TICS 1599 No.
of Pages 3
Forum
Using [1_TD$IF]a Foreign
Language Changes
Our Choices
Sayuri Hayakawa,1,*
Albert Costa,2,3
Alice Foucart,2 and
Boaz Keysar1
A growing literature demonstrates
that using a foreign language
affects choice. This is surprising
because if people understand their
options, choice should be language
independent. Here, we review the
impact of using a foreign language
on risk, inference, and morality,
and discuss potential explanations,
including reduced emotion, psy-
chological distance, and increased
deliberation.
Using [1_TD$IF]a Foreign Language
Changes Our Choices
Imagine that you have an opportunity to
save the lives of five people, but to do so
you must kill one person. Would you kill
the one person or would you do nothing
and let the five people die? Whatever your
choice is, it should not depend on whether
you made it in your native tongue or in a
foreign language: but it does.
Decision research often addresses how
choices are affected by the way in which
situations are framed or described, as in
highlighting gains versus losses. In these
cases, language is treated as a conduit to
deliver information or a tool to draw atten-
tion to specific features of a decision. Only
recently have psychologists begun to
explore how the nativeness of a language,
rather than its content, affects choice. A
rapidly growing body of research suggests
that, even when the content of a message
is exactly the same, decisions depend on
whether the information is delivered in a
native or foreign tongue. This is theoretically
relevant to the relation between language risk seeking, whereas at the other extreme
and thought, and to the lives of millions of
individuals who use a foreign language and
it reveals extreme risk aversion. The point
at which an individual switches between
might be unaware that their decisions are the two is an indication of risk preferences.
affected by it. Here, we review some of this
research and discuss potential explana-
When people perform this task using a
foreign language, they express higher
tions for this foreign language effect. risk-seeking tendencies and are more
consistent in their choices [2]. Taken
Dealing with Risk together, this suggests that risks are eval-
Using a foreign language affects how peo- uated differently and more consistently
ple perceive and act in risky situations when processed in a foreign language.
[1,2]. Findings suggest that risks appear Box 1 provides further discussion of
smaller in a foreign language. For exam- whether a foreign language increases nor-
ple, when people consider potential haz- mative choice in general.
ards and activities, such as ‘traveling by
airplane’ and ‘biotechnology’, they per- Making Inferences and the Role
ceive the risks associated with them as of Agency
lower and the benefits as larger, when How individuals infer causal relations
using a foreign language [3]. This reduc- varies depending on the language being
tion in risk perception may in part explain used. For example, using a foreign lan-
why those using a foreign language are guage has been shown to abolish the [6_TD$IF]‘hot
more willing to take on risky ventures [7_TD$IF]hand’ fallacy [4]. When participants were
when presented with monetary gambles presented with a series of independent
[1,2]. People using a foreign language also gambles, people using a native language
show more consistent risk preferences, overestimated the likelihood of a positive
which is reflected in both the Asian Dis- outcome after a series of prior successes,
ease paradigm [1,2] and the Holt[5_TD$IF]–Laury an effect that was reduced when using a
test [2]. The Asian Disease paradigm illus- foreign language. It should be noted that
trates the robust finding that people tend this [6_TD$IF]‘hot [7_TD$IF]hand’ fallacy is generally only
to be risk seeking when a situation is present when individuals perceive that
framed in terms of losses (e.g., 400 out the outcomes are generated not by
of 600 people will die), but risk averse chance, but by an intentional agent who
when it is framed as gains (e.g., 200 out may continue ‘streaking’ [5]. This brings
of 600 people will be saved). This asym- us to yet another effect of language: peo-
metry is reduced when using a foreign ple are less sensitive to intention and more
language [1,2]. The Holt[5_TD$IF]–Laury test sensitive to outcomes when using a for-
involves progressively choosing among eign tongue [6]. This could explain why
pairs of gambles from one column or using a foreign language eliminates the
another. At the one extreme, choosing [6_TD$IF]‘hot [7_TD$IF]hand’ fallacy and could even affect
from a certain column suggests extreme judgments in the moral domain.
Box 1. Does Using [1_TD$IF]a Foreign Language Lead to Better Choices?
In some contexts, using a foreign language appears to improve decision-making, since it reduces various
decision biases [1,2,4], such as loss aversion. This is consistent with the idea that reasoning in a foreign
language is less affected by emotional concerns [6–10]. It is intuitive that optimal choices are those that are
made with a cooler mindset and, to the extent that using a foreign language reduces emotional reactivity, it
might lead to better choices. However, we propose that whether using a foreign language leads to better or
worse decisions entirely depends on the type of problem that the user is trying to solve. In many cases,
emotions can be helpful, such as by providing a quick evaluation of complex information and helping us learn
from past mistakes. Therefore, when emotional reactions serve a beneficial function, such as when there is
little time or few resources available to engage in careful deliberation, using a foreign language should lead to
less optimal decisions. Future research could explore the factors that determine when using a foreign
language leads to better decisions and when it makes them worse.
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Month Year, Vol. xx, No. yy 1
 TICS 1599 No. of Pages 3

Box 2. Evaluating the ‘Reduced Emotion’ Explanation one could make specific predictions
The processes driving the foreign language effects are not yet well understood, but a leading candidate is that regarding when and how using a
the effects on decision-making result from a reduction or a change in emotional processing. One study found
foreign language is likely to affect deci-
that using a foreign language increased perceived benefit and reduced perceived risk, and that this effect was
mediated by an increase in positive affect and a decrease in negative affect when using a foreign language [3]. sion-making. For instance, if the effect is
This finding is consistent with the notion that the effect of the foreign language may be due to changes in due to a reduction in emotion, this pre-
emotional processing. It has also been found that using a foreign language leads to more lenient judgments of dicts an effect for biases that are likely to
taboo violations, such as consensual incest, but only in cases where the scenario is rated as significantly less
be the result of emotional, automatic
emotional in the foreign language [10]. Similarly, using a foreign language increases utilitarian behavior
specifically for highly emotional moral dilemmas, whereas the effect of language is negligible for less emotional processing, such as a difficulty ignoring
ones [7]. However, inconsistent with this explanation is the finding that both more and less emotional types of sunk costs. It would also predict that
dilemma were rated as less emotional in a foreign language, and that these ratings did not mediate the effect biases that are likely the result of delib-
of language on choice [8]. Thus, the authors suggest that the change in choice may be driven by a reduced
erative processing, such as biases in
salience of social norms when using a foreign language rather than being a direct result of reduced emotion.
Future research may attempt to utilize different methodologies, such as fMRI and skin conductance, to syllogistic reasoning, would not be
examine the role of emotion, as well as systematically examine the population-level differences that may affected by a foreign language. By con-
contribute to the effect, such as proficiency and method of acquisition. trast, if the effect is due to an increase in
deliberation, this predicts an effect for
both types of bias. It is possible that
Making Moral Judgment decisions in a foreign language might the effect of using a foreign language
Perhaps the most striking effects of lan- not engage the emotional system as read- is multiply determined, and that the dif-
guage have been found in the moral ily as decisions made in a native tongue. ferent processes also interact with one
domain. There is robust evidence demon- Such a reduction in emotional processing another. To better understand the effect,
strating that individuals are more likely to could explain effects such as increased it will be important to systematically
endorse utilitarian behaviors when using a risk taking, greater utilitarianism, and so examine the effects of having various
foreign language. In one study, people on. Box 2 provides a more detailed evalu- language backgrounds and competen-
using a foreign language were more than ation of the evidence for and against this cies, such as the role of proficiency,
twice as willing to sacrifice one life to save explanation. method and age of acquisition, and cul-
five, compared with those using their tural associations. Such factors may
native tongue [7]. This effect was indepen- Another possibility is that using a foreign mediate or moderate the effect of foreign
dently replicated with several languages, language increases psychological dis- language on decision-making. This pro-
such as English, Spanish, German, and tance, leading to a more abstract level vides an exciting opportunity for future
Italian [8,9]. This suggests that, when of construal. Having such a ‘bird's eye research to investigate the relative con-
deontological prohibitions, such as ‘cause view’ has been shown to increase focus tributions of these various mechanisms
no harm’, conflict with the utilitarian valueon ends over means [13]. This could give to more fully understand both how peo-
of promoting the greater good, using a more weight to benefits than to costs, and ple behave when using a foreign lan-
foreign language increases the weight of thereby increase utilitarianism. It could guage and, more generally, how the
the greater good compared with moral also explain why a foreign language languages we use affect the choices that
rules. This is consistent with findings that reduces framing effects, because superfi- we make.
people using a foreign language are cial differences in wording are less likely to
less condemning of moral or social taboo be salient at a more abstract level. The Acknowledgments
violations [10]. disfluency of using a foreign language The authors thank Leigh Burnett for comments on the
could also contribute to the effects, manuscript. The preparation of this manuscript was
Why Does [1_TD$IF]a Foreign Language because processing disfluency in general supported by a grant from the University of Chicago's
Change Our Choices? could lead to a more deliberative mode of Wisdom Research Project and the John Templeton
Although there is converging evidence thinking, given that increased difficulty Foundation, and a grant by the National Science
that using a foreign language affects our may signal a need for more careful Foundation #1520074 to the University of Chicago.
decisions, the precise reasons for this are consideration. 1
Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, 5848
still unknown. The leading account is that South University Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
2
Center of Brain and Cognition, CBC, Universitat Pompeu
a foreign language engages emotions less Concluding Remarks
Fabra, Barcelona, Spain, Roc Boronat, 138, 08018,
than does a native tongue [11,12]. As evidence of the foreign language Barcelona, Spain
Whereas a native tongue is acquired effect on decision-making accumulates, 3Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats
through affect-rich experiences, foreign it becomes important to better under- (ICREA),[2_TD$IF] 08010, Barcelona, Spain
languages are often acquired in less emo- stand its origin. Depending on which *Correspondence: sayuri@uchicago.edu (S. Hayakawa).
tional classroom contexts. Therefore, processes are responsible for the effect, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.08.004

2 Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Month Year, Vol. xx, No. yy

 TICS 1599 No. of Pages 3

References 5. Caruso, E.M. et al. (2010) The intentional mind and the hot 10. Geipel, J. et al. (2015) How foreign language shapes moral
hand: perceiving intentions makes streaks seem likely to judgment. J. Exp. Psychol. 59, 8–17
1. Keysar, B. et al. (2012) The foreign-language effect thinking
continue. Cognition 116, 149–153 11. Harris, C.L. et al. (2003) Taboo words and reprimands elicit
in a foreign tongue reduces decision biases. Psychol. Sci.
6. Geipel, J. et al. (2016) Foreign language affects the contri- greater autonomic reactivity in a first language than in a
23, 661–668
bution of intentions and outcomes to moral judgment. second language. Appl. Psycholinguist. 24, 561–579
2. Costa, A. et al. (2014) ‘Piensa’ twice: on the foreign lan-
Cognition 154, 34–39 12. Puntoni, S. et al. (2009) Bilingualism and the emotional
guage effect in decision making. Cognition 130, 236–254
7. Costa, A. et al. (2014) Your morals depend on language. intensity of advertising language. J. Consum. Res. 35,
3. Hadjichristidis, C. et al. (2015) The effect of foreign language
PLoS One 9, e94842 1012–1025
in judgments of risk and benefit: the role of affect. J. Exp.
Psychol. Appl. 21, 117–129 8. Geipel, J. et al. (2015) The foreign language effect on moral 13. Fujita, K. et al. (2006) Spatial distance and mental construal
judgment: the role of emotions and norms. PLoS One 10, of social events. Psychol. Sci. 17, 278–282
4. Gao, S. et al. (2015) Second language feedback abolishes
e0131529
the ‘hot hand’ effect during even-probability gambling.
J. Neurosci. 35, 5983–5989 9. Cipolletti, H. et al. (2016) The moral foreign-language effect.
Philos. Psychol. 29, 23–40

Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Month Year, Vol. xx, No. yy 3