disparity between water availability across geographical regions and through
optimization techniques this can be sorted out. Measuring the amount of wastewater and
the impurities would help authorities ensure water purification before sending it as a
supply to the consumer. Water pipes which are interlinked across the city can be tuned
for their optimum performance through machine learning models.

Figure 5

Fog Collection
Fog water harvesting is a very new concept in the region. Recently, a number of fog
collection tests were conducted in Nepal, by Nepal Water for Health, and several simple
community-based fog collectors are in the process of being set up. This method seems to
be very promising in areas between 1900 and 3500 m, where orographic fog can be
expected. However, there is resistance from users who have difficulty believing that fog
can provide them with an adequate supply of water on a regular basis.

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 CONCLUSION

In the fast-changing global scenario, it is observed that water resources are under serious threat. This is
applicable especially to the surface water bodies which are exploited by humans. Water availability, poor
water quality, and lack of sufficient wastewater treatment systems are some of the greatest challenges
being faced by the consumers. The groundwater withdrawal rate as compared to available supplies is
extremely high due to the population growth and rapid industrialization. To address the growing concern,
there is an urgent need to develop water infrastructure. Along with that, advanced technologies need to
be deployed for measuring consumption leading to responsible pricing, peer-to-peer trading to bridge
the gap between supply and demand. This will enable participatory water management to achieve
sustainable water reuse and recycling. Since water has become an issue that cannot be neglected,
policymakers need to adopt best practices and technologies to address this at the earliest. Another
significant solution could be privatising the water management leading to better technology
implementation. Water scarcity, being a global issue needs to have a common solution at the global level
as it impacts economic, political and health of the citizens. Water Security, Water Sanitation, Water
Quality and Water Resource Management must be the focus area of all developing countries. The
conflict between supply and demand of water is in need of a governing body leading to good governance
taking into account the benefits of all parties involved. Future solutions related to Water issues is
expected to be towards water being treated as a commodity. As a commodity, water trading would lead
to water being sold and bought at a price instead of it being taken for granted. Future research in this
topic could be conducted based on the primary data collected from the consumers once the technology
implementation is done. Research could be on data transparency on water resource management, water
quality and sanitation issues as consumers are entitled to this. This would lead to responsible water
consumption, storage and harvesting leading to a safe water economy.

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