Power Plant Engineering

UNIT – II Material

Syllabus:
Combustion Process: Methods of Coal firing, Overfeed and Underfeed stoker firing - Principles
and types of stoker firing systems, Pulverized fuel firing - Principle, Types of burners and Mills,
Fluidized Bed Combustion, Cyclone Burner.
Ash and Dust handling: Types of Ash handling systems, Working principles of various Dust
collectors.
Cooling towers: Types of Cooling towers and their working.

Combustion: combustion is a chemical reaction, which occurs between a fuel and an oxidizing
agent that produces energy.

Combustion equipment: It is a component of the steam generation. Combustion of fuel in the

combustion chamber and transfer of heat energy to the water for steam generation.

Two methods used for burning of coal are:

1. Stoker firing: This method used for solid fuel.

2. Pulverized firing: This method used for pulverized coal.

Basic requirements of combustion equipment:

1. Through mixing of fuel and air.
2. Optimum fuel air ratio.
3. Continuous and reliable ignition of fuel.
4. Distillation of volatile components of coal.

Properties of coal:
1. Energy content or heating value.
2. Sulphur content.
3. Burning characteristics.
4. Grind ability.
5. Weather ability.
6. Ash softening temperature.

A good coal should have:

1. Low ash content and high calorific value.
2. Small percentage of sulphur (less than 1%).
3. Good burning characteristics. (i.e. should burn freely without agitation).
4. High grind ability.
5. High weather ability.

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Classification of combustion systems used for coal burning:

Hand firing system: The hand firing system is the simplest of fuel firing but it cannot be used in
modern power plants and it gives lower combustion efficiency.

Selection of burning of coal depends upon the following factors:

1. Characteristics of the coal available.
2. Capacity of the boiler unit.
3. Load fluctuations.
4. Station load factor.
5. Reliability and efficiency of the various types of combustion equipment
available.

Selection of combustion equipment for solid fuels:

1. Initial cost of the equipment.
2. Sufficient combustion space and its ability to withstand high flame temperature.
3. Area of the grate.
4. Operating cost.
5. Minimum smoke.
6. Flexibility of operation.
7. Arrangement for through mixing of air with fuel for efficient combustion.

Stoker: It is a power operated fuel feeding mechanism and grate.

Advantages of stoker firing:

1. A cheaper grade of fuel can be used.
2. A higher efficiency attained.
3. A greater flexibility of operation assured.
4. Less smoke produced.
5. Generally less building space is necessary.
6. Can be used for small or large boiler units.
7. Maintenance charges are reasonably low.

Disadvantages:

1. Construction is complicated.
2. Excessive wear of moving parts due to abrasive action of coal.

Classification of stoker firing:

Stokers are classified in to two types
1. Over feed stokers.
2. Under feed stokers.
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Over feed stoker: The coal is fed into the grate above the point of air admission.
Under feed stoker: The coal is admitted into the furnace below the point of air admission.

Principle of over feed stoker: The coal is fed on to the grate above the point of air admission.
The fuel bed receives fresh coal on top surface. The ignition plane lies between green coal and
incandescent coke. The pressurized air (with its water vapour content from atmosphere) coming
from forced draught fan (F.D) enters under bottom of the grate. The air passing through the grate
is heated by absorbing the heat from ash and grates itself, whereas the ash and grate are cooled.
The hot air then passes through a bed of incandescent coke. As the hot air passes through
incandescent coke, the O2 reacts with C to form CO2, all the O2 in the air disappears in the
incandescent region. The water vapour carried with air also reacts with C in incandescent region
of fuel bed consists of N2, CO2, H2 and H2O.
The gases leaving the upper surface of the fuel bed contain combustible volatile matter
formed from the raw fuel, N2, CO2, CO, H2and H2O. Additional secondary air is supplied at the
top of the bed to burn remaining combustible gases (volatile matter, CO, H 2). The secondary air
is supplied at a very high speed to crate turbulence which is required for complete combustion of
unburned gases. The burned gases entering the boiler contain N 2, CO2, O2 and H2O.

Fig. Principle of over feed stoker

Classification of over feed stoker:

1. Travelling grate stoker.
2. Spreader stoker.

1.Travelling grate stoker: The travelling grate stoker may be chain grate type or bar grate type.
The chain grate stoker consists of an endless chain which forms a sprocket wheels one at the
front and other at the rear of furnace as shown in figure. The front sprocket wheel is connected to
a variable speed drive mechanism. The speed of the stoker is 15cm to 50 cm per minute. The
coal is fed by gravity from a hopper located in front of the stoker. The depth of the fuel on the

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grate is regulated by hand adjusted grate. The ash containing combustible material is carried over
the rear end the stoker and deposited in the ash pit.
The air required for combustion is supplied through the air inlets situated below the grate.
The secondary air is supplied through the opening provided in the furnace wall above the grate as
shown in figure. The combination of primary air and secondary air supplied to provide
turbulence for rapid combustion. The coal supplied to the grate is regulated by two ways, as by
varying the depth of coal on the grate with the help of grate valve and by varying the rate of grate
travel. These grates are suitable for low rating of fuel because the fuel must be burn before it
reaches the rear end of the furnace. The rate burning with this stoker is 200 to 300 Kg/m 2/hr
when forced draught is used.

Fig. Travelling grate stoker

Advantages:
1. It is simple in construction.
2. Initial cost is low.
3. Maintenance charges are low.
4. Self-cleaning stoker.
5. The heat release rates can be controlled just by controlling the speed of chain.
6. It gives high heat release rates per unit volume of the furnace.
Disadvantages:
1. Preheated air temperature limited to 180oC.
2. Clinker troubles are very common.
3. Ignition arches are required.
4. This cannot used for high-capacity boilers.
5. There are always some losses of coal in the form of fine particles carried with the
ashes.

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2. Spreader stoker: This type of stoker the coal is not fed into furnace by means of grate. The
function of the grate is only to support a bed of ash and move it out of the furnace. The coal burn
on this stoker remains partly in suspension and partly on the grate. The spreader stoker consists
variable feeding device, a mechanism for throwing the coal uniformly on the grate. The coal
feeding and distributing mechanism located in the front of wall above the grate. The air for
combustion is supplied through the holes in the grate. Over fire or secondary air is supplied
through the nozzle as shown in figure. The secondary air creates high turbulence and completes
the combustion of volatile matter. The unburnt coal and ash are deposited on the grate which is
remove periodically. Both stationary as well as moving grates are used with spreader stoker.
Stationary grates are used upto 10 MW capacity plant while moving grates re used in the range
of 10 to 30 MW capacity plant.

Fig. Spreader stoker

Advantages:
1. A wide variety of coal can be burnt.
2. This stoker is simple to operate.
3. The use of high temperature preheated air is possible.
4. Operation cost is considerably low.
5. Volatile matter is easily burnt.
Disadvantages:
1. It is difficult to operate spreader with varying sizer.
2. Fly ash much more.
3. No remedy for clinker troubles.

Principle of underfeed stoker: The coal is admitted in to the furnace below the point of air
admission. Air entering through the holes in the grate comes in contact with coal (green coal).
The fuel releases the volatile matter mixes the fresh air and enters into the incandescent coke.

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Here the O2 react with C to form CO2. The water vapour carries the air also react with C to form
CO, CO2 and H2. The gases leaving the incandescent region consists of N2, CO2, H2 and H2O.
The gases leaving the upper surface of the incandescent coke contain combustible volatile matter
formed from the raw coal, N2, CO2, CO, H2 and H2O. Additional secondary air is supplied at the
top of the bed to burn remaining combustible gases (volatile matter + CO+H 2). The secondary air
is supplied at a very high speed to create turbulence which is required for complete combustion
of unburned gases. The unburned gases entering the boiler contains N2, CO 2, O2 and H2O.

Fig: Principle of under feed stoker

Classification of under feed stokers

1. Single retort stokers
2. Multi retort stokers.

Single retort stoker: The fuel is placed in large hopper on the front of the furnace, and then fed
by reciprocating ram or screw conveyor into the bottom of the horizontal trough. The air is
supplied through the tuyeres provided along the edge of the grate. The ash and clinker are
collected on the ash plate provided with dumping arrangement. The coal feeding capacity of a
single retort stoker varies from 100 to 200 kg/hr.

Multi retort stoker: It consists of a series of alternate retorts and tuyere boxes for supply of air.
Each retort is fitted with a reciprocating ram for feeding and pusher plates for uniform
distribution of coal. The coal falling from the hopper is pushed forward during inward stroke of
the stoker ram. Then the distributing ram push the entire coal down the length of the stoker. Ash
formed and collected another end. The number of retorts may vary from 2 to 20 with local
burning capacity ranging from 300 kg to 2000 kg per hour per retort. Forced draught for
maintaining sufficient air through the fuel bed. The primary air supplied to the fuel bed from
main wind box situated below the stoker.
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 Fig. Multi –retort under feed stoker
Advantages:
1. This gives higher thermal efficiency compared with chain grate stoker.
2. The combustion rate is considerably higher.
3. Different varieties of coal can be used with this type of stoker.
4. The grate is self-cleaning.
5. Smoke less operation.
6. Higher steaming rates.

Disadvantages:
1. High initial cost.
2. Requires large building space.
3. Low grade fuels with high ash content cannot be burn economically.

Pulverized fuel firing:

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In pulverized fuel firing system, the coal is reduced to a fine powder with the help of grinding
mill and then projected into the combustion chamber with the help of hot air. The amount of air
(secondary air) required to complete combustion is supplied separately to the combustion
chamber. The amount of air which is used to carry the coal and to dry it before entering into the
combustion chamber is known as ‘primary air’ and the amount of air which is supplied for
completing the combustion is known as ‘secondary air’. The efficiency of the pulverized fuel
firing system mostly depends upon the size of the powder. Pulverizes are driven by electric
motors with the feeders.
Advantages:
1. Any grade of coal can be used since coal is powdered before use.
2. Greater capacity to meet peak loads.
3. The rate of feed of the fuel can be regulated.
4. Practically no ash handling problem.
5. Smaller quantity of air is required as compared to that of stoker firing.
6. No moving parts in the furnace.
7. Practically free from clinker troubles.
8. The furnace volume required is considerably less.
Disadvantages:
1. High capital cost.
2. Lot of fly ash in the exhaust.
3. The skilled operators are required.
4. A separate coal preparation plant is necessary.
Classification of pulverized fuel handling system:
1. Unit system.
2. Central system.

1.Unit system:

Fig. Unit system

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Each burner or burner group and the pulverizes constitute a unit. Crushed coal is fed to the
pulverizing mill at variable rate governed by the combustion requirement of the boiler and
furnace. Primary air is admitted to the mill which carries the coal through the short delivery pipe
to the burner.
Advantages:
1. The layout is simple.
2. It is cheaper than central system.
3. Less space required.
4. Maintenance charges are less.
5. There is no complex transportation system.
Disadvantages:
1. The mills operate at variable load.
2. Flexibility is less than central system.
2.Central system:
Central pulverizing system employs a limited number of large capacity pulverizes at a central
point to prepare coal for all the burners, from the pulverized the coal is transported to a central
storage bin where it is deposited and its transporting air vented from the bin through a cyclone.
This bin may contain from 12 to 24 hours supply the pulverized coal.
Advantages:
1. Good control of coal fineness.
2. Less labor required.
3. Power consumption per ton of coal handled is low.
4. Fans handle only air.
Disadvantages:
1. Central preparation may require a separate building.
2. Additional cost and complexity of coal transportation system.
3. Power consumption of auxiliaries is high.

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Classification of pulverizes or mills:
1. Ball mills.
2. Ball and race mills.
3. Bowl mill.
4. Hammer mills.

Ball mill:

Fig. Ball mill

It consists of a slowly rotating drum (100 – 200 rpm) which is partly filled with steel balls. Raw
coal from feeders is supplied to the drum by means of a screw conveyor. As the drum rotates the
coal gets pulverized due to the combined impact between coal and steel balls. Hot air is
introduced into the drum. The coal air mixture from the drum moves to the exhauster fan and
then it is supplied to the burners.

Ball and race mill:

Fig: Ball and race mill

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In this mill the coal passes between the rotating elements again and again until it has been
pulverized to desired degree of fineness. The coal is crushed between two moving surfaces
namely balls and races. The upper stationary race and lower rotating race driven by a worm and
gear hold the balls between them. The raw coal supplied falls on the inner side of the races. The
moving balls and races catch coal between them to crush it to a powder. The necessary force
needed for crushing is applied with the help of springs. The hot air supplied picks up the coal
dust as it flows between the balls and races, and then enters the classifier. Where oversized coal
particles are returned for further grinding, whereas the coal particles of required size are
discharged from the top of classifier. In this mill coal is pulverized by a combination of'
crushing, impact and attrition between the grinding surfaces. Mill, feeder and fan require upto 14
kWh per ton of pulverized.

Bowl mill: The bowl mill grinds the coal between a whirling bowl and rolls mounted on pivoted
axes. coal fed into the centre is thrown by centrifugal force against the sides of the bowl where it
is pulverized between the sides of the bowl and grinding ring. It consumes about 5 kwh of
electricity per ton of coal.

Fig. Bowl mill

Hammer mill:

Fig. Hammer mill

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These mills have swinging hammer into the path of which is fed the coal to be pulverized. it is
compact, low cost and simple. Its maintenance is costly and the power consumption is high when
fine powder required. Its capacity limited.

Pulverized fuel burners:

classification of pulverized fuel burners:
1. Long flame burner.
2. Turbulent burner.
3. Tangential burner.
4. Cyclone burner.

1.Long flame burner:

Fig: Long flame burner

These are also called U- flame or steam lined burners. In this type of burner is floated on a
portion of air supply (primary air) and supplied to the burner in one stream. The flame produced
is stable, long and intense but it can be made short and intense by adding much secondary air.
Territory air enters through the burner and forms envelop around the primary air and fuel and
provides better mixing.

2.Turbulent burners (or) short flame burner:

This burner can fire horizontally. The fuel – air mixer and secondary hot air are arranged to pass
through the burner. High turbulence created before entering the furnace, the mixer burns
intensely and combustion is completed in short distance. The burner give high rate of
combustion compared with other types. This is generally preferred for high volatile coals.

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 Fig. Turbulent flame burner

Tangential burners:

Fig: Tangential burner

In this case four burners are located in the four corners of the furnace and are fired in such a way
that the four flames are tangentially to an imaginary circle formed at the centre.

Cyclone burner: It consists of horizontal cylindrical drum having diameter varying from 2 to 4
meters depending upon the capacity of the boiler. Depending upon the capacity of the burner the
number of cyclone burners used may be one or more. The cyclone burner receives crushed coal (
6 mm diameter maximum size) carried in primary air at the left end. Secondary air enters the

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furnace through tangential ports at the upper edge at high speed and creates a strong and highly
turbulent vortex.

Fig. Cyclone burner

Advantages:
1. Reduce the percentage of excess air.
2. High furnace temperature.
3. Boiler efficiency increased.
4. Combustion rates can be controlled.

Ash handling system: Huge quantity of ash is produced in central stations, 10 to 20% of the
total quantity of coal burnt a day. Hundreds of tons of ash may have to be handled every day in
large power stations.

Problems of ash handling:

 Ash coming out of the furnace is too hot.
 It is dust and irritating to handle.
 It is accompanied by some poisonous gas.

Purpose of quenching:
 Quenching reduces corrosion action of the ash.
 It reduces the dust accompanying the ash.
 It reduces the temperature of the ash.

19. Requirements of good ash handling plant:

 It should have enough capacity to cope with the volume of ash.
 It should be able to handle hot and wet ash effectively with good speed.
 The plant should not cost much.
 The operation charges should be minimum.
 The plant should be able to operate effectively.
 The operation of the plant should be noiseless.
 The plant should have high rate of handling.

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20. Ash handling systems:
 Mechanical Handling system.
 Hydraulic system.
(a) low pressure hydraulic system.
(b) high pressure hydraulic system.
 Pneumatic system.
 Steam jet system.

20.1 Mechanical handling system:

Fig: Mechanical ash handling system

This system used for low capacity power plants using coal as fuel. The hot ash coming out of
boiler furnace is made to drop over the belt conveyor through a water seal. The ash is carried to
dumping site from the ash bunker with the help of trucks. The life of the system is 5 to 10 years.
The maximum capacity is 5 tons per hour. This system is low power consumption.

20.2 Hydraulic ash handling system:

(A) Low pressure system:

This system a trough or drain is provided below the boiler and water is made to flow through the
drain. The ash directly falls in to the drain and is carried by water to sumps. In the sump the ash
and water are made to pass through a screen so that water is separated from ash. The water is
pumped back to the drain for reuse and ash is removed to the dumping yard.

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(B) High Pressure system:

Fig: high pressure hydraulic system

The hoppers below the boiler are fitted with water nozzle at the top and on the sides. The top
nozzle quench the ash and the side nozzle provide the driving force. The cooled ash is carried to
the sump through the drain. The water again separated from ash and re circulated. The ash
carrying capacity is 120 tones per hour, suitable for large thermal power plants. The distance
covered is 1000 meters.

20.3 Pneumatic system: This system can handle abrasive ash as well as fine dusty material such
as fly ash and soot. The exhauster provided at the discharge end creates high velocity stream.
The exhauster picks up ash and dust from all discharge points. Ash and dust are carried in the
conveyor pipe to the point of delivery. The ash collected in the ash hopper is passed through the
ash crusher in to the air stream. The ash carried out by the air is separated into the primary and
secondary separator working on cyclone principle. Ash is collected in the ash hopper. The clean
air is discharged from the top of the secondary air separator into the atmosphere through
exhauster. The ash carrying capacity of this system varies from 5 to 30 tons per hour.

The exhauster used may be mechanical as induced draught fan or stream jet type or water jet
type. The mechanical exhauster is prepared where large tonnage of material are to be conveyed.
The steam jet exhauster is commonly used for small and medium size plants. The water jet
exhauster may be used more economically.
Advantages:
No spillage and re handling
High flexibility

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 Material can be discharged freely by gravity
Dust less operation
The cost of the plant per ton of ash discharged is less in comparison to other systems.

Disadvantages:
There is large amount of wear in the pipe work.
High maintenance charges
More noisy than other systems.

20.4 Steam jet system:

High pressure steam is passed in the direction of ash travel through a conveying pipe. The ash
from the boiler is deposited in the ash hopper.
Advantages:
Less space requirement
Less capital cost in comparison to other system
Auxiliary drive is not required
Ash can be removed economically
This system through a horizontal distance of 200 meters and through a vertical distance
of 30 meters.

Disadvantages:
Noisy operation
The capacity of the system is limited to 15 tons per hour.
Greater wear of pipes varying ash due to abrasive action of ash

Dust collection: The major emissions from thermal power stations are fly ash, carbon
ash(cinder), smoke, dust and irritating vapour like CO, SO 2 and nitrogen oxides.
Removal of smoke: smoke is produced due to the incomplete combustion of fuels. Smoke
particles are less than 1 micron in size. The smoke disposal to the atmosphere is not desirable
because this will create a big economic loss due to loss of heating value of coal, atmosphere is
unhealthy, corrodes the metals and darkens the paints.
Classifications of dust collectors:
Dust collectors may be classified as:
1. Mechanical dust collectors
(i) Wet type (scrubbers)
(a) Spray type.
(b) Packed type.
(c) Impingement type.
(ii) Dry type.
(a) Gravitational separators.
(b) Cyclone separators.
2. Electrical dust collectors.
(i) Rod type.
(ii) Plate type.

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1.Mechanical dust collectors:
a. Enlarging the dust cross sectional area to slow down the gas gives the heavier
particles a chance to settle out.
b. When gas makes a sharp change in flow directions, the heavier particles tend to keep
going in the original direction.
c. Impingement baffles have more effect on the solid particles than the gas, helping
them to settle out.

Fig. principles used in dust collection.

2. Wet type dust collectors: wet type dust collectors operate with water sprays to wash dust
from the air.
3. Dry type dust collectors: it is commonly used dust collectors.
4. Gravitational separator: These collectors act by slowing down gas flow so that particles
remain in chamber. They are not suitable because of large chamber volume needed.
5. Cyclone separator:

Fig. cyclone separator

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a high velocity gas stream carrying dust particles enters at high velocity and tangential to the
conical shell as shown in figure. this produces whirling motion of the gas within the chamber and
through heavier dust particles to the sides and fall out of gas stream and are collected at the
bottom of the collector. The gas from the conical shell is passed through the secondary chamber.
Advantages:
1. Rugged in construction.
2. Maintenance costs are relatively low.
3. Efficiency increases with increase in load.
4. Easy to remove bigger size particles.
Disadvantages:
1. Requires more power than other collectors.
2. Less flexible.
3. High pressure loss comparatively.
4. As the fineness of the dust particle increases its collection efficiency decreases.

Electrostatic precipitator (ESP): The electrostatic precipitator are extensively used in removal
of fly ash from electric utility boiler emissions. The basic elements of an electrostatic precipitator
are.

(i) Source of high voltage.

(ii) Ionizing and collecting electrodes.
(iii) Dust removal mechanism.
(iv) Shell to house the elements.

Fig. Electrostatic precipitator (ESP)

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The precipitator has two sets of electrodes, insulated from each other, that maintain an
electrostatic field between them at high voltage. Dust particles that pass through it, attracting
them to the electrode of opposite charge. The high voltage system maintains a negative potential
of 30,000 to 60,000 volts with the collecting electrodes grounded. The collecting electrodes have
a large contact surface. Accumulated dust falls of the electrode.

Advantages:
1. Can effectively remove very small particles like smoke, mist and fly ash.
2. Easy operation.
3. Most effective for high dust loaded gas.
4. Dust is collected in dry form.
5.
Disadvantages:
1. Space requirement is more.
2. Running charges are considerably high.
3. Capital cost of equipment is high.

Dust collection device should satisfy the following conditions:

1. The equipment should be simple and sound in construction.
2. It must give high operating efficiency.
3. They should have long life.
4. It should occupy minimum building space.
5. The operating and maintenance charges should low.
6. Capital investment should be minimum.
7. It must be able to remove very fine ash.

Necessity of cooling the condenser water:

The cooling water system is one of the most important systems of power plant. As the
cooling water takes the latent heat of steam in the condenser, the temperature of the water
increases. The hot water coming out of the condenser cannot be used again in a closed system
without pre cooling because the hot water coming out if used again will not be able to absorb the
heat as reaches near to saturation temperature of steam ay condenser pressure and the condenser
vacuum cannot be maintained. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to pre cool the water coming
out of condenser before using again.

The cooling water supply is made by the following sources:

1. River or sea.
2. Cooling ponds.
3. Spray ponds.
4. Cooling towers.

River or sea: In this system, the water is drawn directly from upstream side of the river, pumped
through the condensers and then discharged to the down word side of the river at temperature 5
to 10oC excess of the inlet temperature. The position of inlet and outlet should choose in such a

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way that they should not be recirculation of hot water which impairs the efficiency of the
condensing plant. Such recirculation is possible in small rivers and canals therefore the distance
between the inlet and discharge points should be large one kilometer or more. This type of
cooling system can be used only where required quantity of water is available throughout the
year.

Fig. River water cooling system

Cooling ponds: The cooling ponds are the simplest of the device for re cooling of the cooling
water. The cooling pond is suitable where sufficient supply of circulating water is not available.
In case the amount of cooling water to be cooled is very large, as in the case of large power
plants, the cooling ponds will have to be made very large thus making it prohibitive for large
power plants therefore spray ponds should be used. The depth of cooling pond should be around
one meter.

Fig. cooling pond

Spray ponds: in this system hot water received from the condenser is sprayed through the
nozzles over a pond of large area and cooling effect is mainly due to evaporation from the

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surface of water. The spacing of the nozzle in a spray pond depends upon the design and design
of the nozzles.

Fig. spray pond

Disadvantages of cooling and spray ponds:
1. A considerably large area required for cooling.
2. High spray losses.
3. No control over the temperature of cooled water.
4. Low cooling efficiency compared with cooling tower.

Cooling towers: In power plants the hot water from the condenser is cooled in cooling tower, so
that it can be reused in condenser for condensation of steam. In a cooling tower is made to trickle
down drop by drop so that it comes in contact with the air moving in the opposite direction. As a
result of this some water is evaporated and is taken away with air. In evaporation the heat is
taken away from the bulk of water, which is thus cooled.

Factors effecting of water in a cooling tower are:

1. Temperature of air.
2. Humidity of air.
3. Temperature of hot water.
4. Size and height of tower.
5. Velocity of air entering tower.

The cooling water may also classify as follows:

1. Natural draught cooling towers.
2. Mechanical draught cooling towers.
(i) Forced draught cooling towers.
(ii) Induced draught cooling towers.

1. Natural draught cooling tower: The hot water from the condenser is pumped to the troughs
and nozzles situated near the bottom. Troughs spray the water falls in the form of droplets into a

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pond situated at the bottom of the tower. The air enters the cooling tower from air openings
provided near the base, rises upward and takes up the heat of falling water.

Fig. Natural draught cooling tower

Advantages over mechanical tower:
(i) Low operating and maintenance cost.
(ii) It gives more or less trouble-free operation.
(iii) Considerably less ground area required.
(iv) The towers may be as high as 125 m and 100m in diameter at the base with
capacity of withstanding winds of very high speed.

Disadvantages over mechanical tower:

(i) High initial cost.

(ii) Its performance varies with the seasonal changes in DBT and RH of air.

2. Mechanical draught cooling towers: In this tower the draught of air for cooling tower is
produced mechanically by means of propeller fans.

Advantages:
1. Towers require a small land area and can be built at most locations.
2. The fan give a good control over the air flow and thus the water temperature.
3. Less costly to install than natural draught towers.

Disadvantages:
1. Fan power requirement and maintenance costs make them more expensive to
operate.

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(i)Forced draught cooling tower:

It is similar to natural draught tower but the sides of the tower are closed and from an air and
water tight structure. The fan is located at the base of the tower for the inlet of fresh air and the
outlet at the top for the exit of air and vapours.

Fig. Forced draught cooling tower

Advantages:
1. More efficient than induced draught.
2. No problem of fan blade erosion.
3. Safer.
4. The vibration and noise are minimum.

Disadvantages:
1. The fan size is limited to 4 meters.
2. Power requirement high.
3. In the cold weather, ice is formed.

(ii)Induced draught cooling towers:

Fig. Induced draught cooling towers

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In this tower the fan is located at the top of the tower and air enters through the louvers located
on the towers side as shown in fig.
Advantages:
1. Less space required.
2. This tower is capable of cooling through a wide range.

Disadvantages:
1. Higher H.P motor is required to drive the fan.

Feed water treatment:

For steam power plants water is one of the most important raw materials. In most of the
cases, water is used for steam power plants contains impurities which must be treated before use.
All-natural water even rain snow hail, treated municipal supplies contain impurities in one form
or the other.

Classification of impurities in water:

1. Visible impurities.
(i) Microbiological growth.
(ii) Turbidity and sediments.
2. Dissolved gases.
(i) Carbon dioxide.
(ii) Oxygen.
(iii) Nitrogen.
(iv) Methane.
(v) Hydrogen sulphide.
3. Minerals and salts:
(i) Iron and manganese.
(ii) Sodium and potassium salts.
(iii) Fluorides.
(iv) Silica.
4. Mineral acids.
5. Hardness.

Troubles caused by the impurities in water:

1. Scale formation.
2. Corrosion.
3. Carryover.
4. Embrittlement.
1.Scale formation: The formation of scale reduces heat transfer and simultaneously raises the
temperature of the metal wall. When temperature of boiler tube material reaches 450 oC to 500oC,
there is a serious danger of overheating and consequently ruptures boiler plates.

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2.Corrosion: The corrosion is the eating away process of boiler metal, corrosion ultimately
makes metals parts fail. The corrosion of metal surfaces can be prevented by applying protecting
coating.
3.Carryover: Water solids carried over in the steam leaving a boiler drum are called carryover.
This may be caused by excessive steaming rate, too high or fluctuating a water level and
improper boiler water circulation. This can be checked by taking the following precautions.
(i) Valves not to be opened suddenly to maximum.
(ii) Water level in the boiler should be at its minimum possible level.
(iii) The boiler water should not contain oil, soap and other suspended impurities.

4.Embrittlement: The caustic embrittlement is the weakening of boiler steel as a result of inner
crystalline cracks.

Some of the methods to control embrittlement are listed below:

1. Elimination of free sodium hydroxide from boiler water.
2. Maintenance of a definite ratio of sodium nitrate to sodium hydroxide.

Methods of feed water treatment:

1. Mechanical treatment
(i) Sedimentation: In this process the water is allowed to stand at stand still in big
tanks so that solid matter settle down. It could be removed from the bottom either
periodically or continuously. Clear water is then drained out from the tank surface.

(ii) Coagulation: coagulation of minute colloidal suspensions make them settle out
easily. Adding a coagulation like aluminum sulphate or sodium aluminate improves
sedimentation or filtration process.

(iii) Filtration: the suspended matter which cannot be removed during sedimentation
are removed with the help of filtration. In case of pressure filter the water is forced
through the filter by means of a pump whereas gravity filter the water is flows by gravity.
(iv) Interior painting.

2. Thermal treatment.
(i) Deaeration: The process of removing dissolved oxygen is known as deaeration.
This is done in deaerating heaters. If water is heated to a temperature of about 110 oC with
subsequent agitation, the dissolved oxygen is expelled.

(ii) Distillation by evaporators: Evaporators are required where the makeup water
percentage is small up to 4 percent. An evaporator system may be single effect where
steam is produced from one evaporator or multiple effect in which stream is produced
from several evaporators in series.

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3. Chemical treatment.

(i) Lime soda softening process: This process uses calcium hydroxide (lime) and
sodium carbonate (soda ash), to remove dissolved calcium and magnesium salt, by
precipitating them.

(ii) Ion exchange process.

(a) Sodium zeolite process: This process removes various ions from the water
replacing them with other ions of like charge.
(b) Hydrogen zeolite process: This method used to exchange the hydrogen ions for
cations as calcium and magnesium.

4. Demineralization:
The mineral content of water may be removed by evaporation or by series of cation and anion
exchangers to produce essentially distilled water. Demineralization is the most economical
method of producing make up water for high pressure boilers.

5. Blow down:
There may be some dissolved solids in the water entering the boiler. As the water gets
evaporated the concentration of these solids goes on increasing. The concentration of these solids
can be reduced by drawing off some of the quantity of the boiler water from the bottom of boiler
drain.

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