a CHAPTER CONDUCTION \p 3 we aq \ \ f \\ @ SS \ \ \\\\\AN FIN SURFACE FORCE CONVECTION PHASE CHANGE ere) (EVAPORATION ) Chapter 2: Conduction ars 2Conduction Conduction is the mode of energy transfer as heat due to temperature difference in a solid or any phase of material where the mass is contiguous and in thermal contact. Microscopically this mode of energy transfer is attributed to free electron flow from higher to lower energy levels, lattice vibration and molecular collision. However no _ macroscopic mass movement is involved. | The temperature in the body will be a function of location and time. In the popular cartesian coordinates : T = T(x, y, Z, 1) How temperature varies with position within the body : |The temperature field is obtained by deriving and solving the differential | equation based on energy balance relations for the volume.Conduction q, the conducted heat rs e in the x-direction has Yohenomenologically been found to be adequately ConductivityFourier’s Law Baron Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) gq" =-kVT =- ao eee ae Ty Oz del operator VW/The Fourier Equation for Heat Conduction The basic equation for steady-state heat conduction thot rcold qd q = heat-conduction rate in x-direction A= cross-sectional area normal to heat flow dt/dx = temperature gradient in x direction k =a proportionality constant known as the thermal conductivity of the conducting medium q: does not vary with time (steady state) k: depends on molecular state of the medium (function of T and P) If dt/dx is large, significant variation of k with position A: dependent on position - sign : make q positive in the positive x direction.Thermal conductivity The equation of heat conduction in one direction at, A dx The constant of proportionality k is the thermal conductivity of material, which is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat . Thermal conductivity k of a material (W/mK) can be defined as the rate of heat transfer Jun/sec through a unit thickness of the material (m) per unit area (1m? )per unit temperature difference (1K) | >» Thermal Conductivity of Gases > Thermal Conductivity of Liquids > Thermal Conductivity of Solids + Metals and alloys; + Solid dielectrics (non-metals);Isotropic and nonisotropic @ Isotropic (4,=4,=k) Materials having thermal conductivities which are independent of the direction of flow of heat transfer % Non-isotropics (k,4k,#k) Single crystals which have different thermal conductivities in the different directions of the crystal axes. Laminated materials Eckert and Drake show that for these substances the heat flux vector is generally not normal to the isothermal surfaceThermal Conductivity of Purified Diamond (Lanhua Wei et al., Physical Review Letters, 14 June 1993.) ® Natural diamond is 98.9% carbon-12 and 1.1% carbon-13. ®@ A team of scientists from Wayne State University and General Electric showed in 1990 that purifying the C-12 component of diamond to 99.9% increased its room-temperature thermal conductivity by 50%, a much bigger isotope effect than in other compounds. @ The same scientists have now recorded the highest thermal conductivity ever observed for a solid above liquid nitrogen temperatures, 410 W/cm-K, in 99.9%-pure C-12 at 104 K. @ The researchers predict that the thermal conductivity for 99.999%- pure C- 12 diamonds would exceed 2000 W/em-K and that integrated circuits mounted on such diamonds (cooled in liquid nitrogen) could operate at 500 times the power density of circuits mounted on copper substrates at room temperature.Thermal Conductivity of Non-isotropics Crystal Thermal Conductivity (W/m K) BH (ycoe-a) a @ (ycoB-b) —~AL_ A (ycos-c} 300 360 400 450 S00 550 an esa 700 Temperature (K) Chapter 2: Conduction 10Conductivity Thermal conductivity Solid > liquid > gas Pure metals > alloys > nonmetallic solids > insulation systems Thermal conductivity of liquid increases with decreasing liquid molecular weight Liquid metal > nonmetallic liquid Thermal conductivity of gas increases with decreasing gas molecular weightFour modes of transport of energy in solids 1. Free Electrons Principal 2. Lattice waves (Phonons) Conk 3. Magnetic excitations (Magnons) 4, Electromagnetic radiation (Photons)Thermal Conductivity by Free electron: Metals For metals, the thermal conductivity is quite high, and those metals which are the best electrical conductors are also the best thermal conductors. At a given temperature, the thermal and electrical conductivities of metals are proportional, but raising the temperature increases _the thermal conductivity while decreasing the electrical conductivity. This behavior is quantified in the Wiedemann-Franz Law: k= thermal conductivity, o = electric conductivity, Z = Lorenz numberThermal Conductivity by Free electron: Metals where the constant of proportionality Z is called the Lorenz number. L = 22~29x10- volts?/K2 Qualitatively, this relationship is based upon the fact that the heat and electrical transport both involve the free electrons in the metal. The thermal conductivity increases with the average particle velocity since that increases the forward transport of energy. However, the electrical conductivity decreases with particle velocityincreases because the collisions divert the electrons from forward transport of charge. This means that the ratio of thermal to electrical conductivity depends upon the average velocity squared, which is proportional to the kinetic temperature. Chapter 2: ConductionThermal Conductivity by Free electron: Metals The electronic thermal conductivity is proportional in magnitude to the electron mean free path. In a perfect crystal lattice this would be infinite, but in actual materials, it is limited by the electron scattering produced by chemical impurities, lattice dislocation, physical defects, and thermal vibration. = 5000~7000 Btu/(h)(ft)(°F) = 220 Btu/(h)(ft)(¢F) K pure copper k commercial copperThermal Conductivity by Lattice waves (Non-metallic soild) For non-metallic solids, the heat transfer is view as being transferred via lattice vibrations, as atoms vibrating more energetically at one part of a solid transfer that energy to less energetic neighboring atoms. This can be enhanced by cooperative motion in the form of propagating lattice waves, which in the quantum limit are quantized as phonons. Practically, there is so much variability for non-metallic solids that we normally just characterize the substance with a measured thermal conductivity when doing ordinary calculations.Thermal Conductivity by photons The transmission of electromagnetic radiation in translucent materials in the form of photons adds to the total effective thermal conductivity of solid. This energy is principally in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. If the solid either has no absorptive capacity for the radiation, or if it is completely opaque, there will be no augmentation of thermal conductivity. In general, solid will emit, absorb, and re-radiate photons. This is considered to be the reason why the thermal conductivity of glasses tend to increase rapidly at high temperatures. 0.01 0.001 ‘Thermal conductivity, cal -em/°C - see - em? 0.0001 A Platinum = Graphite Gn sic BREN crn Ss ore dense M Pen ene M0 0.00002 0 200 1600" 2000 ©. °CThe temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity of selected solids 500 400 Silver Fiatinum Iron Mercury o Siaintess steel, AIS! 304, Aluminum oxide 100 300 500 1000 2000 4000 ‘Temperature (K) Chapter 2: Conduction 18Thermal Conductivity: Liquids Brigman Model ,_1 pC,ua = pC,y,a (1923) 3 Energy is handed down rows of molecules with the velocity of sound. Semiempirical correlation based on experimental results : Brigman’s equation Sonic velocityThermal Conductivity: Liquids Horrocks and McLaughlin Model (1960) Liquid has a lattice structure through which excess energy due to a temperature gradient is transferred both (1) By motion of molecules from cell to cell and (2) By a vibrational mechanism in which the molecule vibrates within its cell. ()<<@) The intercellular contribution, calculated from intermolecular force, gives good results for simple liquids.The temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity of selected non- metallic liquids under saturated conditions Thermal conductivity (W/m+K) Temperature (K) Chapter 2: ConductionThermal Conductivity: Gas The conduction of heat in a gas is basically the mechanism of a random walk (diffusion and collision). The molecules of high-temperature gas diffuse among the molecules of low-temperature gas, collide with them, and give up kinetic energy. For an ideal gas, the heat transfer rate is proportional to the average molecular velocity, the mean free path, and the molar heat capacity of the gas. Pariiepe peel Ce a are "pe MACS If nf, then P fT. 4 3.N 4 __ Avogadro's If2% 7, then Pt. Thermal number conductivity The thermal conductivity should be independent of pressure. This has been found to be approximately true of most gases (ideal gas) near atmospheric pressure.Thermal Conductivity: Gas The thermal conduction of gas is dependent upon pressure. (1) At very low pressures, where the thermal conductivity of a gas obviously must approach zero. (2) At even moderately low pressures, when the dimensions of the container are less than the mean free path of the gas molecules (a so-called Knudsen gas) (3) At high pressures, where the simple kinetic theory of gases does not apply.Thermal Conductivity: Gas Arelationship between the viscosity and thermal conductivity Similarity: Gas viscosity is a measure of the drag exerted by diffusion of gas molecules in a zone moving at a different mean velocity. Difference: The quantity being transported is kinetic energy associated with random motion of the molecules rather than directed momentum.Thermal Conductivity: Common Gases Since the mechanism of heat conduction in a gas is a function of its tendency to diffuse, it is to be expected that light gases like hydrogen or helium would have relatively high thermal conductivity. This is what actually happen. The paraffin hydrocarbons show a typical decrease of thermal conductivity with increase of molecular weight in a homogeneous series. 03 Hydrogen Helium 02 0.1 Water (steam, 1 atm) Thermal conductivity (W/m>K) Carbon dioxide Freon 12 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Temperature (K)Thermal Conductivity, k [Btu/(h)(ft)(°F)] 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000Range of thermal conductivity for various states of matter @normal temperature and pressure Zine silver Ney Nickel Aluminum pe Plastics Ice Oxides Se ea ee eee Bly Foams Fibers re Ea Oils. Water Mercury Hy | | | | | | 0.01 0.4 1 10 100 1000 Thermal Conductivity (WimK)Thermophysical Properties of Fluid Systems Accurate thermophysical properties are available for several fluids. These data include the following *Density +Specific volume Cp Cy +Enthalpy +Entropy «Internal energy +Speed of Sound “Viscosity -Thermal conductivity -Joule-Thomson coefficient +Surface tension (saturation curve only) http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/fluid/Thermal Diffusivity Thermal diffusivity represents how fast heat diffuses through a materia Heat conducted k 2 geet (m*/s) Heat stored pc, » Specific heat C, (J/kg.°C) represent the heat storage capability of a material; expresses heat storage capability per unit mass >The heat capacity pC, represent the heat storage capability of a materia per unit volume The thermal conductivity k represents how well a material conducts heat, the heat capacity pC, represents how much energy a material stores per unit volume —The larger the thermal diffusivity is the faster the propagation of heat into the medium. A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a small amount of heat will be conducted furtherConduction * A major objective in conduction analysis the calculation of the temperature field ie the Temperature distribution : the value of the temperature scalar as a function of position.Fourier’s law of heat conduction Consider a wall ; the rate of heat transfer through the wall increases when: * The temperatures difference between the left and right surfaces increase, « The wall surface area increases, + The wall thickness reduces, * The wall is change from brick to aluminum. Measure temperatures of the wall from left 0 L to right and plot the temperature variation with the wall thickness Relative to the heat flow direction, the slope of the temperature line is negative as the temperature decrease with the heat flow a direction Tota quae we oxFourier’s law of heat conduction a z z 2 ‘ad y ie y y i. ‘ (a) Rectangular coordinates _(b) Cylindrical coordinates (c) Spherical coordinates Chapter 2: Conduction 32Fourier’s law of heat conduction In a Cartesian coordinates system In a Cartesian coordinates system, the components of the gradient of a scalar field T in the coordinate axes are the partial derivatives of T with respect to each coordinate — or —=, oF eee VT, =— VTy= VT, =— Sa ‘ay “az The most general conduction equation is a This vector equation can be decomposed in the following three scalar equations: ee ee q. =-k— Cite dzFourier’s law of heat conduction In a cylindrical system, the coordinates of any point are r, 8, andz The components of the gradient vector in cylindrical coordinates lor or VI,=-— VT. =— te ro t a 4 & I 2/8 The most usual case in process heat transfer involving cylindrical geometry is heat conduction through the wall of a cylindrical pipe. In this case, the direction of the vector q is radial. Then the partial derivatives with respect to 8 and z are zero dT =k drGeneral conduction equation based on Cartesian Coordinates Acontrol volume for deriving the three-dimensional conduction equation in Cartesian Coordinates. Rate of energy Rate of energy conducted into the |, | generated inside control volume the control volume Rate of energy Rate of energy conducted out off stored inside the the control control volume The heat flow by conduction through the boundary is obtained by considering the conduction over all six faces. The area perpendicular to x direction has a value dydz. Using Fourier’s law, the heat flow at the dydz face at x over time period dt*% Rate of energy conducted into the system: + Rate of energy stored inside the system oT =C-p-dx dy dz-— store = C-P at ln $4, #9. ible 6 ~Gyup Fone = Pep edeGeneral conduction equation based on Cartesian Coordinates aed aa Ox\ Ox Heat (Diffusion) Equation: at any point in the medium the rate of energy transfer by conduction in a unit volume plus the volumetric rate of thermal energy must equal to the rate of change of thermal energy stored within the volume. fa (2) é (Fg [eZ )+4- 00,2 OZ ac ax) av ay a atGeneral conduction equation based on Cartesian Coordinates ar _k (eT or oT = z+ 2 2 Or £(8 Oo ox eye cp Fourier’ s equation © =0>T=f(x%y,z) > Steady State Conduction T ae ae a + ae =0 V°T =0|_: Laplace’s equation Ox” Oy Oz”10 (wr 2) 1a («35 + a (1) +a-re ror or) yr? ob az\ dz ot With k constant eqn. reduces to or fio fon) ft vee oe or r 1 or ab? ee Elemental volume in cylindrical coordinates. 3»om For a steady state one dimensional heat transfer and no energy generation The heat equation for a steady state one dimensional heat transfer and no energy generation for a hollow cylinder Chapter 2: Conduction 4052 (we 2). or w(eZ] ra ar) 7? sin? @ db ab z 2 A (hsinoSt) « (=) “2 sin@ 00 30) t= Pl oe With k constant eqn. reauces to 52 (r wT). 1 er r? or ar) > sin? @ | ao? 1 a(. ,aT),q_1(ar * rane mele} Foal ae) Elemental volume in cylindrical coordinates. Chapter 2: Conduction aaGeneral equation of conduction in solids In each equation the dependent variable, T, is_a_ function of 4 independent | variables, (x,y,z,t); (r,9,z,t); (1,9,8,t) and is a 2% order, partial differential equation. The solution of such equations will normally require a numerical solution — simply look at the simplifications that can be made to the equations to describe specific problems. + Steady State: Steady state solutions imply that the system conditions are not changing with time. Thus 07, lag —) + One dimensional: If heat is flowing in only one coordinate direction, then it follows that there is no temperature gradient in the other two directions. Thus the two partials associated with these directions are equal to Zero. + Two dimensional: If heat is flowing in only two coordinate directions, then it follows that there is no temperature gradient in the third direction. Thus, the partial derivative associated with this third direction is equal to zero. +No If there are no volumetric heat sources the system then the Note that the equation is 2nd order in each coordinate direction so that integration will result in 2 constants of integration. To evaluate these constants two boundary conditions will be required for each coordinate-direction.The objective of deriving the heat diffusion equation is to determine the temperature distribution within the conducting body. We have set up a differential equation, with T as the dependent variable. The solution will give us T(x,y,z). Solution depends on boundary conditions (BC) and initial conditions (IC). :_How many BC’s and IC’s 2 - Heat equation is second order in spatial coordinate. Hence, 2 BC’s needed for each coordinate. *1D problem: 2 BC in x-direction * 2D problem: 2 BC in x-direction, 2 in y-direction * 3D problem: 2 in x-dir., 2 in y-dir., and 2 in z-dir. - Heat equation is first order in time. Hence one IC needed* Time condition: temperature distribution of the body in initial time condition (t = 0) T(x, y,Z,t) =T(x, y,z,0) * The First boundary condition: temperature distribution at certain position (point or surface) as a function of time Tor Yor Zot) = T(t) * The Second boundary condition: heat flux at certain position (point or surface) as a function of time qo You ZT) = q(t)* The Third boundary condition: heat flux at contact surface between solid and fluid as Newton’s law (convection) or Stefan— Boltzmann’s law (radiation) as() = a(T; — Tr) * The Fourth boundary condition: heat flux at contact surface between two solid bodies aT; aT» As k is constants. The eq. can be integrated T,-T, W CaS k * Heat flow (W) o= 94a AinTemperature Profile in a flat wall —_— The differential equation governing ie diffusion * Temperature profile — >= Pp Pp Ox2 Integrating equation er ar = He), T= Ex + C5. Sr ogy TE THe te T=T, 2. T=¢%,4¢ T=T, 2. Ty=cy%g+Cq where ¢, and c, are constants of integration. To obtain the constants of aan 50 Chapter 2: ConductionHeat Conduction in a Flat Wall Fourier conduction equation dt = : dx >If heat is flowing normal to the principal surfaces, the area term A is constant. >If k is assumed to be constant, g at any cross section is proportional to dt/dx. >If energy is neither generated nor 2 t Z accumulated in the wall, q is identical at all = t, cross sections and so is dt/dx. 5 0 Ax Distance, xHeat Conduction in a Flat Wall t ot : 5 £ 5 é 0 Ax Distance, x Fourier conduction equation qz=-kA at dx >If k varies with temp, dt/dx # constant. >If q and A = constant, and k increases with decreasing temp(Al,O3), the temperature gradient must diminish in the direction of decreasing temperature. Thus the curve representing temperature in steady-state flow for this system is concave upward.Influence of the temperature dependence of k on dt/dx in a flat wall during heat transport by conduction k decreasing with increasing T ‘ex: copper, tungsten, AlO3, NH!) k increasing with increasing T ex: SUS304, Fused quartz, mercury (I), Ho(g), CO2(g), air(g), steam k independent of T oo ox Fain oC 53Influence of the temperature dependence of k on dt/dx ina flat wall during heat transport by conduction k increasing with increasing T ex. SUS304, Fused quartz, mercury (I), H2(g), CO2(g), air(g), steam t k decreasing with increasing T ‘ex: copper, tungsten, Al,03. NHA()), k independent of T ex: Engine oil XQ Chapter 2: Conduction 54Example 1 A fire-brick wall of furnace (k =1.7W/m°C) has a dimension of 1.2 x 0.5 x 0.15(m). In steady state, the temperature of faces are maintained at 1000°C and 700°C, respectively. How much is heat loss Q through the wall? T,-T, .W heat flux > q = T Cp k A(T, —T- Heat loss Q=q.A= ae k A=LXH = 1.2 x 0.5 = 0.6 m2b) Conduction in a multi-layer flat wall (a) _(b) Distance, x Chapter 2: 6Analogy to Ohm’s law for electric conduction (a) (b) (c) 2 Z a Electric flow 5 (Current) & Distance, x t iyi | lity ty we a Ri R, Rs Chapter 2: Conduction Driving force (Temp Difference) Thermal resistances Driving force J Woltage Difference) Y-Vs Ri+ Ry +R5 \ Electric resistancesOverall Thermal resistances (a) (b)_ (c) qa Xa’ Ax, Ax ~ oy \ Individual resistance Overall resistance oie 4 Ay, c Temperature Because q/A is the same for all layers, it follows that k(At/Ax) is the same for all layers; Distance, x t % % ty thus AV/Ax is inversely proportional to the thermal conductivity. Chapter 2: Conduction 58Ty _13-Ty ~ Le ke Ty ~T, T, — T4 Heat flux: g = —————— = ————_—_- eat flux: q Tay ley kc Ra +RptRc ka kp Temperature difference AT, Heat flow = Temperature difference _ oo | Total thermal resistance xRExample 2 An exterior wall of a house may be approximated by a 4(in) layer of common brick (k = 0.7 W/m°C) followed by a 1.5(in) layer of gypsum plaster (k = 0.48 W/m°C). What thickness of loosely packed rock-wool insulation (k = 0.065 W/m°C) should be added to reduce the heat loss (or gain) through the wall by 80 percent? L,=4 x 0.0254 = 0.1016 m Lg=1.5 x 0.0254 = 0.0381 m Nh-Ts _ M1 -Ts q= Tata LB = 01016 381 ka kp 0.7 0.48 T-T, T, —Ts T= vro1e, o0ser, T= 974 =°2 07016 0.0381 0.7 0.48 0.065 0.7 0.48 T='T, thickness of rock-wool layer = 2.3 (in) ? 2: Conduction 60A freezer compartment consists of a cubical cavity that is 2 m on a side. Assume the bottom to be perfectly insulated. What is the minimum thickness of styrofoam insulation (k = 0.030 W/m K) that must be applied to the top and side walls to ensure a heat load of less than 500 W, when the inner and outer surfaces are 10 and 35°C? A=5*( Heat loss Q = q.A =44=® -soow z Chapter 2: Conduction 61Example 2 AT * The overall heat loss q = ER i" 1 i AT * Without insulation = qnon = * With insulation dins = =D XRins ZRnon | dins io ZRnon AT Qnon LRins =0.2 x = 2.3(in) = 0.2Plane wall Lt 38 Reco Re Re Rp a riiii Ree Re Be —~| ee ene Mp YR = Rat Roc + Re + Rec a gos ; 3 XR Ry Rep q WN WA ipa Re ° WA WA WA NR Rp Re Re WA WA- Te chapter 2: Euetion 63Example 3 A typical wall for a house is constructed as shown in Figure below. Determine the equivalent thermal resistance of the Mikal 1.9m; k = 0.96 9.21cem mn 1.9cm; k = 0.48 Chapter 2: Conduction 64Thermal Contact Resistance (e) Wel prec tema cont) Acta pert) thera coast Chapter 2: Conduction 65TABLE 3-1 Contact pressure (psi) 10? 10° Thermal contact conductance 10° my for aluminum plates with different — _ Coated with fluids at the interface for a surface ¢ [ tinnickel alloy roughness of 10 ym and interface ee OE an 2 ‘Coated with] pressure of 1 atm (from Fried, 1969). & 10t| Bronze nickel alloy | Contact 2 &E Fluid at the conductance, he, ZF i q interface Wim?-K s £ LY 4 Air 3640 g i 4 Helium 9520 31 E coated with 1 Hydrogen 13,900 A i q Silicone oil 19,000 s - q Glycerin 37,700 eB oL 4 10? 10° 108 Contact pressure (KN/m?) —— Uncoated — Coated Effect of metallic coatings on cothermal contact conductance if Bu heft? °F es Thermal contact conductance ( izThermal contact conductance of some metal surfaces in air (from various sources) Surface Pressure, he” Material condition Roughness, wm Temperature, MPa wim?-K Ground 2.54 90-200 0.17-2.5 3800 304 Stainless steel Ground 114 20 47 1900 Aluminum Ground 2.54 150, 1.2-2.5 11,400, Copper Ground 1.27 20 1.2-20 143,000 Copper Milled 3.81 20 1-5 55,500 Copper (vacuum) Milled 0.25, 30 0.17-7 11,400, Dissimilar Metal Pairs Stainless steel 10 2900 Aluminum: 20-30 20 20 3600 Stainless stee!- 10 16,400 Aluminum 1.0-2.0 20 20 20,800 Steel Ct-30- 10 50,000 Aluminum: Ground 1.4-2.0 20 15-35, 59,000 Stee! Ct-30- 10 4800 Aluminum: Milled 4.5-7.2 20 30 8300 5 42,000 Aluminum-Copper Ground 1,17-1.4 20 15 56,000 10 12,000, Aluminum-Copper Milled 444.5, 20 20-35 22,000 The thermal contact conductance is highest (and thus the contact resistance is lowest) for soft metals with smooth surfaces at high pressure. Chapter 2: Conduction 67Temperature (a) (b) Distance, x Thermal Contact Resistance (c) Protuberance at the contact point (spot) Vacant at the contact point Convection + radiation i=t Ax, An k,A kA q= iar Thermal Contact Resistance Two copper plates Conduction 68Thermal Contact Resistance Thermal Contact Resistance Rrcx10* (m?K/W) AL-Al interface (10 jum roughness) under 105 KN/m? Thermal Contact Resistance Rycx104 (m?-K/W) with different interfacial fluids Air 2.75 He 1.05 Hp 0.720 Silicone oil 0.525 Glycerine 0.265 Chapter 2: Conduction Fried, E., “Thermal Conduction Contribution to Heat Transfer at Contacts”, in R.P. Tye, Ed., Thermal Conductivity, vol 2, Academic Press, London, 1969 69Thermal Dissipation of the Chip 1 A=10 cm? Silicon chip — 10° W/m2 t=35°C *——~ Epoxy joint ~0.02 mm Rrc=9x10 m2K/W 8 mm Aluminum Substrate oe Kiuminum=240 Wimk 92 t=25°C 35-25 2= Steg =8.11W 9x10 %+2% 1 240 Rre \ Cross-sectional area KatuminumExample A heating element is constructed from carbon in the shape of a bar 3” wide, %” thick, and 3 ft long. When a potential of 12 V is applied to the ends of the bar, its surface reaches a uniform temperature of 1400°F, as indicated by an optical pyrometer. What is the temperature at the center of the bar? The electrical resistivity of the bar is 1.30*10-4(Q)(ft), and its thermal conductivity is 2.9 Btu/(h)(ft)( °F). Only heat conduction normal to the largest forces of the bar will be considered, since heat leaves the bar principally through these faces. A differential equation is obtained by writing an energy balance on a differential segment dx of the bar, as shown in Fig. 18-4.Hollow cylinder. a) Heat transfer through single — layer cylindrical wall . a a Why is it curved ? Ty. ss Tea a fs oh "2 ChapterFor a cylinder with length very large compared to diameter, it may be assumed that the only space , coordinate needed to specify the system is r. Fourier’s law is used by inserting the proper area relation. The area for heat flow in the cylindrical system is Tr A, =2m7l dT : Fourier’s law can be written OQ. =—2zkr! rs Lim, Fe w— > ds with the boundary conditions of First kind: T=Tatr=7 T=Tatr=r the thermal conduction In [ “] resistance for 1m length is : a vr; " 2nkl Chapter 2: Conductionsingle — layer cylindrical wall * Temperature profile ar + Lor = or? "rar In@’/n) T(r) =T, — (1 - T) NG /r) T%)-TO) = In@/n) T,-T, — Inz/7) * Heat flux for 1m length (q,, W/m) * Heat flow Q, W Chapter 2: Conduction 7”B) multy-layer cylindrical wall * Heat flux for 1m length (q,, W/m) —# Ra Rp Re oy 0 0 Th i & Ty Ra, Re, Rc: The thermal conduction resistance for 1m length Tat Tex Reon Rs] Rams Chapter 2: Conduction 5multy-layer cylindrical wall * Heat flux for Im length (a, W/m) g — Ra, Rg, Ret The thermal conduction resistance for 1m length Chapter 2: Conduction 76q=— Fee SH eS OS et ia) ie) le 2mk, \y) 2k, \r,) 2mke \y A thick-walled tube of stainless steel (k = 19W/m°C) with 2(cm) inner diameter (ID) and 4(cm) outer diameter (OD) is covered with a 3(cm) layer of asbestos insulation (k = 0.2W/m’°C). If the inside wall temperature of the pipe and outside temperature of asbestos are maintained at 600°C and 100°C, respectively. a) Calculate the heat loss per meter of length. b) Calculate the tube — insulation interface temperature. T-T, 7-1, ieee nen bg ry) 2ako \y Chapter 2: Conductionjpter 2: ConductionExample 4 * The heat loss per meter of length 1 — Ts qs il 1 13 2k, In (2) + 2mkp in s) * The tube — insulation interface temperature = 680(W/m) T, —T3 q =——— = 680(W/m) _—T, = 595.8(°C) if T3 In (= 2mkg \rExample A6-in, schedule-80 steel pipe is covered with a 0.1-m layer of 85 percent magnesia insulation. The temperature of the inner surface of the pipe is 250°C, and the temperature of the outer surface of the insulation is 40°C. (1) Calculate the rate of heat loss per meter of pipe q, (W/m) (2) the temperature at the interface between the pipe and the insulation. The thermal conductivity of the steel pipe can be taken as 44.8Wim-K (Perry, p. 3-220), and that of the 85 percent magnesia as 0.066 (Perry, p. 3-221). The OD of the pipe is 0.1683 m, and the ID is 0.1463 m, thickness of insulation 0.1m6” schedule 80 steel pipe k=44.8 WimK ID=5.761"=0.1463m (OD=0.1683m °C Ar,.=ryt,=0.011m * The heat loss per meter of length 250 — 40 FT 0.1683 T 0.3683 fae nSeent Taae (o7463) + t70.066" (o7683) 20.068 Wimk = 111(W/m) Ag I3-)=0.1m * The tube — insulation interface temperature 250 — T; Qe = ae = W/m) i aa aes "(5 T2= 249.95 °C The thermal conductivity of the steel pipe can be taken as 44.8W/m-K (Perry, p. 3-220), and that of the 85 percent magnesia as 0.066 (Perry, p. 3-221). The OD of the pbs is hapter 2: 0.1683 m, and the ID is 0.1463 m, thickness of insulation 0.1mCritical thickness of insulationSphere dT * Heat fl =- 2)k — eat flux q (4nr7)k an q: heat flux per surface area (W/m?) es Tm) =T, * Boundary condition 7 {ren =f, _ -k Eee aa 4nk\r, 12 a? T%, -TO) i (rm —1r) 1 * Temperature profile ©-—~ = = P aaa ror (7) =0 T, -T2 r(% — 1%) 83TH steady Conduction in one direction WITH ILE plane wall cylindrical wall spherical wallPlane wall Agen Boundary condition T(0) =T T(6) =T>Plane wall a’*T q Temperature profile —— 4 49" _ 9 Ox? a = Agend° [x px? x T= +o [5 - (5) ~1- Ts eh 6 %-T, S| 2a, -T,)\ 6 = a genS* | A(T, = T2)* 2 T(x)max = T(%o) = T+ ae re 7 (T, —T») Xo _1 A(T, —Tp) 56 2 Igen5”Plane wall Heat fl sae hal ea ux q= dx = end? 1 20950-5052)Cylinder Boundary condition fea at, T(z) = Tz Chapter 2: ConductionCylinder @T 10T gen Temperature profile Ore aha r Or a =0 fest Agen (T, —T2) - (rZ - 1?) T(r) =T, — =). teh 42 “aq oon) aes i q. ie T, —T2) ~ Gq 2 =?) oR AL Ey "% In@2/n) =TO) __ oent? T-T, 4A(T,— Ta) ry’ doent? ni']) In@/n) (5) _ +f "a “sp-@) nee Chapter 2: Conduction 89Cylinder Heat fl =-A - eat Tlux = q dr Agen(z — TL) — gent , (Tr — T2) — sae nee io 7 rin (2)Sphere Boundary condition ne = Ty T(r) = T2Sphere Temperature profile ive T) + + fan =0 nana gent (13 = 12) _ aH _ Aen (t¥ - 17) -1¢) "7 6a =T) |" 6a, =T) Gent” TT, ry — 1%) 6A(T; — T2) Agen™ + nt ACT, — Tz) _ Agen Heat flux q = 3 “lesen 6 (y+ r)How to solve the conduction problem ? Try to simplify the problem to one-dimension Seek some simple analytical solutions, if they are too complicated, move to the numerical techniques Pte Res Ath 2ds Steel pipe (thermal conductivity: 24 W/m.°C)with outer diameter is 48 cm, thickness 25mm was insulated heat transfer by 2 insulation layers. The thickness of two layers are 20mm, 30mm and thermal conductivity are 0,85 W/m.°C va 0,2 W/m.°C (from inside to outside), The temperature on the surface of pipe is Tw :=240°C, and the temperature of the insulation layer surface is Ty.=50°C. a) Draw the profile temperature of this pipe b) Calculation the heat loss of the length of pipe is 50m c) Determine the temperature of the contact surface between 2 layer material? 2: Conduction 94FREE CONVECTION FORCE PHASE CONVECTION CHANGE = INTERNAL Goons) (EVAPORATION ) aio aims FY