V12 - MA 203 Complex Analysis

Complex Analysis and Dierential Equations II Course Code: MA 203 Programme: B.Tech.
Complex Analysis and Dierential

Equations II
Course Code: MA 203
Programme: B.Tech.
Department of Mathematics
Indian Institute of Technology Indore
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Contents
1 Syllabus
2 Evaluation
3 Complex number: Origin
4 Real vs complex
5 Applications of complex analysis
6 Complex number: Review
7 Points and sets
8 Complex functions
9 Analytic functions
10 Harmonic functions
11 Elementary functions
12 Complex Integration
13 Cauchy Integral Theorem
14 Cauchy-Goursat's theorem for multiply connected domain
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Syllabus
Syllabus-Distribution of contents
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Syllabus
Before mid-semester
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Syllabus
Before mid-semester
1 Dr. Bapan Ghosh:
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Syllabus
Before mid-semester
1 Dr. Bapan Ghosh: First part-complex Analysis
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Syllabus
Before mid-semester
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Syllabus
Before mid-semester
2 Dr. Santanu Manna:
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Syllabus
Before mid-semester
2 Dr. Santanu Manna: Ordinary Dierential Equations part
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Syllabus
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Syllabus
After mid-semester
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Syllabus
After mid-semester
1 Dr. Vinay Kumar Gupta:
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Syllabus
After mid-semester
1 Dr. Vinay Kumar Gupta: Partial Dierential Equations part
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Syllabus
After mid-semester
2 Dr. Aquil Khan:
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Syllabus
After mid-semester
2 Dr. Aquil Khan: Second part-complex Analysis
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Evaluation
Evaluation
Tentative Evaluation Plan (out of 100 Marks)

1 Internal evaluation-Before mid-semester: 15 Marks
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Evaluation

It can be any combination of Assignment, Class test, Viva, etc.
based on the declaration by the instructors.
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Evaluation

2 Mid-semester: 35 Marks
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Evaluation

2 Mid-semester: 35 Marks
3 End-semester: 50 Marks
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Evaluation
Complex Analysis
LECTURE 1
July 27, 2022
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Evaluation
BOOKS
1 E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley
& Sons.
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Evaluation
BOOKS
& Sons.
2 R.V. Churchill and J.W. Brown, Complex Variables and
Applications, McGraw-Hill Inc.
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Evaluation
BOOKS
& Sons.
3 M.J. Ablowitz and A.S. Fokas, Complex Variables:
Introduction and Applications, Cambridge University Press.
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Evaluation
BOOKS
& Sons.
4 J.M. Howie, Complex Analysis, Springer-Verlag.
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Evaluation
BOOKS
& Sons.
4 J.M. Howie, Complex Analysis, Springer-Verlag.
5 S. Ponnusamy, H. Silverman Complex Variable with
Applications, Birkhaser.
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Complex number: Origin

1 Assume that we know the denition of integer number.
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Does 5x = 3 have an integer solution?
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Does 5x = 3 have an integer solution? NO
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2 To obtain a solution of the above we need an extension of
integer numbers.
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integer numbers.
3 Consider the set R of real number. Then the above equation
has a solution.
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integer numbers.
has a solution.
4 Note that R = {x : x 2 ≥ 0}.
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integer numbers.
has a solution.
4 Note that R = {x : x 2 ≥ 0}.
5 Does x 2 = −1 have a solution on R?
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integer numbers.
has a solution.
4 Note that R = {x : x 2 ≥ 0}.
5 Does x 2 = −1 have a solution on R? NO
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integer numbers.
has a solution.
4 Note that R = {x : x 2 ≥ 0}.
5 Does x 2 = −1 have a solution on R? NO
6 Like before, we need to extend our number system to obtain a
solution.
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Complex number
√
1 Euler: was the rst to use the symbol i for −1.
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Complex number
√
2 Gauss (1831): He provided a geometric representation of
complex number z = x + iy with the coordinate point (x, y ) in
the plane. This is what we use today.
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Complex number
√
2 Gauss (1831): He provided a geometric representation of
complex number z = x + iy with the coordinate point (x, y ) in
the plane. This is what we use today.
3 Gauss was in favor to call such number as "complex number".
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Real vs complex
Motivations: Real number vs complex number
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Real vs complex
Real number vs complex number

1 Note R is the set of all real numbers.
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Real vs complex

2 C is the set of all complex number->
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Real vs complex

2 C is the set of all complex number-> xy -plane.
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Real vs complex

2 C is the set of all complex number-> xy -plane.
3 Result: C cannot be totally ordered in consistence with the
usual order on R.
Explanation
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Real vs complex
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Real vs complex

1 Note
R∗ := R ∪ {−∞, ∞}
is called the extended real number system.
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Real vs complex

1 Note
R∗ := R ∪ {−∞, ∞}
2 Ĉ := C ∪ {∞} is called the extended complex number system.
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Real vs complex

1 Note
R∗ := R ∪ {−∞, ∞}
3 There is only one innity in the extended complex number
system.
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Real vs complex

1 Note
R∗ := R ∪ {−∞, ∞}
system.
4 We dene it as |z| → ∞ or z → ∞.
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Real vs complex

1 Note
R∗ := R ∪ {−∞, ∞}
system.
4 We dene it as |z| → ∞ or z → ∞.
5 Innite in complex plane means that we are travelling far away
from the origin in any direction.
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Real vs complex
Complex Analysis
LECTURE 2
July 28, 2022
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Real vs complex
Real function vs complex function
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Real vs complex

1 We know real functions.
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Real vs complex

2 There are two terminologies for complex function:
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Real vs complex


1 Complex function with real variable
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Real vs complex


2 Example:
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Real vs complex


2 Example:
3 Complex function with complex variable.
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Real vs complex


2 Example:
4 Example:
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Real vs complex


2 Example:
4 Example:
3 In this particular discussion we mean complex function by

Complex function with complex variable. .
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Real vs complex
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Real vs complex

1 A real, non-constant, smooth function (derivatives of all order
exist) on R could be bounded or unbounded.
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Real vs complex

(i) Bounded f (x) = sin x , (ii) unbounded f (x) = exp(x).
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Real vs complex

2 Any non-constant complex function (whose derivatives of all

order exist) on C is ALWAYS unbounded.
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Real vs complex

2 Any non-constant complex function (whose derivatives of all

order exist) on C is ALWAYS unbounded.
3 Here, boundedness of a complex function f (z) means |f (z)| is
unbounded.
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Real vs complex
1 If the rst derivative of a real function exists on R, we

CANNOT claim that all higher order derivative exist on R.
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Real vs complex

Example f (x) = x 3/2 ,
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Real vs complex

Example f (x) = x 3/2 , rst derivative exists,
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Real vs complex

Example f (x) = x 3/2 , rst derivative exists, but higher
derivatives do not exist at x = 0.
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Real vs complex

Example f (x) = x 3/2 , rst derivative exists, but higher
derivatives do not exist at x = 0.
2 If the rst derivative of any complex function exists on C, then

all order derivatives must exist on C.
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Real vs complex
Domain, co-domain and range

We recall the above ideas from real function to discuss the next...
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Real vs complex
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Real vs complex
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Real vs complex

exist) on R, then the range of f can leave innitely many
values from R.
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Real vs complex

values from R.
2 Example: Range of f (x) = exp(x) doe not contain the
negative real axis.
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Real vs complex

values from R.
negative real axis.
3 The range of any non-constant complex function (derivatives
of all order exist) on C, can leave at most one value.
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Real vs complex

values from R.
negative real axis.
of all order exist) on C, can leave at most one value. This is
called Picard's Little Theorem (Emile Picard, at the age of 22,
1856-1941).
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Real vs complex

values from R.
negative real axis.
1856-1941).
4 Examples: Polynomial
P(C) = sin(C) = cos(C) = sinh(C) = cosh(C) = C
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Real vs complex

values from R.
negative real axis.
1856-1941).
4 Examples: Polynomial
P(C) = sin(C) = cos(C) = sinh(C) = cosh(C) = C
5 But e (C) = (C) − {0}.
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Real vs complex
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Applications of complex analysis
ApplicationsWhy do we study?
1 Of course, we need to utilize imaginary number to nd zeros of

polynomial.
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polynomial.
2 We can easily determine many complicated real integrations
using the concepts of complex integration techniques.
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polynomial.
using the concepts of complex integration techniques. For
instance,
Z ∞
1 π
r
2
sin(t )dt = .
0 2 2
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polynomial.
using the concepts of complex integration techniques. For
instance,
Z ∞
1 π
r
2
sin(t )dt = .
0 2 2
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1 We can determine the inverse Laplace transform using complex
inversion formula.
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inversion formula.
2 Generally, we memorize the Laplace transform F (s) of a given

function f (t).
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inversion formula.

function f (t). Then then we recall the inverse Laplace
transform f (t) for a given and known F (s).
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inversion formula.

transform f (t) for a given and known F (s). But what would
be the inverse Laplace transform of any arbitrary expression
F (s)?
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inversion formula.

F (s)? We need to the learn the above theorem.
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inversion formula.

F (s)? We need to the learn the above theorem.
3 Many theorems (including prime number theorem) in number

theory can be proved using complex analysis.
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Complex number: Review
Complex number-Review
1 A complex number denoted by z is an ordered pair (x, y ) with

x ∈ R, y ∈ R.
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x ∈ R, y ∈ R.
2 Also we write z = x + iy .
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x ∈ R, y ∈ R.
3 For z = (x, y ), x and y are respectively called the real and
imaginary part of z .
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x ∈ R, y ∈ R.
4 In symbolically, Re(z) = x and Im(z) = y.
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x ∈ R, y ∈ R.
4 In symbolically, Re(z) = x and Im(z) = y.
5 The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C.
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Operations on complex number

1 Addition of two complex numbers is dened as follows:
(a, b) + (c, d) := (a + c, b + d).
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(a, b) + (c, d) := (a + c, b + d).
2 Multiplication of complex numbers is dened as
(a, b)(c, d) := (ac − bd, bc + ad).
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(a, b) + (c, d) := (a + c, b + d).
2 Multiplication of complex numbers is dened as
(a, b)(c, d) := (ac − bd, bc + ad).
3 One can easily verify

1 z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 .
2 z1 z2 = z2 z1 .
3 z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 .
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1 Inverse of a non-zero complex number is dened as:
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1 1 x − iy
= = 2 .
z x + iy x + y2
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1 1 x − iy
= = 2 .
z x + iy x + y2
2 We can dene division of complex numbers
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1 1 x − iy
= = 2 .
z x + iy x + y2
2 We can dene division of complex numbers

x1 + iy1 x2 − iy2 (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 − x1 y2 )
= (x1 +iy1 ) = .
x2 + iy2 x22 + y22 x22 + y22
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1 Equal complex numbers: Two complex numbers (x1 , y1 ) and

(x2 , y2 ) are said to be equal if both their real parts and
imaginary parts are equal.
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1 Equal complex numbers: Two complex numbers (x1 , y1 ) and

(x2 , y2 ) are said to be equal if both their real parts and
imaginary parts are equal.
2 Mathematically,
(x1 , y1 ) = (x2 , y2 ) if and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .
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Complex plane
1 For any complex number z = x + iy there is a unique ordered

pair (x, y ) in the xy -plane.
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Complex plane

2 Thus, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the
complex number z = x + iy and the point (x, y ).
3 We refer to xy -plane as the complex plane or the z -plane.
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Complex plane

4 x -axis is called the real axis.
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Complex plane

4 x -axis is called the real axis.
5 y -axis is called the imaginary axis.
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Complex conjugate
1 The complex conjugate z of a given complex number
z = x + iy is dened by
z = x − iy .
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Complex conjugate
1 The complex conjugate z of a given complex number
z = x + iy is dened by
z = x − iy .
2 z is just the reection of the point z wrt x -axis.

3 The following properties are easy to prove:
1 Re(z) = 21 (z + z) and Im(z) = 21i (z − z).
2 z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 .
3 z1 z2 = z1 z2 , and hence for a real number α, αz = αz .
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Magnitude or modulus
1 We know z = x + iy represents a point (x, y ) in the plane.
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2 Each point (x, y ) determines a two dimension vector with
(0, 0) as the initial point and (x, y ) as the terminal point.
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3 Addition rule of vectors is also then valid for complex numbers.
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Magnitude or modulus of z is dened as |z| = x 2 + y 2
p
4
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Magnitude or modulus of z is dened as |z| = x 2 + y 2
p
4
5 We have triangle inequalities:
|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |,

|z1 − z2 | ≥ ||z1 | − |z2 ||.
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Polar form of complex numbers

1 Ok, we know the magnitude of the vector z .
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2 Then what about its direction?
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3 On the other hand, if we know the magnitude and direction,
we'll be able to determine z uniquely.
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4 To nd the direction we determine an angle corresponding to
given z .
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given z .
5 To measure the angle we have to x another vector.
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given z .
5 To measure the angle we have to x another vector.
6 Conventionally, we x positive x -axis as the initial vector.
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1 Let z = x + iy be a non-zero complex number.
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2 Its Cartesian form is (x, y )
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3 We know the polar representation of (x, y ) as
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ
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4 Our aim is to nd r and θ for a give complex number.
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Easy to check that r = x 2 + y 2 - a unique value
p
5
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p
5
6 Ok, let us encounter the trouble to determine θ.
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p
5
6 Ok, let us encounter the trouble to determine θ.
7 Chose z = 1 − i .
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√
1 Here r = 2.
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√
1 Here r = 2.
2 We have to chose θ such that
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√
1 Here r = 2.
√ √
1 = 2 cos θ and −1= 2 sin θ.
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√
1 Here r = 2.
√ √
1 = 2 cos θ and − 1 = 2 sin θ.
3π π

π
3 What happens if we choose θ = + and − ?
2 4 4
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√
1 Here r = 2.
√ √
1 = 2 cos θ and − 1 = 2 sin θ.
3π π

π
3 What happens if we choose θ = + and − ?
2 4 4
4 Both values work. Very confusing to x θ uniquely.
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Figure: 3: Two angles.
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1 Which angle should we choose?.
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2 We now dene two measure/quantities of angle (in radian):
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(i) Arg(z )
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(i) Arg(z )called principal argument
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(i) Arg(z )called principal argument a unique vale
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(ii) arg(z )
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(ii) arg(z )called argument
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(ii) arg(z )called argument multi-valued function
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3 We dene Arg (z) = θ ∈ (−π, π]. This is a unique
measurement for a given z
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3 We dene Arg (z) = θ ∈ (−π, π]. This is a unique
measurement for a given z
4 arg (z) = θ + 2kπ, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ... (Why 2kπ ?)
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Problems
π
1 Arg(−5i )=−
2
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Problems
π
1 Arg(−5i )=−
2
3π
2 Arg(−1 + i )=
4
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Problems
π
1 Arg(−5i )=−
2
3π
2 Arg(−1 + i )=
4
3π
3 Arg(−1 − i )=−
4
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Problems
π
1 Arg(−5i )=−
2
3π
2 Arg(−1 + i )=
4
3π
3 Arg(−1 − i )=−
4
√ 2π
4 Arg(−1 + 3i )=−
3
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Complex Analysis
LECTURE 3
July 29, 2022
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Problems
Let zk = rk (cos θk + i sin θk ), k = 1, 2, . . . , n. Show that
1 z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )].
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Problems
Very straight forward
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Problems
2 z1 z2 · · · zn =
r1 r2 · · · rn [cos(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θn ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θn )].
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Problems
2 z1 z2 · · · zn =
r1 r2 · · · rn [cos(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θn ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θn )].
Use method of induction
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De Moiver's formula
1 De Moiver's formula:-1722
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De Moiver's formula
1 De Moiver's formula:-1722If z = r (cos θ + i sin θ), then

any n (an integer),
z n = [r (cos θ + i sin θ)]n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ).
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De Moiver's formula

any n (an integer),
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De Moiver's formula

any n (an integer),
2 Generally, De Moiver's formula is invalid for non integer n.

Give an example.
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De Moiver's formula

any n (an integer),
2 Generally, De Moiver's formula is invalid for non integer n.

Give an example.
3 Sometimes, De Moiver's formula is dened with r = 1.
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Applications of De Moiver's theorem

1 Easily we can determine the higher power of a complex
number.
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Applications of De Moiver's theorem

1 Easily we can determine the higher power of a complex
number.
2 Plays an important role in nding explicit expressions for the

nth roots of unity.
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Power of a complex number-Application of De Moiver's

theorem
Figure: 4: Geometrical view of power of 2i

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Root nding
Problem: For a given complex number z0 and n ∈ N, determine all
values of z satisfying z n = z0 .
Check the following example and do by yourself :
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Root nding
Determine all values of z such that z 3 = −1.
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Root nding
1 Agr(-1)=π .
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Root nding
1 Agr(-1)=π .
2 Set z = r (cos θ + i sin θ).
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Root nding
1 Agr(-1)=π .
3 z 3 = r 3 (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ)
4 Thus, z 3 = −1 = 1. cos(π + 2kπ) + i sin(π + 2kπ),
k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
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Root nding
1 Agr(-1)=π .
3 z 3 = r 3 (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ)
k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
5 r 3 (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ) = cos(π + 2kπ) + i sin(π + 2kπ)
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Root nding
1 Agr(-1)=π .
3 z 3 = r 3 (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ)
k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
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Root nding
1 Agr(-1)=π .
3 z 3 = r 3 (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ)
k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
π + 2kπ
6 r = 1 and θ = , k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
3
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Root nding
1 Agr(-1)=π .
3 z 3 = r 3 (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ)
k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
π + 2kπ
6 r = 1 and θ = , k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
3
π + 2kπ π + 2kπ

7 zk = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2.
3 3
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Root nding
1 Agr(-1)=π .
3 z 3 = r 3 (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ)
k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
π + 2kπ
6 r = 1 and θ = , k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
3
π + 2kπ π + 2kπ

7 zk = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2.
3 3
8 We have only three distinct values of z .
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Location of roots
Figure: 5: Geometrical view of the roots.
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Finding nth roots of number z 0
1 Finding nth roots of number z0 means we have to nd the

solution of z n = z0
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1/n
2 In notation, it is also written as z = z0
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1/n
1/n
3 If it is asked to nd the values of z0 , then we basically nd
the nth roots of z0
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1/n
1/n
3 If it is asked to nd the values of z0 , then we basically nd
the nth roots of z0
4 I suggest to read (books) about the location of roots
(geometrical view) on the complex plane.
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Points and sets
Geometrical representation of sets or regions in C

1 Sets are very important to dene domain, codomain, and
range of complex functions.
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Points and sets

2 Sets and points in sets also help to dene limit, continuity and
dierentiability.
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Points and sets

dierentiability.
3 Straight line: Rez = Imz represents the straight line y = x.
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Points and sets

dierentiability.
4 General equation of straight line: az + az + b = 0, where
a is a complex number and b is a real number.
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Points and sets

dierentiability.
a is a complex number and b is a real number. Establish it.
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Points and sets

dierentiability.
a is a complex number and b is a real number. Establish it.
|z − z0 | = 2 =⇒ (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 = 2. The subset of
p
5
points z consists of the points on the circle with center at
z0 = (x0 , y0 ) and radius r = 2.
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Points and sets
Open disk
The collection of z satisfying |z − z0 | < 2 represents the subset
consisting of the points (red points) inside the circle with center at
z0 = (x0 , y0 ) and radius r = 2.
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Points and sets
Open disk
The collection of z satisfying |z − z0 | < 2 represents the subset
consisting of the points (red points) inside the circle with center at
z0 = (x0 , y0 ) and radius r = 2.
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Points and sets
Closed disk
The collection of z satisfying |z − z0 | ≤ 2 represents the subset
consisting of the points inside (red points) and on the circle (blue
points) the circle with center at z0 = (x0 , y0 ) and radius r = 2.
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Points and sets
Closed disk
The collection of z satisfying |z − z0 | ≤ 2 represents the subset
consisting of the points inside (red points) and on the circle (blue
points) the circle with center at z0 = (x0 , y0 ) and radius r = 2.
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Points and sets
Annulus
The collection of z satisfying 1 < |z − z0 | < 3 represents an

annulus.
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Points and sets
Annulus
The collection of z satisfying 1 < |z − z0 | < 3 represents an

annulus.
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Points and sets
Punctured disk
1 The collection of z satisfying 0 < |z − z0 | < 2 represents an
punctured disk
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Points and sets
Punctured disk
punctured disk
2 The subset contains all points of |z − z0 | < 2 except z0 .
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Points and sets
Punctured disk
punctured disk
2 The subset contains all points of |z − z0 | < 2 except z0 .
3 It has a hole in the region at z0 .
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Points and sets
Some topological denitions

1 Some of the denitions will be useful to categorize dierent
sets.
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Points and sets
Some topological denitions

1 Some of the denitions will be useful to categorize dierent
sets.
2 We dene: neighborhood of a point, deleted naughborhood of

a point, limit points of a set, interior points of a set, boundary
points of a sent, open sent, closed set, bounded and
unbounded sets, connected set, domain, and region.
3 We can apply the denitions to dene limit, continuity and

dierentiability of functions.
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Points and sets
Neighborhood of a point z 0
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Points and sets
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Points and sets
Neighborhood of a point z0
1 Mathematically, neighborhood of a point z0 is a set of points z

such that |z − z0 | < ϵ, z0 ∈ C and ϵ > 0 is arbitrary small real.
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Points and sets

2 We denote this set as N(z0 ; ϵ).
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Points and sets

3 N(z0 ; ϵ) = {z : |z − z0 | < ϵ}.
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Points and sets

3 N(z0 ; ϵ) = {z : |z − z0 | < ϵ}.
4 N(z0 ; ϵ) contains z0 too.
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Points and sets

3 N(z0 ; ϵ) = {z : |z − z0 | < ϵ}.
5 Where do we apply?
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Points and sets

3 N(z0 ; ϵ) = {z : |z − z0 | < ϵ}.
5 Where do we apply? Verifying continuity.

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Points and sets
Deleted neighborhood of a point z 0
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Points and sets
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Points and sets
Deleted neighborhood of a point z0
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Points and sets

such that 0 < |z − z0 | < ϵ, z0 ∈ C and ϵ > 0 is arbitrary small
real.
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Points and sets

real.
2 We denote this set as N̂(z0 ; ϵ).
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Points and sets

real.
3 N̂(z0 ; ϵ) = {z : 0 < |z − z0 | < ϵ}.
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Points and sets

real.
3 N̂(z0 ; ϵ) = {z : 0 < |z − z0 | < ϵ}.
4 N̂(z0 ; ϵ) does NOT contain z0 .
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Points and sets

real.
3 N̂(z0 ; ϵ) = {z : 0 < |z − z0 | < ϵ}.
5 N̂(z0 ; ϵ) is a punctured disk.
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Points and sets

real.
3 N̂(z0 ; ϵ) = {z : 0 < |z − z0 | < ϵ}.
6 Where do we apply?
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Points and sets

real.
3 N̂(z0 ; ϵ) = {z : 0 < |z − z0 | < ϵ}.
6 Where do we apply? Verifying limit.
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Points and sets
Limit points of a set S
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Points and sets
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Points and sets

Limit point of a set S
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Points and sets

1 Limit point is also called accumulation point.
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Points and sets


2 Let S be a subset of C.
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Points and sets


3 Let z1 ∈ C.
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Points and sets


3 Let z1 ∈ C.
4 z1 is called a limit point of S if N̂(z1 ; ϵ) contains a point of S .
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Points and sets


3 Let z1 ∈ C.
4 z1 is called a limit point of S if N̂(z1 ; ϵ) contains a point of S .
5 Mathematically, N̂(z1 ; ϵ) ∩ S ̸= ∅.
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Points and sets
Figure: z1 , z2 are limit points, but not z3 .

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Points and sets
Example: Limit points of a set S

1 Let S = {z : |z| < 1}.
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Points and sets

1 Let S = {z : |z| < 1}.
2 All points of S are limit points of S .
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Points and sets

1 Let S = {z : |z| < 1}.
3 In addition, all points on the circle |z| = 1 are limit points of

S.
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Points and sets

1 Let S = {z : |z| < 1}.

S.
4 Thus, limit points of S are {z : |z| ≤ 1}.
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Points and sets

1 Let S = {z : |z| < 1}.

S.

5 What are the limit points of the set A = {z : |z| ≤ 1}?
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Points and sets

1 Let S = {z : |z| < 1}.

S.

5 What are the limit points of the set A = {z : |z| ≤ 1}?
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Points and sets

Problem: Let c0 be a limit point of S . Then prove that every
neighbourhood of c0 contains innitely many points of S .
Try yourself.
Ask me if you need help.
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Points and sets
Complex Analysis
LECTURE 4
August 03, 2022
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Points and sets
Interior points of a set
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Points and sets

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Points and sets

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Points and sets

2 Let z1 ∈ S .
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Points and sets

2 Let z1 ∈ S .
3 z1 is called an interior point of S if it is possible to nd a

N(z1 ; ϵ) such that N(z1 ; ϵ)⊂S .
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Points and sets

2 Let z1 ∈ S .
3 z1 is called an interior point of S if it is possible to nd a

N(z1 ; ϵ) such that N(z1 ; ϵ)⊂S .
4 In language, neighborhood of z1 will be completely inside S .
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Points and sets
Figure: z1 is an interior point.
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Points and sets

Problem: Mathematically prove that all points of
S = {z : |z − z0 | < 1} are interior points.
Try yourself.
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Points and sets
Boundary points of a set S

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Points and sets

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Points and sets

2 Let z1 ∈ C.
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Points and sets

2 Let z1 ∈ C.
3 z1 is called a boundary point of S if N(z1 ; ϵ) contains at least

one point of S and at least one point not belonging to S .
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Points and sets
Example: Boundary points of a set S
1 Let S = {z : |z| < 1} be a subset of C.
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Points and sets

2 Then each point of B = {z : |z| = 1} represents a boundary
point.
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Points and sets

point.
3 Boundary: Collection of all boundary points is called the
boundary of S .
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Points and sets

point.
3 Boundary: Collection of all boundary points is called the
boundary of S .
4 Here B is the boundary of S
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Points and sets
Open and closed sets
1 Open set: A set S be a subset of C. S is said to be an open

set if each point of S is an interior point of S .
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Points and sets

2 Example: Let S = {z : |z| < 1}
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Points and sets

3 Closed set: A set S be a subset of C. S is said to be an
closed set if it contains all of its boundary points.
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Points and sets

3 Closed set: A set S be a subset of C. S is said to be an
closed set if it contains all of its boundary points.
4 Example: Let S = {z : |z| ≤ 1}.
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Points and sets
Bounded and unbounded sets
1 Bounded set: A set S be a subset of C is said to be bounded

if S ⊆ {z : |z| < M} for some real number M . Otherwise, it is
called unbounded.
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Points and sets

called unbounded.
2 S = {z : |z| < 1} is bounded set with M = 1.
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Points and sets

called unbounded.
3 S = {z : |z| > 1} is an unbounded set.
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Points and sets

called unbounded.
3 S = {z : |z| > 1} is an unbounded set.
4 S = {z : y = x 2 , x, y ∈ R} is an unbounded set.
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Points and sets
Connected set
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Points and sets
Connected set
A set S be a subset of C is said to be connected if any two points
in S can be joined by a polygonal line (pieces of lines joined end to
end) or by any continuous curve which lies entirely on S .
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Points and sets
Connected set
Figure: U, V are connected, but U ∪V is not.
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Points and sets
Examples
1 S = {z : |z| < 1} is a connected set.
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Points and sets
Examples
2 S = {z : |z| > 1} is a connected set.
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Points and sets
Examples
3 Neighborhood
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Points and sets
Examples
3 Neighborhood and deleted neighborhood are connected sets.
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Points and sets
Domain
An open connected set is called a domain.
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Points and sets
Domain
Figure: S1 is domain, but S2 , S3 are not.

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Points and sets
Examples
1 S = {z : |z| < 1} is a domain.
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Points and sets
Examples
1 S = {z : |z| < 1} is a domain.
2 S = {z : |z| > 1} is a domain.
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Points and sets
Examples
1 S = {z : |z| < 1} is a domain.
2 S = {z : |z| > 1} is a domain.
3 Neighborhood
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Points and sets
Examples
1 S = {z : |z| < 1} is a domain.
2 S = {z : |z| > 1} is a domain.
3 Neighborhood and deleted neighborhood are domain.
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Points and sets
Region
A region is a domain together with all, some or none of its
boundary points.
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Points and sets
Examples
1 S = {z : |z| < 1} is a region.
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Points and sets
Examples
1 S = {z : |z| < 1} is a region.
2 S = {z : |z| ≤ 1} is a region.
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Points and sets
Examples
1 S = {z : |z| < 1} is a region.
2 S = {z : |z| ≤ 1} is a region.
3 S = {z : |z| > 1} is a region.
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Points and sets
Examples
1 S = {z : |z| < 1} is a region.
2 S = {z : |z| ≤ 1} is a region.
3 S = {z : |z| > 1} is a region.
4 S = {z : |z| ≥ 1} is a region.
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Points and sets
Examples
1 S = {z : |z| < 1} is a region.
2 S = {z : |z| ≤ 1} is a region.
3 S = {z : |z| > 1} is a region.
4 S = {z : |z| ≥ 1} is a region.
5 A domain is also a region, but the converse is not true.
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Complex functions
Complex function
1 Let D be a subset of complex numbers in the complex plane.
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Complex functions
Complex function
1 Let D be a subset of complex numbers in the complex plane.
2 For every point z = x + iy ∈ D , we specify the rule for

assigning a corresponding complex number w = u + iv .
3 This denes a function of the complex variable z , and the

function is denoted by
w = f (z).
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Complex functions
Complex function
1 Geometrically, elements of D can be represented in the
complex plane C.
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Complex functions
Complex function
complex plane C.
2 The elements of f (z) is presented in a dierent complex plane
i.e., on the w -plane here.
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Complex functions
Complex function
complex plane C.
3 The set D is called the domain of denition of the function f
or simply domain of f .
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Complex functions
Complex function
complex plane C.
4 The collection of all values of w is called the range of f .
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Complex functions
Complex function
complex plane C.
5 Mathematically, range denoted by R(f ) = {f (z) : z ∈ D}.
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Complex functions
Complex function
complex plane C.
6 Domain of denition and domain (set) are dierent
terminology. "Domain of denition" could be a region as well.
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Complex functions
Complex function
complex plane C.
6 Domain of denition and domain (set) are dierent
terminology. "Domain of denition" could be a region as well.
7 Often we say "domain of a function". Note that "domain of a
function" is not necessarily a "domain". Avoid confusion.
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Complex functions
Complex function
1 A complex function can be thought of a pair of real functions
in two-variable (WHY?).
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Complex functions
Complex function
2 Thus, a complex function, theoretically, can be written as

w = f (z) = u + iv , where
u = u(x, y ), v = v (x, y )
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Complex functions
Complex function
2 Thus, a complex function, theoretically, can be written as

w = f (z) = u + iv , where
u = u(x, y ), v = v (x, y )
3 One can also write it in polar form as:
u = u(r , θ), v = v (r , θ)
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Complex functions
Complex function
1 For some complicated functions, it may be dicult to derive
such u and v , but it is easy for most of the functions we are
going to discuss.
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Complex functions
Complex function
going to discuss.
2 For instance, f (z) = z 2 = (x + iy )2 = x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy .
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Complex functions
Complex function
going to discuss.
2 For instance, f (z) = z 2 = (x + iy )2 = x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy .
3 Thus,
u(x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 , v (x, y ) = 2ixy
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Complex functions
Local analysis of functions

1 We now study some local properties of complex functions.
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Complex functions

2 Local properties means?
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Complex functions

3 We determine the values of the function at a point and nearby

points only, hence local.....
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Complex functions


4 We investigate the following at a point:

1 Limit
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Complex functions



1 Limit
2 Continuity
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Complex functions



1 Limit
2 Continuity
3 Dierentiability
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Complex functions
Complex Analysis
LECTURE 5
August 04, 2022
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Complex functions
Limit
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Complex functions
Limit
1 Recall the usual denition you have studied for real function in
single or two-variable.
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Complex functions
Limit
2 Consider a point z0 ∈ C and N̂(z0 ; δ1 )
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Complex functions
Limit
3 Dene a function f : N̂(z0 ; δ1 ) → C.
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Complex functions
Limit
4 The function is said to have the limit l ∈ C at z0 (means that
z → z0 ), if for every ϵ > 0 (suciently small), there exists a
δ > 0 (depending on ϵ and z0 ) such that
|f (z) − l| < ϵ whenever 0 < |z − z0 | < δ.
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Complex functions
Limit
4 The function is said to have the limit l ∈ C at z0 (means that
z → z0 ), if for every ϵ > 0 (suciently small), there exists a
δ > 0 (depending on ϵ and z0 ) such that
|f (z) − l| < ϵ whenever 0 < |z − z0 | < δ.
5 Note that z satisfying the last inequality (0 < |z − z0 | < δ )

must belongs to N̂(z0 ; δ) ∩ N̂(z0 ; δ1 ).
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Complex functions
Remember
1 For nding limit, it is NOT necessary to dene the function at
z0
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Complex functions
Remember
z0
2 Thus, we dened the function on the deleted neighborhood

N̂(z0 ; δ1 )
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Complex functions
Remember
z0

N̂(z0 ; δ1 )
3 No problem to determine limit if the function is dened in a

neighborhood N(z0 ; δ1 ).
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Complex functions
Remember
z0

N̂(z0 ; δ1 )
3 No problem to determine limit if the function is dened in a

neighborhood N(z0 ; δ1 ).
4 Even the function may be dened in a larger domain/region D

such that at least N̂(z0 ; δ1 ) ⊂ D.
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Complex functions
Computing limit
z
Determine lim , if it exists.
z→0 z
1 The limit l , if exists , must be unique. The value of l is
independent of the direction along which z → z0 .
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Complex functions
Computing limit
z
z→0 z
2 If we move from the positive of x -axis towards the origin, we
z x + iy
obtain lim = lim = 1.
z→0 z x→0,y =0 x − iy
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Complex functions
Computing limit
z
z→0 z
z x + iy
z→0 z x→0,y =0 x − iy
3 If we move from the positive of y -axis towards the origin, we
z x + iy
obtain lim = lim = −1.
z→0 z x=0,y →0 x − iy
304 / 903
Complex functions
Computing limit
z
z→0 z
z x + iy
z→0 z x→0,y =0 x − iy
z x + iy
z→0 z x=0,y →0 x − iy
4 If we move along y = x line towards the origin in the rst
z x + ix
quadrant, lim = lim , which is a complex number.
z→0 z x→0 x − ix
305 / 903
Complex functions
Computing limit
z
z→0 z
z x + iy
z→0 z x→0,y =0 x − iy
z x + iy
z→0 z x=0,y →0 x − iy
4 If we move along y = x line towards the origin in the rst
z x + ix
quadrant, lim = lim , which is a complex number.
z→0 z x→0 x − ix
5 Thus, limit does not exist.
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Complex functions
Computing limit
1 Here we were lucky. We found distinct values of f .
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Complex functions
Computing limit
2 But what happens for other situations?
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Complex functions
Computing limit
3 We have to use ϵ-δ denition.
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Complex functions
Computing limit
4 How do we apply the denition if the existence of the limit is

not ensured?
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Complex functions
Computing limit

not ensured? No answer.
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Complex functions
Computing limit

not ensured? No answer.
5 Ok, compute a limit along a specic path. Then use the

denition. If you are successful, then ne.
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Complex functions
Use ϵ − δ denition
z 2 + iz + 2
Prove that lim 2( ) = 6i .
z→i z −i
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Complex functions
Use ϵ − δ denition
Show that if the function f (z) = i z̄/2 in the open disk |z| < 1, then
lim f (z) = i/2.

z→1
Note: We did not dene the function for all z in a neighborhood of
z = 1. Hence we should consider those z which belong to both the

domain |z| < 1 and N(1, δ).
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Complex functions
Finding limit using the concept of multivariable calculus

1 Perhaps, you are comfortable to nd limit of real functions in
two-variable.
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Complex functions

two-variable.
2 Ok, good news. We provide such a facility to nd limit of

complex functions.
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Complex functions

two-variable.
2 Ok, good news. We provide such a facility to nd limit of

complex functions.
3 Follow the next theorem.
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Complex functions
Theorem
318 / 903
Complex functions
Theorem
Theorem: Let f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ). Then limit of f (z) exists
at z0 = x0 + iy0 if and only if limits of u(x, y ) and v (x, y ) exist at
(x0 , y0 ).
319 / 903
Complex functions
Theorem
(x0 , y0 ).
Further,
lim f (z) = lim u(x, y ) + i lim v (x, y )

z→z0 (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
320 / 903
Complex functions
Theorem
(x0 , y0 ).
Further,
lim f (z) = lim u(x, y ) + i lim v (x, y )

z→z0 (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
It is now much easier to verify the existence of limit and computing

it.
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Complex functions
Proof
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Complex functions
Proof
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Complex functions
Proof
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Complex functions
Continuity
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Complex functions
Continuity
2 Unlike the case of limit, here, we have to dene a functions
f : N(z0 ; δ1 ) → C.
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Complex functions
Continuity
2 Unlike the case of limit, here, we have to dene a functions
f : N(z0 ; δ1 ) → C.
3 Concept of deleted neighborhood will not work. WHY?
4 The function is said to be continuous at z0 if for every ϵ > 0
(suciently small), there exists a δ > 0 (depends on ϵ and the
point z0 ) such that
|f (z) − f (z0 )| < ϵ whenever |z − z0 | < δ.
5 Note that z satisfying the last inequality (right side of the last
line) must belong to N(z0 ; δ) ∩ N(z0 ; δ1 ).
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Complex functions
Remember
1 If the function is continuous at a point, limit of the function
exists at that point.
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Complex functions
Remember
1 If the function is continuous at a point, limit of the function
exists at that point.
2 A complex function is said to be continuous in a region R if it

is continuous at each point in R
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Complex functions
Theorem
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Complex functions
Theorem
Theorem: Let f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ). Then f (z) is continuous
at z0 = x0 + iy0 if and only if u(x, y ) and v (x, y ) both are
continuous at (x0 , y0 ).
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Complex functions
Dierentiability
1 Let f : D → C be a function, and z0 ∈ D be a limit point of
D.
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Complex functions
Dierentiability
D.
2 Suppose that the limit
f (z) − f (z0 )
lim ,
z→z0 z − z0
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Complex functions
Dierentiability
D.
f (z) − f (z0 )
lim ,
z→z0 z − z0
3 or equivalently
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )
lim ,
h→0 h
exists. Note that h is a complex number.
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Complex functions
Dierentiability
D.
f (z) − f (z0 )
lim ,
z→z0 z − z0
3 or equivalently
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )
lim ,
h→0 h
exists. Note that h is a complex number.
4 Then we say that f is dierentiable at z0 and the limit denoted
by f ′ (z0 ) is called the derivative of f at z0 .
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Complex functions
Dierentiability
Examine if the function f (z) = |z| is dierentiable at z = 0.
1 The following limit must exist for dierentiability
f (z) − f (0)
lim ,
z→0 z −0
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Complex functions
Dierentiability
f (z) − f (0)
lim ,
z→0 z −0
2 Now
|x| − 0
lim = +1(whenx > 0)or − 1(whenx < 0)
x→0,y =0 x
337 / 903
Complex functions
Dierentiability
f (z) − f (0)
lim ,
z→0 z −0
2 Now
|x| − 0
lim = +1(whenx > 0)or − 1(whenx < 0)
x→0,y =0 x
3 The function is not dierentiable at z = 0.
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Complex functions
Dierentiability
Determine the points at which the function f (z) = |z|2 = x 2 + y 2
is dierentiable.
1 The complex function is dierentiable at z = 0.
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Complex functions
Dierentiability
is dierentiable.
2 The complex function is NOT dierentiable at any nonzero
point (Verify).
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Complex functions
Dierentiability
is dierentiable.
point (Verify).
3 OK, we can think the above function f : R2 → R as a real
valued function of two-variable.
341 / 903
Complex functions
Dierentiability
is dierentiable.
point (Verify).
3 OK, we can think the above function f : R2 → R as a real
valued function of two-variable.
4 Then the real valued function is dierentiable (Why?)
everywhere on R2 .
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Complex functions
Condition for dierentiability

Our questions:
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Complex functions

Our questions:
1 What are the necessary conditions for the dierentiability of a
complex function.
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Complex functions

Our questions:
complex function.
2 If a complex function is dierentiable, how to compute the

derivative without using the limit denition?
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Complex functions

Our questions:
complex function.
2 If a complex function is dierentiable, how to compute the

derivative without using the limit denition?
3 Is there any sucient condition for the dierentiability of a

complex function?
346 / 903
Complex functions
Necessary condition for dierentiability

Cauchy-Riemann equations (C-R equations):
Let f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) be dierentiable at z0 = x0 + iy0 .
Then the partial derivatives of u and v exist at the point
(x0 , y0 ),
347 / 903
Complex functions

(x0 , y0 ),and
ux (x0 , y0 ) = vy (x0 , y0 ) and vx (x0 , y0 ) = −uy (x0 , y0 ). (1)
348 / 903
Complex functions

(x0 , y0 ),and
ux (x0 , y0 ) = vy (x0 , y0 ) and vx (x0 , y0 ) = −uy (x0 , y0 ). (1)
Further,
f ′ (z0 ) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ) = vy (x0 , y0 ) − iuy (x0 , y0 ). (2)
349 / 903
Complex functions
C-R equations
350 / 903
Complex functions
C-R equations
1 The Equations
ux (x0 , y0 ) = vy (x0 , y0 ) and vx (x0 , y0 ) = −uy (x0 , y0 ).
are called Cauchy-Riemann equations (C-R equations).
351 / 903
Complex functions
C-R equations
1 The Equations
ux (x0 , y0 ) = vy (x0 , y0 ) and vx (x0 , y0 ) = −uy (x0 , y0 ).
are called Cauchy-Riemann equations (C-R equations).

2 The Equations in
f ′ (z0 ) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ) = vy (x0 , y0 ) − iuy (x0 , y0 ).
represents the technique to nd derivative without using the

limit denition?
3 Note that the violating of the C-R equations implies the
non-existence of derivative at the point.
352 / 903
Complex functions
Derive CR equations.
353 / 903
Complex functions
354 / 903
Complex functions
355 / 903
Complex functions
Complex Analysis
LECTURE 6
August 05, 2022
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Complex functions
Applications of CR-Equations
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Complex functions
1 Apply the C-R equations to determine the points where
f (z) = z are not dierentiable.
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Complex functions
2 Note that u = x, v = −y
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Complex functions
3 Note that ux = 1, uy = 0, vx = 0, vy = −1
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Complex functions
4 C-R equations are not satised anywhere.
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Complex functions
4 C-R equations are not satised anywhere.
5 The function is not dierentiable anywhere.
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Complex functions
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Complex functions
f (z) = |z| are not dierentiable.
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Complex functions
2 We already know that the function is not dierentiable at

origin.
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Complex functions

origin.
Note that u = x 2 + y 2, v = 0
p
3
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Complex functions

origin.
p
3
x y
4 Note that ux = p , uy = p , vx = 0, vy = 0.
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
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Complex functions

origin.
p
3
x y
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
5 C-R equations are not satised for any nonzero z .
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Complex functions

origin.
p
3
x y
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
5 C-R equations are not satised for any nonzero z .
6 The function is not dierentiable anywhere.

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Complex functions
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Complex functions
1 Consider the functions f (z) = |z|2 .
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Complex functions
2 Note that u = x 2 + y 2 , v = 0
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Complex functions
2 Note that u = x 2 + y 2 , v = 0
3 Note that ux = 2x, uy = 2y , vx = 0, vy = 0.
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Complex functions
2 Note that u = x 2 + y 2 , v = 0
4 Satisfy the C-R equations at origin only.
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Complex functions
2 Note that u = x 2 + y 2 , v = 0
5 In fact, f ′ (0) exists (Verify).
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Complex functions
2 Note that u = x 2 + y 2 , v = 0
5 In fact, f ′ (0) exists (Verify).
6 Now can we claim that the dierentiability of the function is
due the satisfaction of C-R equations?
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Complex functions
CR-Equations are not sucient for dierentiability
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Complex functions

1 Consider the function f (z)
( xy
if z ̸= 0
f (z) = x2 + y2
0, if z = 0.
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Complex functions

( xy
if z ̸= 0
f (z) = x2 + y2
0, if z = 0.
2 Note that ( xy
if (x, y ) ̸= 0
u= x2 + y2
0, if (x, y ) = 0.
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Complex functions

( xy
if z ̸= 0
f (z) = x2 + y2
0, if z = 0.
2 Note that ( xy
if (x, y ) ̸= 0
u= x2 + y2
0, if (x, y ) = 0.
3 v =0
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Complex functions

( xy
if z ̸= 0
f (z) = x2 + y2
0, if z = 0.
2 Note that ( xy
if (x, y ) ̸= 0
u= x2 + y2
0, if (x, y ) = 0.
3 v =0
u(h, 0) − u(0, 0) 0−0
4 ux (0, 0) = lim = lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h
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Complex functions

1 Similarly, uy = 0
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Complex functions

1 Similarly, uy = 0
2 Thus, ux = uy = vx = 0, vy = 0.
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Complex functions

1 Similarly, uy = 0
2 Thus, ux = uy = vx = 0, vy = 0.
3 The C-R equations are satised at the origin.
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Complex functions

1 Similarly, uy = 0
2 Thus, ux = uy = vx = 0, vy = 0.
4 Now we check dierentiability of f (z) at the origin.
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Complex functions

1 Similarly, uy = 0
2 Thus, ux = uy = vx = 0, vy = 0.
xy
−0
′ f (z) − f (0) x + y2
2
5 In fact, f (0) = lim = lim
z→0 z −0 z→0 x + iy
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Complex functions

1 Similarly, uy = 0
2 Thus, ux = uy = vx = 0, vy = 0.
xy
−0
′ f (z) − f (0) x + y2
2
z→0 z −0 z→0 x + iy
6 If y = x and x → 0 , then f (0) → ∞
+ ′
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Complex functions

1 Similarly, uy = 0
2 Thus, ux = uy = vx = 0, vy = 0.
xy
−0
′ f (z) − f (0) x + y2
2
z→0 z −0 z→0 x + iy
6 If y = x and x → 0 , then f (0) → ∞
+ ′
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Complex functions

1 Similarly, uy = 0
2 Thus, ux = uy = vx = 0, vy = 0.
xy
−0
′ f (z) − f (0) x + y2
2
z→0 z −0 z→0 x + iy
6 If y = x and x → 0 , then f (0) → ∞ (complex innity)
+ ′
derivative does not exist.
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Complex functions

1 Similarly, uy = 0
2 Thus, ux = uy = vx = 0, vy = 0.
xy
−0
′ f (z) − f (0) x + y2
2
z→0 z −0 z→0 x + iy
6 If y = x and x → 0 , then f (0) → ∞ (complex innity)
+ ′
derivative does not exist.

7 Thus, we need alternative conditions for dierentiability
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Complex functions
Sucient conditions for dierentiability

Theorem:
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Complex functions
Sucient conditions for dierentiability

Theorem: Suppose f = u + iv is dened on some neighborhood
N(z0 ; ϵ) of z0 = x0 + iy0 such that ux , uy , vx , vy exist on N(z0 ; ϵ)

and are continuous at (x0 , y0 ). If u , v satises the C-R equations at
(x0 , y0 ), then f ′ exist at z0 and f ′ (z0 ) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ).
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Complex functions
Application of Sucient conditions

1 Consider f (x + iy ) = e −y cos x + ie −y sin x .
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Complex functions

2
ux (x, y ) = −e −y sin x uy (x, y ) = −e −y cos x

vy (x, y ) = −e −y sin x vx (x, y ) = e −y cos x.
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Complex functions

2

3 Therefore, ux , uy , vx , vy are all continuous on R2 , and u, v

satises the C-R equations ux (x, y ) = vy (x, y ),
uy (x, y ) = −vx (x, y ) at each point (x, y ) ∈ R2 .
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Complex functions

2


4 The C-R equations are satised as well.
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Complex functions

2


4 The C-R equations are satised as well.
5 Hence f ′ (z) = ux + ivx = −e −y sin x + ie −y cos x
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Complex functions
Your comment
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Complex functions
Your comment

( xy
if z ̸= 0
f (z) = x2 + y2
0, if z = 0.
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Complex functions
Your comment

( xy
if z ̸= 0
f (z) = x2 + y2
0, if z = 0.
2 Check whether the sucient conditions are satised at and in

the neighborhood of origin.
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Complex functions
Your comment

( xy
if z ̸= 0
f (z) = x2 + y2
0, if z = 0.

3 What is your conclusion on the existence of f ′ (z) at origin.
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Complex functions
Your comment
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Complex functions
Your comment
1 Ok, you may consider a relatively simple function f (z) = |z|
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Complex functions
Your comment

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Complex functions
Your comment

3 What is your conclusion on the existence of f ′ (z) at origin.
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Complex functions
Our observations
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Complex functions
Our observations
1 The functions f (z) = |z|2 is dierentiable at the origin only.
2 The function f (z) = |z|2 is NOT dierentiable in any
neighborhood of origin.
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Complex functions
Our observations
3 The function f (x + iy ) = x 2 + iy 2 is dierentiable at all points
on y = x .
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Complex functions
Our observations
3 The function f (x + iy ) = x 2 + iy 2 is dierentiable at all points
on y = x .
4 But the above functions too is NOT dierentiable in any
neighborhood of any point on y = x .
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Complex functions
Our observations
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Complex functions
Our observations
1 OK, we SEARCH functions which are dierentiable in some
neighborhood of a point.
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Complex functions
Our observations
2 Consider the functions f (x + iy ) = e −y cos x + ie −y sin x and
f (z) = z 2 are dierentiable at all points on C.
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Complex functions
Our observations
3 Additionally, the above functions are dierentiable in any
neighborhood of any point.
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Complex functions
Our observations
4 Thus we obtain a spacial class of functions.
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Complex functions
Our observations
4 Thus we obtain a spacial class of functions.
5 Hence we present the concept of analytic functions.
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Complex functions
Complex Analysis
LECTURE 7
August 10, 2022
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Analytic functions
Analytic functions
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Analytic functions
Analytic functions
1 We rst provide the denition of analytic functions at a point.
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Analytic functions
Analytic functions
1 We rst provide the denition of analytic functions at a point.
2 Then we dene analytic functions on a set.
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Analytic functions
Analytic functions
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Analytic functions
Analytic functions
1 Analytic function at a point: A function f is said to be
analytic at the point z0 if there exists a neighborhood N(z0 , ϵ)
of z0 , ϵ > 0 (suciently small) such that f is dierentiable at
every point z ∈ N(z0 , ϵ).
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Analytic functions
Analytic functions
1 Analytic function at a point: A function f is said to be
analytic at the point z0 if there exists a neighborhood N(z0 , ϵ)
of z0 , ϵ > 0 (suciently small) such that f is dierentiable at
every point z ∈ N(z0 , ϵ).
2 Analytic function on a set: A function f is said to be

analytic (or regular or holomorphic) on a set D if it is
dierentiable at every point of some open set containing D .
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Analytic functions
Some interesting results
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Analytic functions

1 If f is dierentiable at all points of an open set D , then f is
analytic on D .
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Analytic functions

analytic on D .
2 If f is dierentiable at all points of a set D , then it does not

mean that f will be analytic on D
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Analytic functions

analytic on D .

mean that f will be analytic on D Check the fact with
f (x + iy ) = x 2 + iy 2 .
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Analytic functions

analytic on D .

mean that f will be analytic on D Check the fact with
f (x + iy ) = x 2 + iy 2 .
3 If f is analytic at all points of a set D , then f is analytic on

D.
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Analytic functions
Necessary and Sucient Condition for Analyticity
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Analytic functions

A function f = u + iv is analytic in a domain D if and only if u, v
satises C-R equations in D , and ux , uy , vx , vy are continuous in D .
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Analytic functions
Problems
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Analytic functions
Problems
Apply the theorem to the function on C
1 f (z) = z
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Analytic functions
Problems
1 f (z) = z
2 f (x + iy ) = x 2 + iy 2
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Analytic functions
Problems
1 f (z) = z
2 f (x + iy ) = x 2 + iy 2
1 Check each of the conditions for the above function.
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Analytic functions
Problems
1 f (z) = z
2 f (x + iy ) = x 2 + iy 2
1 Check each of the conditions for the above function.
2 What is your conclusion about the analyticity of the function?
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Analytic functions
Entire functions
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Analytic functions
Entire functions
Entire function: A function analytic on the entire complex plane is
called an entire function.
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Analytic functions
Entire functions
Example
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Analytic functions
Entire functions
Example
1 Any polynomial
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Analytic functions
Entire functions
Example
1 Any polynomial
2 f (x + iy ) = e −y cos x + ie −y sin x
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Analytic functions
Problems
Problem: Suppose f is analytic in a domain D . If f ′ (z) = 0 for all
z ∈ D , then f is constant on D .
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Analytic functions
Contd...
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Analytic functions
Problems
Problem: Suppose f is analytic in a domain D . If any of Ref , Imf
is constant in D , then f is constant in D .
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Analytic functions
Problems
Problem: Suppose f is analytic in a domain D such that |f | is
constant in D . Then show that f is a constant in D .
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Analytic functions
Problems
Problem: Let f = u + iv be a non-constant function such that
f = u − iv be analytic in a domain D . Show that f cannot be
analytic in D .
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Analytic functions
Problems
Problem: Given an analytic function

w = f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ), z = x + iy ,
the equations u(x, y ) = α and v (x, y ) = β , α and β are constants,

dene two families of curves in the complex plane. Show that the
two families are mutually orthogonal to each other.
The families of curves are called level curves.
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Analytic functions
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Analytic functions
Verify the orthogonality

Verify the orthogonality.
Draw the level curves too.
1 f (z) = z
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Analytic functions

1 f (z) = z
2 f (z) = z 2
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Analytic functions

1 f (z) = z
2 f (z) = z 2
3 f (x + iy ) = x 2 + iy 2 (Interesting problem)
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Harmonic functions
Harmonic functions
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Harmonic functions
Harmonic functions
Denition:
A real-valued function ϕ(x, y ) of two real variables x and y is said
to be harmonic in a given domain D in the xy -plane if ϕ has
continuous partial derivatives up to the second order in D
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Harmonic functions
Harmonic functions
Denition:
continuous partial derivatives up to the second order in D and
satises the Laplace equation
ϕxx (x, y ) + ϕyy (x, y ) = 0, (x, y ) ∈ D.
Example
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Harmonic functions
Harmonic functions
Denition:
ϕxx (x, y ) + ϕyy (x, y ) = 0, (x, y ) ∈ D.
Example
1 ϕ(x, y ) = x
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Harmonic functions
Harmonic functions
Denition:
ϕxx (x, y ) + ϕyy (x, y ) = 0, (x, y ) ∈ D.
Example
1 ϕ(x, y ) = x
2 ψ(x, y ) = y
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Harmonic functions
Harmonic functions
Denition:
ϕxx (x, y ) + ϕyy (x, y ) = 0, (x, y ) ∈ D.
Example
1 ϕ(x, y ) = x
2 ψ(x, y ) = y
3 ϕ(x, y ) = x 2 − y 2
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Harmonic functions
Harmonic functions
Denition:
ϕxx (x, y ) + ϕyy (x, y ) = 0, (x, y ) ∈ D.
Example
1 ϕ(x, y ) = x
2 ψ(x, y ) = y
3 ϕ(x, y ) = x 2 − y 2
4 ψ(x, y ) = 2xy
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Harmonic functions
Conjugate Harmonic function
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Harmonic functions
Conjugate Harmonic function

Denition:
If two harmonic functions ϕ(x, y ), ψ(x, y ) satisfy C-R equations,
namely
ϕx = ψy and ϕy = −ψx
in a domain D , then ψ is called conjugate harmonic function of ϕ.
Important note
Note that harmonic conjugacy is not a symmetric relation, that is,
if ψ is conjugate harmonic function of ϕ, then it does not mean
that ϕ will be conjugate harmonic function of ψ . This is due to the
minus sign in the second CauchyRiemann relation.
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Harmonic functions
Examples: Conjugate harmonic function
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Harmonic functions

Example
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Harmonic functions

Example
1 Set ϕ(x, y ) = x, ψ(x, y ) = y
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Harmonic functions

Example
1 Set ϕ(x, y ) = x, ψ(x, y ) = y
2 ψ is a conjugate Harmonic function of ϕ, but ϕ is NOT a
conjugate Harmonic function of ψ .
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Harmonic functions

Example
1 Set ϕ(x, y ) = x, ψ(x, y ) = y
3 Again set ϕ(x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 , ψ(x, y ) = 2xy
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Harmonic functions

Example
1 Set ϕ(x, y ) = x, ψ(x, y ) = y
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Harmonic functions

Example
1 Set ϕ(x, y ) = x, ψ(x, y ) = y
5 Verify the statement by C-R equations.
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Harmonic functions
Important observation
1 For ϕ(x, y ) = x, ψ(x, y ) = y ,
f (x + iy ) = ϕ(x, y ) + iψ(x, y ) = z is an analytic function.
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Harmonic functions
1 For ϕ(x, y ) = x, ψ(x, y ) = y ,
2 But f (x + iy ) = ψ(x, y ) + iϕ(x, y ) is NOT (WHY??).
3 Again, for ϕ(x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 , ψ(x, y ) = 2xy ,
f (x + iy ) = ϕ(x, y ) + iψ(x, y ) = z 2 is an analytic function.
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Harmonic functions
1 For ϕ(x, y ) = x, ψ(x, y ) = y ,
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Harmonic functions
1 For ϕ(x, y ) = x, ψ(x, y ) = y ,
5 Ohhhhh! something is happening.
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Harmonic functions
1 For ϕ(x, y ) = x, ψ(x, y ) = y ,
6 Perhaps, special arrangement of ϕ(x, y ) and ψ(x, y ) is
constructing an analytic function.
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Harmonic functions
1 For ϕ(x, y ) = x, ψ(x, y ) = y ,
6 Perhaps, special arrangement of ϕ(x, y ) and ψ(x, y ) is
constructing an analytic function.
7 Ok, go to the next theorem.
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Harmonic functions
Next theorem
1 Next theorem give a relationship between analyticity and
conjugacy.
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Harmonic functions
Next theorem
conjugacy.
2 The theorem provides conditions for analyticity of a

function.
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Harmonic functions
Next theorem
conjugacy.
2 The theorem provides conditions for analyticity of a

function.
3 Alternatively, it gives ideas to construct an analytic function

from a given harmonic function.
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Harmonic functions
Theorem
Theorem
A complex function f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ), z = x + iy , is
analytic in a domain D if and only if v is a harmonic conjugate of u
in D .
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Harmonic functions
Theorem
Theorem
A complex function f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ), z = x + iy , is
analytic in a domain D if and only if v is a harmonic conjugate of u
in D .
Verication
Verify for f (x + iy ) = e −y (cos x + i sin x).
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Harmonic functions
Uniqueness of harmonic conjugate functions

Result
Any two harmonic conjugates v , w of u in a domain D are unique
in the sense that they dier by a constant, that is,
v (x, y ) − w (x, y ) = K
for all (x, y ) ∈ D , where K is a real constant.
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Harmonic functions
Uniqueness of harmonic conjugate functions

Result
Any two harmonic conjugates v , w of u in a domain D are unique
in the sense that they dier by a constant, that is,
v (x, y ) − w (x, y ) = K
for all (x, y ) ∈ D , where K is a real constant.

Proof :
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Harmonic functions
Proof
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Harmonic functions
Construction of harmonic conjugate function

Problem
Find a conjugate harmonic function of u(x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 − y in C.
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Harmonic functions

Problem
Find a conjugate harmonic function of u(x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 − y in C.
Solution:
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Harmonic functions
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Harmonic functions
Answer: v = 2xy + x + K , K ∈ R
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Harmonic functions
Answer: v = 2xy + x + K , K ∈ R
In addition, we can construct the analytic function
f (x + iy ) = x 2 − y 2 − y + i(2xy + x + K ) = z 2 + i(z + k)
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Elementary functions
Complex Analysis
LECTURE 8
August 11, 2022
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1 Exponential function
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2 Trigonometric functions
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3 Hyperbolic functions
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3 Hyperbolic functions
4 Logarithmic function
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Complex exponential function
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1 Complex exponential function e z is dened by
e z = e x (cos y + i sin y ).
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2 Euler's formula: When x = 0, we obtain
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e iy = (cos y + i sin y ).
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3 Euler's identity"The most beautiful equation": When y = π

in Euler's formula, we obtain
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e iπ + 1 = 0.
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e iπ + 1 = 0.
4 What would be the form of De-Moiver's theorem in view of

Euler's formula?
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Properties exponential function
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1 |e z | = e x , and arg e z = y ± 2nπ , (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
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1 |e z | = e x , and e z = y ± 2nπ , (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
arg
d z
2 e z is an entire function, and e = ez .
dz
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1 |e z | = e x , and e z = y ± 2nπ , (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
arg
d z
dz
3 e z +z = e z e z .
1 2 1 2
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1 |e z | = e x , and e z = y ± 2nπ , (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
arg
d z
dz
3 e z +z = e z e z .
1 2 1 2
4 e z ̸= 0 for all z .
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1 |e z | = e x , and e z = y ± 2nπ , (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
arg
d z
dz
3 e z +z = e z e z .
1 2 1 2
5 e z is periodic with the fundamental period 2πi (Ohh! purely
imaginary period),
i.e.,e z+2kπi = e z , z ∈ C, k ∈ Z
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1 |e z | = e x , and e z = y ± 2nπ , (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
arg
d z
dz
3 e z +z = e z e z .
1 2 1 2
imaginary period),
i.e.,e z+2kπi = e z , z ∈ C, k ∈ Z
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1 |e z | = e x , and e z = y ± 2nπ , (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
arg
d z
dz
3 e z +z = e z e z .
1 2 1 2
imaginary period),
i.e.,e z+2kπi = e z , z ∈ C, k ∈ Z
6 e z is NOT injective.
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1 |e z | = e x , and e z = y ± 2nπ , (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
arg
d z
dz
3 e z +z = e z e z .
1 2 1 2
imaginary period),
i.e.,e z+2kπi = e z , z ∈ C, k ∈ Z
6 e z is NOT injective.
7 If H = {x + iy : −π < y ≤ π}. Then e z is bijective from H to
C \ {0}.
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Trigonometric function
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1 Euler formula yields
e iy = cos y + i sin y and e −iy = cos y − i sin y .
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2 Solving the above equations, we obtain
e iy − e −iy e iy + e −iy
sin y = and cos y = .
2i 2
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2 Solving the above equations, we obtain
e iy − e −iy e iy + e −iy
sin y = and cos y = .
2i 2
3 Here sine and cosine functions are expressed in term of

complex exponential functions.
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1 Similarly, we dene the complex sine and cosine functions in
terms of the complex exponential functions e iz and e −iz below
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2
e iz − e −iz e iz + e −iz
sin z = and cos z = .
2i 2
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2
e iz − e −iz e iz + e −iz
sin z = and cos z = .
2i 2
3 Now using sine and cosine we can dene tan z, sec z, cosec z
as in the real case.
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Properties of sine and cosine functions

We have to prove all the properties:
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1 sin z and cos z are entire functions.
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d d
2 sin z = cos z , and cos z = − sin z .
dz dz
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d d
2 sin z = cos z , and cos z = − sin z .
dz dz
3 Real and imaginary parts of sin z and cos z are:
sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y

cos z = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y .
522 / 903

523 / 903

1 Modulii of sin z and cos z are:
q
| sin z| = sin2 x + sinh2 y
q
| cos z| = cos2 x + sinh2 y .
524 / 903

q
q
2 sin z and cos z are unbounded function in C.
525 / 903

q
q

What happens for real sine and cosine function in R?
526 / 903

q
q

What happens for real sine and cosine function in R?
3 sin z = 0 i z = kπ , and cos z = 0 i z = kπ + π2 , where
k ∈ Z.
527 / 903
Trigonometric formula
528 / 903
1 sin(−z) = − sin z and cos(−z) = cos z .
529 / 903
2 sin(z1 + z2 ) = sin z1 cos z2 + cos z1 sin z2 .
530 / 903
3 sin 2z = 2 sin z cos z .
531 / 903
4 sin(z + π) = − sin z , sin(z + 2π) = sin z
532 / 903
5 cos(z1 + z2 ) = cos z1 cos z2 − sin z1 sin z2 .
533 / 903
5 cos(z1 + z2 ) = cos z1 cos z2 − sin z1 sin z2 .
6 cos 2z = cos2 z − sin2 z .

534 / 903
Hyperbolic functions
535 / 903
Like real real hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine, we dene the
complex hyperbolic sine and cosine functions as
536 / 903
e z − e −z e z + e −z
sinh z = and cosh z = .
2 2
1 Properties
537 / 903
e z − e −z e z + e −z
2 2
1 Properties
−i sinh(iz) = sin z and cosh(iz) = cos(z)
− i sin(iz) = sinh z and cos(iz) = cosh(z)
sinh(−z) = − sinh z and cosh(−z) = cosh(z).
e z − e −z e z + e −z
2 2
1 Properties

e z − e −z e z + e −z
2 2
1 Properties
− i sin(iz) = sinh z and cos(iz) = cosh(z)
540 / 903
Logarithmic functions
541 / 903
Before studying the complex logarithmic function we dene the
following
1 ln |z| is called the real logarithm of |z|, |z| =
̸ 0.
542 / 903
following
̸ 0.
2 C∗ = C \ {0}punctured complex plane.
543 / 903
following
̸ 0.
2 C∗ = C \ {0}punctured complex plane.
3 H = {x + iy : −π < y ≤ π}- a strip in the complex plane

(visualize it)
544 / 903
Logarithmic function
1 For z ∈ C∗ , we dene
log z = ln |z| + iarg (z).
545 / 903
2 log z is called the complex logarithm of z .
546 / 903

3 log z is a multi-valued function. WHY?
547 / 903

4 By considering the principle argument, we dene single-valued
function as
Log z = ln |z| + iArg (z).
548 / 903

4 By considering the principle argument, we dene single-valued
function as
Log z = ln |z| + iArg (z).
5 Certainly, Log : C∗ → H is well dened i.e., single-valued

function.
549 / 903
Example
1 When z = 1 + i ,
√ √ π
log (1 + i) = ln 2 + iarg (z) = ln 2 + i + 2kπ , k ∈ Z.
4
550 / 903
Example
1 When z = 1 + i ,
√ √ π
4
Also,
√ √ π
Log (1 + i) = ln 2 + iArg (z) = ln 2 + i
4
551 / 903
Example
1 When z = 1 + i ,
√ √ π
4
Also,
√ √ π
Log (1 + i) = ln 2 + iArg (z) = ln 2 + i
4
2 Complex logarithm for negative real exists. When z = −1,
log (−1) = ln 1 + iarg (z) = i(π + 2kπ), k ∈ Z.
552 / 903
Example
1 When z = 1 + i ,
√ √ π
4
Also,
√ √ π
Log (1 + i) = ln 2 + iArg (z) = ln 2 + i
4
2 Complex logarithm for negative real exists. When z = −1,
log (−1) = ln 1 + iarg (z) = i(π + 2kπ), k ∈ Z.
Also,
Log (−1) = ln 1 + iArg (z) = iπ
553 / 903
Properties
1 For z ̸= 0, e
Log z = z.
554 / 903
Properties
1 For z ̸= 0, e
Log z = z.
2 For z ∈ H , Log e
z = z.
555 / 903
Properties
1 For z ̸= 0, e
Log z = z.
z = z.
3 For z ∈
/ H , Log e
z ̸= z .
556 / 903
Properties
1 For z ̸= 0, e
Log z = z.
z = z.
3 For z ∈
/ H , Log e
z ̸= z .
4 For real x > 0, Log x = ln x .
557 / 903
Properties
1 For z ̸= 0, e
Log z = z.
z = z.
3 For z ∈
/ H , Log e
z ̸= z .
4 For real x > 0, Log x = ln x .
5 Log z is not continuous on the negative real axis

R− = {z = x + iy : x < 0, y = 0}.
558 / 903
Properties
1 Log z is analytic on the set C∗ \ R− .
559 / 903
Properties
d 1
2 Log z = .
dz z
560 / 903
Properties
d 1
2 Log z = .
dz z
3 The identity Log (z1 z2 ) = Log z1 + Log z2 is true i

Arg z1 + Arg z2 ∈ (−π, π].
561 / 903
Complex Analysis
LECTURE 9
August 12, 2022
562 / 903
Complex Integration
Curves
563 / 903
Complex Integration
Curves
1 Why do we need to study curves?
564 / 903
Complex Integration
Curves
2 A curve C in the complex plane C is given by a function
(involving one parameter)
γ : [a, b] → C
565 / 903
Complex Integration
Curves
2 A curve C in the complex plane C is given by a function
(involving one parameter)
γ : [a, b] → C
dened as
γ(t) = x(t) + iy (t),

with x, y : [a, b] → R being continuous.
566 / 903
Complex Integration
Examples
567 / 903
Complex Integration
Examples
1 Circle:
568 / 903
Complex Integration
Examples
1 Circle:
The function γ : [0, 2π] → C given by
γ(t) = z0 + r (cos t + i sin t), where z0 is a xed complex
number, gives the circle with center at z0 and radius r .
569 / 903
Complex Integration
Examples
1 Circle:
2 Line segment:
570 / 903
Complex Integration
Examples
1 Circle:
2 Line segment:
The function γ : [0, 1] → C given by
γ(t) = tz1 + (1 − t)z0
gives the line segment joining z0 and z1 .
571 / 903
Complex Integration
Types of curves
1 Smooth curve
572 / 903
Complex Integration
Types of curves
1 Smooth curve
2 Closed curve
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Complex Integration
Types of curves
1 Smooth curve
2 Closed curve
3 Contour
574 / 903
Complex Integration
Types of curves
1 Smooth curve
2 Closed curve
3 Contour
4 Simple contour
575 / 903
Complex Integration
Types of curves
1 Smooth curve
2 Closed curve
3 Contour
4 Simple contour
5 Curve with reverse orientation
576 / 903
Complex Integration
Smooth curve
1 A curve C dened for t ∈ [a, b] is called a smooth curve if

γ ′ (t) = x ′ (t) + iy ′ (t) is continuous on [a, b] and nonzero for
all t ∈ (a, b).
577 / 903
Complex Integration
Smooth curve

all t ∈ (a, b).
2 Geometrically this means that C has everywhere a
continuously turning tangent.
578 / 903
Complex Integration
Smooth curve

all t ∈ (a, b).
2 Geometrically this means that C has everywhere a
continuously turning tangent.
3 Alternatively, a smooth curve does not have any sharp point
or corner.
579 / 903
Complex Integration
Example
1 Circular arc and the circle are examples of smooth curves.
580 / 903
Complex Integration
Example
2 γ(t) = t 4 + it 5 , t ∈ [−1, 1] is NOT a smooth curve.
581 / 903
Complex Integration
Example
Explain mathematically??
582 / 903
Complex Integration
Example
583 / 903
Complex Integration
Example
584 / 903
Complex Integration
Example
γ(t) = 3 cos3 t + i 3 sin3 t, t ∈ [0, 2π] is NOT a smooth curve.
585 / 903
Complex Integration
Example
586 / 903
Complex Integration
Example
587 / 903
Complex Integration
Closed curve
1 A curve C is called closed if its terminal point coincides with
its initial point, that is γ(a) = γ(b).
588 / 903
Complex Integration
Closed curve
1 A curve C is called closed if its terminal point coincides with
its initial point, that is γ(a) = γ(b).
2 In this case, the curve may have property γ(t1 ) = γ(t2 ) for
some t1 ̸= t2 , t1 , t2 ∈ (a, b) too.
589 / 903
Complex Integration
Contour
1 Contour: A contour is a curve that is obtained by joining
nitely many smooth curves end to end.
590 / 903
Complex Integration
Contour
2 Simple contour: A contour is called simple if it does not

cross itself (if initial point and the nal point are same they
are not considered as non simple).
591 / 903
Complex Integration
Contour
2 Simple contour: A contour is called simple if it does not

cross itself (if initial point and the nal point are same they
are not considered as non simple).
3 Examples: A circle is simple, the curve of the shape U are

examples of simple contour, but the curve of the shapes 8 and
g are not simple
592 / 903
Complex Integration
Simple closed contour

1 A contour C is called a simple closed contour if ONLY its
terminal point coincides with its initial point, that is
γ(a) = γ(b).
593 / 903
Complex Integration

γ(a) = γ(b).
2 In this case, the contour CANNOT have property

γ(t1 ) = γ(t1 ) for some t1 ̸= t2 , t1 , t2 ∈ (a, b).
594 / 903
Complex Integration

γ(a) = γ(b).
2 In this case, the contour CANNOT have property

γ(t1 ) = γ(t1 ) for some t1 ̸= t2 , t1 , t2 ∈ (a, b).
3 Examples: A circle is simple.
595 / 903
Complex Integration
Curve with Reverse Orientation

1 Let C : γ : [a, b] → C be a curve. Then the curve with the
reverse orientation, denoted as −C : γ− : [a, b] → C and is
dened as
596 / 903
Complex Integration

dened as
γ− (t) = γ(b + a − t).
597 / 903
Complex Integration

dened as
γ− (t) = γ(b + a − t).
2 Thus for a contour C , the contour with the negative

orientation −C make sense.
598 / 903
Complex Integration
Simply connected domain

1 A domain D is called simply connected if every simple closed
contour within it encloses points of D only.
599 / 903
Complex Integration

2 A simply connected domain does not contain any hole.
600 / 903
Complex Integration

3 A domain D is called multiply connected if it is not simply

connected.
601 / 903
Complex Integration


connected.
4 A multiply connected domain contains at least one hole.
602 / 903
Complex Integration


connected.
5 A doubly connected domain contain EXACTLY one hole.
603 / 903
Complex Integration


connected.
5 A doubly connected domain contain EXACTLY one hole.
6 A triply connected domain contain EXACTLY two holes.
604 / 903
Complex Integration
Complex Analysis
LECTURE 10
August 17, 2022
605 / 903
Complex Integration
Integral of a complex valued function of a real variable

1 Understand the meaning of "complex valued function of a
real variable".
606 / 903
Complex Integration

real variable".
2 Let f : [a, b] → C be a piecewise continuous function. Then
f (t) = u(t) + iv (t) where u, v : [a, b] → R. We then dene
Z b Z b Z b
f (t) dt = u(t) dt + i v (t) dt.
a a a
607 / 903
Complex Integration

real variable".
Z b Z b Z b
a a a
3 The above expression is called integral of a complex valued

function of a real variable.
608 / 903
Complex Integration

real variable".
Z b Z b Z b
a a a
3 The above expression is called integral of a complex valued

function of a real variable.
4 Easy to calculate.
609 / 903
Complex Integration
Important results
Result: Let f : [a, b] → C be a piecewise continuous function.
Then
b b
Z Z

f (t) dt ≤ |f (t)| dt.
a a
Proof : R
b
1 Let ϕ = Arg a f (t) dt
610 / 903
Complex Integration
Important results
Result: Let f : [a, b] → C be a piecewise continuous function.
Then
b b
Z Z

f (t) dt ≤ |f (t)| dt.
a a
Proof : R
b
1 Let ϕ = Arg a f (t) dt
2
b b
Z Z
−iϕ
(∵ |z| = e−i Arg z z)

f (t) dt = e f (t) dt
a a
Z b
−iϕ
= e f (t) dt
a
611 / 903
Complex Integration
Proof
b b b
Z Z Z
−iϕ −iϕ
=Re f (t) dt is real )

e f (t) dt (∵ e f (t) dt =
a a a
Z b
−iϕ
= Re e f (t) dt
a
Note that this is Riemann integral of the real function Re e−iϕ f (t)

Z b
−iϕ
≤ e f (t) dt

a
Using the property of Riemann integral with the fact that

−iϕ −iϕ
Re e f (t) ≤ e f (t)

Z b
= |f (t)| dt.
a
612 / 903
Complex Integration
Remark R
b
ϕ is NOT dened if a f (t) dt = 0. Then there is nothing to

prove.
613 / 903
Complex Integration
Important results
Result: For α ∈ R, show that
Z b iαb
iαt e − eiαa
e dt = .
a iα
614 / 903
Complex Integration
Important results
Result: Let f : [a, b] → C be a continuous function. Then it is
NOT necessary that there must exist c ∈ (a, b) such that
Z b
f (t) dt = f (c)(b − a).
a
615 / 903
Complex Integration
Important results
Z b
f (t) dt = f (c)(b − a).
a
Example:
616 / 903
Complex Integration
Important results
Z b
f (t) dt = f (c)(b − a).
a
Example:
1 Set f (t) = e it , a = 0, b = 2π .
617 / 903
Complex Integration
Important results
Z b
f (t) dt = f (c)(b − a).
a
Example:
1 Set f (t) = e it , a = 0, b = 2π .
Z b
2 Then f (t) dt = 0
a
618 / 903
Complex Integration
Important results
Z b
f (t) dt = f (c)(b − a).
a
Example:
1 Set f (t) = e it , a = 0, b = 2π .
Z b
2 Then f (t) dt = 0
a
3 But f (t) is zero nowhere.
619 / 903
Complex Integration
Integral of a complex valued function of complex variable

1 So far we have discussed about complex valued function of a
real variable.
620 / 903
Complex Integration

real variable.
2 Understand the meaning of integration of complex valued

function of complex variable.
621 / 903
Complex Integration

real variable.

3 Now the domain of the integrand is in the complex plane.
622 / 903
Complex Integration

real variable.

4 The integration will be taken over a contour or curve in C.
623 / 903
Complex Integration

real variable.

4 The integration will be taken over a contour or curve in C.
5 Such an integration is called a contour integration.
624 / 903
Complex Integration
Contour Integral
1 Let C be a contour contained in a domain D .
625 / 903
Complex Integration
Contour Integral
2 Let f : D → C be a piecewise continuous function dened on

C.
626 / 903
Complex Integration
Contour Integral

C.
3 Then the contour integral of f (z) along the contour C ,

denoted as C f (z) dz .
R
627 / 903
Complex Integration
Contour Integral

C.
3 Then the contour integral of f (z) along the contour C ,

denoted as C f (z) dz .
R
4 We dene the integration using Riemann sum.
628 / 903
Complex Integration
Contour Integral-Riemann sum

1 Let C be a contour in C with initial point A and terminal
point B .
629 / 903
Complex Integration

point B .
2 We create a partition Pn = {a = z0 , z1 , z2 , ..., zn−1 , zn = B}
where all the points are on the contour.
630 / 903
Complex Integration
Figure:
631 / 903
Complex Integration

point B .
2 We create a partition Pn = {a = z0 , z2 , ..., zn−1 , zn = B}
632 / 903
Complex Integration

point B .
3 We dene ∆zk = zk+1 − zk
633 / 903
Complex Integration

point B .
4 We now select a point ck on C lying between zk and zk+1 .
634 / 903
Complex Integration

point B .
4 We now select a point ck on C lying between zk and zk+1 .
5 Then the Riemann sun for the partition Pn is
n
X
S(Pn ) = f (ck )∆zk
k=1
635 / 903
Complex Integration

1 When every sequence {S(Pn )} converges to a limit with
maximum |∆zk | → 0, we say that the integration exists.
636 / 903
Complex Integration

1 When every sequence {S(Pn )} converges to a limit with
maximum |∆zk | → 0, we say that the integration exists.
2 We now dene
Z n
X
f (z) dz = lim f (ck )∆zk
C n→∞
k=1
637 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-Riemann sum
Use the RiemannRsum to nd an approximation S(P8 ) to the
contour integral C e z dz where C is the line joining the starting
point A = 0 and terminal point B = 2 + iπ/4.
638 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-Riemann sum
Figure:
639 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-Riemann sum
k kπ
1 Develop P8 = {z + k : zk = + i , k = 0, 1, 2, ..., 8}.
4 32
640 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-Riemann sum
k kπ
1 Develop P8 = {z + k : zk = + i , k = 0, 1, 2, ..., 8}.
4 32
1 π
2 Then ∆zk = zk+1 − zk = + i , k = 1, 2, ..., 8
4 32
641 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-Riemann sum
k kπ
1 Develop P8 = {z + k : zk = + i , k = 0, 1, 2, ..., 8}.
4 32
1 π
2 Then ∆zk = zk+1 − zk = + i , k = 1, 2, ..., 8
4 32
3 We now select
zk+1 + zk 2k − 1 (2k − 1)π
ck = = +i , k = 1, 2, ..., 8
2 8 64
642 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-Riemann sum
k kπ
1 Develop P8 = {z + k : zk = + i , k = 0, 1, 2, ..., 8}.
4 32
1 π
2 Then ∆zk = zk+1 − zk = + i , k = 1, 2, ..., 8
4 32
3 We now select
zk+1 + zk 2k − 1 (2k − 1)π
ck = = +i , k = 1, 2, ..., 8
2 8 64
4
8
2k − 1 (2k − 1)π 1

X π
S(P8 ) = exp +i × +i
8 64 4 32
k=1
≈4.23 + 5.20i
643 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-Riemann sum
k kπ
1 Develop P8 = {z + k : zk = + i , k = 0, 1, 2, ..., 8}.
4 32
1 π
2 Then ∆zk = zk+1 − zk = + i , k = 1, 2, ..., 8
4 32
3 We now select
zk+1 + zk 2k − 1 (2k − 1)π
ck = = +i , k = 1, 2, ..., 8
2 8 64
4
8
2k − 1 (2k − 1)π 1

X π
S(P8 ) = exp +i × +i
8 64 4 32
k=1
≈4.23 + 5.20i
5 Later we can calculate the analytical value

e2 e2
−1 + √ + i √ ≈ 4.22485 + 4.22485i
2 2
644 / 903
Complex Integration
Trouble with Riemann sum??

1 Ohhh, we cannot continue such messy calculations.
645 / 903
Complex Integration

2 In fact, we cannot bother Riemann sum as we cannot

visualize it.
646 / 903
Complex Integration


visualize it.
3 Need some alternative approach.
647 / 903
Complex Integration


visualize it.
3 Need some alternative approach.
4 Ok, we can establish some sophisticated tools...............
648 / 903
Complex Integration
Conversion to an integration of complex valued function

with a real variable
1 Here we convert the complex integration of complex valued
function with a complex variable into an integration of
complex valued function with a real variable.
649 / 903
Complex Integration

2 Possibly, you would be happy now.
650 / 903
Complex Integration

2 Possibly, you would be happy now.
3 How to convert?
651 / 903
Complex Integration
Procedure
1 Recall the parametric representation of the contour C
652 / 903
Complex Integration
Procedure
2 Mathematically, C is a one-parameter curve γ(t) with
γ(t) = x(t) + iy (t), t ∈ [a, b].
653 / 903
Complex Integration
Procedure
γ(t) = x(t) + iy (t), t ∈ [a, b].
3 We can think z(t) = x(t) + iy (t).
654 / 903
Complex Integration
Procedure
γ(t) = x(t) + iy (t), t ∈ [a, b].

4 Since C is a contour, γ ′ (t) = z ′ (t) = x ′ (t) + iy ′ (t), t ∈ [a, b]
is (at least) continuous.
655 / 903
Complex Integration
Procedure
γ(t) = x(t) + iy (t), t ∈ [a, b].

5 We can write
Z Xn
f (z) dz = lim f (ck )∆zk
C n→∞
k=1
656 / 903
Complex Integration
Procedure
γ(t) = x(t) + iy (t), t ∈ [a, b].

5 We can write
Z n n
X X ∆zk
f (z) dz = lim f (ck )∆zk = lim f (ck (tk )) ∆tk
C n→∞ n→∞ ∆tk
k=1 k=1
657 / 903
Complex Integration
Procedure
1 The sum can be written as
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (γ(t))γ ′ (t)dt
C a
658 / 903
Complex Integration
Procedure
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (γ(t))γ ′ (t)dt
C a
2 We have two advantages
659 / 903
Complex Integration
Procedure
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (γ(t))γ ′ (t)dt
C a
3 Firstly, we can visualize the Riemann sum.
660 / 903
Complex Integration
Procedure
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (γ(t))γ ′ (t)dt
C a
4 Secondly, f (γ(t))γ ′ (t) is a complex valued function with a real

variable. We know how to handle such integration.
661 / 903
Complex Integration
Procedure
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (γ(t))γ ′ (t)dt
C a
4 Secondly, f (γ(t))γ ′ (t) is a complex valued function with a real

variable. We know how to handle such integration.
5 We solve many problems using the nal expression.

662 / 903
Complex Integration
Alternative representation of Riemann sum

1 Assume f (z) = u + iv and ∆z = ∆x + i∆y .
663 / 903
Complex Integration

2 In view of the above and after some egregious calculations, the
Riemann sum
Xn
lim f (ck )∆zk
n→∞
k=1
can be written as
Z Z Z
f (z) dz = (udx − vdy ) + i (vdx + udy )
C C C
664 / 903
Complex Integration

2 In view of the above and after some egregious calculations, the
Riemann sum
Xn
lim f (ck )∆zk
n→∞
k=1
can be written as
Z Z Z
C C C
3 Note the RHSR expression could be remembered from the
expansion of C (u + iv )(dx + idy )
665 / 903
Complex Integration
Importance of the last representation

1 The sum is represented in Cartesian form.
2 We have now alternative form to visualize the Riemann sun.
666 / 903
Complex Integration

3 The last expression is nothing but two ordinary line integrals.
Easy to tackle as we know.
667 / 903
Complex Integration

4 Note that, if we know the points (x(t), y (t)) on the contour,
it would yield
Z Z b Z b
f (z) dz = ϕ(t)dt + i ψ(t)dt
C a a
668 / 903
Complex Integration

it would yield
Z Z b Z b
C a a
5 The last form is similar to the one obtained in the rst
procedure.
669 / 903
Complex Integration

it would yield
Z Z b Z b
C a a
procedure. What is the great in Cartesian ?
670 / 903
Complex Integration

it would yield
Z Z b Z b
C a a
procedure. What is the great in Cartesian ?
6 Ok, wait a bit. We'll see the beauty of the Cartesian form
soon.
671 / 903
Complex Integration
Rules of contour integrals

Prove all:
f (z) dz .
R R
1 C f (z) dz = − −C
672 / 903
Complex Integration

Prove all:
f (z) dz .
R R
1 C f (z) dz = − −C
2 Let C = C1 + C2 + · · · + Cn , where the terminal point of Ck
coincides with the initial point of Ck+1 , then
Z Z Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz + f (z) dz + · · · + f (z) dz.
C C1 C2 Cn
673 / 903
Complex Integration

Prove all:
f (z) dz .
R R
1 C f (z) dz = − −C
Z Z Z Z
C C1 C2 Cn
f (z) dz , K is a complex constant.

R R
3 C Kf (z) dz = K C
674 / 903
Complex Integration

Prove all:
f (z) dz .
R R
1 C f (z) dz = − −C
Z Z Z Z
C C1 C2 Cn
f (z) dz , K is a complex constant.

R R
3 Kf (z) dz = K
RC C
C (f (z) + g (z)) dz = C f (z) dz + C g (z) dz .

R R
4
675 / 903
Complex Integration
Example
Evaluate Z
I = z 2 dz,
C
where C is along x -axis from 0 to 1 and then along the line parallel
to y -axis from 1 to 1 + 2i .
676 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-contd
1 Let C1 be x -axis from 0 to 1 and C2 be the line parallel to
y -axis from 1 to 1 + 2i . Then C = C1 + C2 .
677 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-contd
2 Parametrizations of C1 and C2 are given by
C1 : γ1 (t) = t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
C2 : γ2 (t) = (1 − t) + t(1 + 2i)
= 1 + 2it, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
678 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-contd
C1 : γ1 (t) = t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
C2 : γ2 (t) = (1 − t) + t(1 + 2i)
= 1 + 2it, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
3
1
1
Z Z
2
z dz = t 2 dt =
C1 0 3
679 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-contd
C1 : γ1 (t) = t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
C2 : γ2 (t) = (1 − t) + t(1 + 2i)
= 1 + 2it, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
3
1
1
Z Z
2
z dz = t 2 dt =
C1 0 3
4
1
2
Z Z
2
z dz = (1 + 2it)2 2i dt = −4 − i.
C2 0 3
680 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-contd
11 + 2i
Z Z Z
2 2
z dz = z dz + z 2 dz = − .
C C1 C2 3
681 / 903
Complex Integration
Integration using Indenite Integral

1 What do you mean by indenite integral?
682 / 903
Complex Integration

2 Le f (x) be a given function. If there exists anti-derivative

F (x) of f (x), then F (x) is called indenite integral.
683 / 903
Complex Integration

2 Le f (x) be a given function. If there exists anti-derivative

F (x) of f (x), then F (x) is called indenite integral.
3 What is its role in integration?
684 / 903
Complex Integration

Theorem: Let f be a continuous function dened on a domain D
and there exists a function F dened on D such that F ′ = f . Let
z1 , z2 ∈ D . Then for any contour C lying in D starting from z1 ,
and ending at z2 ,
685 / 903
Complex Integration

and ending at z2 ,
Z
f (z) dz = F (z2 ) − F (z1 ).
C
686 / 903
Complex Integration

and ending at z2 ,
Z
f (z) dz = F (z2 ) − F (z1 ).
C
Proof :
687 / 903
Complex Integration

and ending at z2 ,
Z
f (z) dz = F (z2 ) − F (z1 ).
C
Proof :
688 / 903
Complex Integration

and ending at z2 ,
Z
f (z) dz = F (z2 ) − F (z1 ).
C
Proof :
1 Suppose that that C is given by a map γ : [a, b] → C. Then
d
F (γ(t)) = F ′ (γ(t))γ ′ (t).
dt
689 / 903
Complex Integration
Proof-Contd.
690 / 903
Complex Integration
Proof-Contd.
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (γ(t))γ ′ (t) dt
C a
Z b
= F ′ (γ(t))γ ′ (t) dt
a
Z b
d
= F (γ(t)) dt
a dt
= F (γ(t))|ba = F (γ(b)) − F (γ(a))

= F (z2 ) − F (z1 ).
691 / 903
Complex Integration
Proof-Contd.
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (γ(t))γ ′ (t) dt
C a
Z b
= F ′ (γ(t))γ ′ (t) dt
a
Z b
d
= F (γ(t)) dt
a dt
= F (γ(t))|ba = F (γ(b)) − F (γ(a))

= F (z2 ) − F (z1 ).
1 Geometrically, it means that the integration does not depend

on the path.
692 / 903
Complex Integration
Proof-Contd.
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (γ(t))γ ′ (t) dt
C a
Z b
= F ′ (γ(t))γ ′ (t) dt
a
Z b
d
= F (γ(t)) dt
a dt
= F (γ(t))|ba = F (γ(b)) − F (γ(a))

= F (z2 ) − F (z1 ).
1 Geometrically, it means that the integration does not depend

on the path.
2 The integration depends on the end points only.
693 / 903
Complex Integration
Application of the theorem

Example
Evaluate Z
I = z 2 dz,
C
694 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
Evaluate Z
I = z 2 dz,
C
1 It is possible to construct a domain D such that contour C lies
within the domain.
695 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
Evaluate Z
I = z 2 dz,
C
within the domain.
2 Here f (z) = z 2 is continuous.
696 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
Evaluate Z
I = z 2 dz,
C
within the domain.

3 Also we can nd F (z) = z 3 /3 such that F ′ = f on D .
697 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
Evaluate Z
I = z 2 dz,
C
within the domain.

3 Also we can nd F (z) = z 3 /3 such that F ′ = f on D .
4 Hence, we CAN apply the result.
698 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-contd
1
1+2i
z3 11 + 2i
Z
z 2 dz = =− .
C 3 0 3
699 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-contd
1
1+2i
z3 11 + 2i
Z
z 2 dz = =− .
C 3 0 3
2 Now we have obtain the SAME answer as we had calculated

along two smooth curves.
700 / 903
Complex Integration
Example-contd
1
1+2i
z3 11 + 2i
Z
z 2 dz = =− .
C 3 0 3
2 Now we have obtain the SAME answer as we had calculated

along two smooth curves.
3 Good news. We do not calculate line integration now.
701 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
1
Can you apply the theorem to evaluate dz , where C is the
R
C z
straight line from i to −i ?
702 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
1
R
C z
1 z = 0 lies on the straight line.
703 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
1
R
C z
2 Here f (z) = 1/z is NOT continuous at z = 0.
704 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
1
R
C z
2 Here f (z) = 1/z is NOT continuous at z = 0.
3 We cannot apply the theorem.
705 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
Can you apply the theorem to evaluate C |z|2 dz , where C is an
R
arc of unit circle |z| = 1 traversed in the clockwise direction with

initial point −1 and nal point i ?
706 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
R

1 Here f (z) = |z|2 does not have any anti-derivative.
707 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
R


HOW????
708 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
R


HOW????
2 We cannot apply the theorem.
709 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
Can you apply the theorem to evaluate C z1 dz , where C is the
R
straight line from −i to 1 and then from 1 to i ?
710 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
R
1 We construct a domain D = C \ {x + iy : y = 0, x ≤ 0}.
711 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
R

d 1
2 We know Log z = for all z ∈ D .
dz z
712 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
R

d 1
dz z
3 Obviously, C lies in D .
713 / 903
Complex Integration

Example
R

d 1
dz z
3 Obviously, C lies in D .
4 Therefore,
1 π −π
Z h ii
dz = Log z = Log (i) − Log (−i) = i − i = iπ.
C z −i 2 2
714 / 903
Complex Integration
Complex Analysis
LECTURE 11
August 18, 2022
715 / 903
Complex Integration
Arc length of a contour
716 / 903
Complex Integration

The arc length of a contour C : γ(t) = x(t) + iy (t), a ≤ t ≤ b is
given by
717 / 903
Complex Integration

The arc length of a contour C : γ(t) = x(t) + iy (t), a ≤ t ≤ b is
given by
Z b q
L(γ) = (x ′ (t))2 + (y ′ (t))2 dt
a
Z b
= |γ ′ (t)| dt
a
718 / 903
Complex Integration
ML formula or ML inequality
719 / 903
Complex Integration
If L is the arc length of a contour C : γ(t), a ≤ t ≤ b and M is a
positive number such that |f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ C = γ (f (z) is a
piece-wise continuous function), then
720 / 903
Complex Integration
If L is the arc length of a contour C : γ(t), a ≤ t ≤ b and M is a
positive number such that |f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ C = γ (f (z) is a
piece-wise continuous function), then
Z

f (z) dz ≤ ML.

C
721 / 903
Complex Integration
Proof
722 / 903
Complex Integration
Proof
Z Z b
′

f (z) dz = f (γ(t))γ (t) dt

C a
Z b
|f (γ(t))| γ ′ (t) dt

≤
a
Z b
M γ ′ (t) dt

≤
a
Z b
′
= M γ (t) dt
a
= ML
723 / 903
Complex Integration
Proof
Z Z b
′


C a
Z b
|f (γ(t))| γ ′ (t) dt

≤
a
Z b
M γ ′ (t) dt

≤
a
Z b
′
= M γ (t) dt
a
= ML
1 It give some estimate of an upper bound of the modulus of the

integration.
724 / 903
Complex Integration
Proof
Z Z b
′


C a
Z b
|f (γ(t))| γ ′ (t) dt

≤
a
Z b
M γ ′ (t) dt

≤
a
Z b
′
= M γ (t) dt
a
= ML
1 It give some estimate of an upper bound of the modulus of the

integration.
2 We can prove some important theorems using this ML-
inequality. 725 / 903
Cauchy Integral Theorem
Important Integral Theorems

We present three important theorems
726 / 903

1 Cauchy's Integral Theorem
727 / 903

2 The Cauchy-Goursat Theorem
728 / 903

2 The Cauchy-Goursat Theorem
3 Cauchy's Integral Formula
729 / 903
Cauchy's Integral Theorem: by Cauchy in 1846
730 / 903

Let f (z) be a function such that
731 / 903

1 f (z) is analytic on and inside a simple closed contour C , and
732 / 903

1 f (z) is analytic on and inside a simple closed contour C , and

2 f ′ (z) be continuous on and inside C .
Then Z
f (z) dz = 0.
C
733 / 903
Proof
Review of Green's theorem
1 Let C be a piece-wise, simple closed curve enclosing a region

R.
734 / 903
Proof

R.
2 Let M(x, y ) and N(x, y ) have continuous rst order partial
derivatives in an open set containing R .
735 / 903
Proof

R.
2 Let M(x, y ) and N(x, y ) have continuous rst order partial
derivatives in an open set containing R .
Then Z ZZ
(Mdx + Ndy ) = (Nx − My )dxdy ,
C R
where the line integral is taken in counterclockwise sense.
736 / 903
Proof-Contd.
1 We know (alternative approach can be found in many books)
Z Z Z
C C C
737 / 903
Proof-Contd.
Z Z Z
C C C
2 In view of Green's theorem

Z ZZ ZZ
f (z) dz = (−vx − uy )dxdy + i (ux − vy )dxdy
C D D
738 / 903
Proof-Contd.
Z Z Z
C C C
2 In view of Green's theorem

Z ZZ ZZ
f (z) dz = (−vx − uy )dxdy + i (ux − vy )dxdy
C D D
3 Because of analyticity, CR equations are satised on D .

4 Hence Z
f (z) dz = 0 + i 0 = 0.
C
739 / 903
Cauchy-Goursat theorem
Let f (z) be a function such that f (z) is analytic on and inside a
simple closed contour C . Then
Z
f (z) dz = 0.
C
740 / 903
Information-Cauchy-Goursat theorem
741 / 903
1 What are the dierence between Cauchy's integral theorem
and Cauchy-Goursat theorem.
742 / 903
2 Note that continuity of f ′ (z) is not involved in Cauchy's
integral theorem.
743 / 903
integral theorem.
3 Goursat (French mathematician in 1903) proved Cauchy's
theorem without continuity of f ′ (z).
744 / 903
integral theorem.
4 It is also called Goursat theorem.
745 / 903
integral theorem.
5 Cauchy-Goursat theorem is a stronger version of Cauchy's
integral theorem.
746 / 903
integral theorem.
5 Cauchy-Goursat theorem is a stronger version of Cauchy's
integral theorem.
6 We use this theorem to solve problems.
747 / 903
Alternative form of Cauchy-Goursat theorem
748 / 903

Let f (z) be a function analytic throughout a simply connected
domain D and C be a simple closed contour lying completely inside
D . Then Z
f (z) dz = 0.
C
749 / 903

Let f (z) be a function analytic throughout a simply connected
domain D and C be a simple closed contour lying completely inside
D . Then Z
f (z) dz = 0.
C
Figure:
750 / 903
Examples- Application of Cauchy-Goursat theorem
751 / 903

Evaluate the following integrals where C denotes the circle of unit
radius with center at zero.
Z
1 sin z .
C
752 / 903

Z
1 sin z .
ZC
zn
2 e .
C
753 / 903

Z
1 sin z .
ZC
zn
2 e .
C
Z
e
iz 2
3 dz .
C z2 + 4
754 / 903
755 / 903

1 Can
R you 2apply Cauchy-Goursat's theorem to evaluate
C cosec z , where C denotes the circle ofunit radius with
center at zero.
756 / 903

1 Can
R you 2apply Cauchy-Goursat's theorem to evaluate
C cosec z , where C denotes the circle ofunit radius with
center at zero.
2 Determine the value of the integration.
757 / 903
Solution
758 / 903
Solution
1 f (z) is not analytic inside the closed counter as f (z) is not
analytic at z = 0.
759 / 903
Solution
analytic at z = 0.
2 So
R we cannot apply Cauchy-Goursat's theorem to evaluate
2
C cosec z .
760 / 903
Solution
analytic at z = 0.
2 So
2
C cosec z .
3 Note that f (z) is analytic at C \ {nπ : n ∈ Z}.
761 / 903
Solution
analytic at z = 0.
2 So
2
C cosec z .
3 Note that f (z) is analytic at C \ {nπ : n ∈ Z}.
4 Consider the annulus D = {z : 0 < |z| < π}. This is our

modied domain.
762 / 903
Solution
763 / 903
Solution
1 f (z) is continuous on the modied domain.
764 / 903
Solution
2 The contour C lies entirely inside D .
765 / 903
Solution
3 Also F ′ (z) = f (z) on D , where F (z) = − cot z .
766 / 903
Solution
3 Also F ′ (z) = f (z) on D , where F (z) = − cot z .
4 Since C is a closed contour with starting and end points z1

and z2 . Then z1 = z2 .
Hence 2 = F (z2 ) − F (z1 ) = 0.

R
5 C cosec z
767 / 903
Cauchy-Goursat's theorem for multiply connected domain
Deformation of simple closed counter
768 / 903

1 Let C1 be a simple closed contour with ugly shape.
769 / 903

2 Then the ugly contour can be deformed into a another

closed contour C2 (lies inside C1 ) with a known shape such as
triangle, rectangle, or circle, etc..
770 / 903


3 Visualize the statement.
771 / 903


3 Visualize the statement.
4 What is the advantage/application of such deformation?
772 / 903
Trouble with ugly contour
773 / 903

1 Let C be a simple closed contour and with ugly shape.
774 / 903

2 Let f (z) be an analytic function on the contour and the
domain enclosed by C .
775 / 903

3 Then by Cauchy-Goursat theorem we can obtain
Z
f (z)dz = 0.
C
776 / 903

Z
f (z)dz = 0.
C
4 We do not need to think about the parametric representation

of the ugly contour.
5 Thus we have NO trouble.
777 / 903

Z
f (z)dz = 0.
C

6 OK, think about the integration of a function which is NOT
analytic on the domain enclosed by the ugly contour.
778 / 903

Z
f (z)dz = 0.
C

6 OK, think about the integration of a function which is NOT
analytic on the domain enclosed by the ugly contour.
7 Thus, we CANNOT apply Cauchy-Goursat theorem.
779 / 903
780 / 903

1 For simplicity, we consider the function f (z) = 1/z and the
contour encloses a domain including origin.
781 / 903

782 / 903

3 Thus, we need to calculate the integration DIRECTLY along

the curve.
783 / 903

3 Thus, we need to calculate the integration DIRECTLY along

the curve.
4 So parametric representation of the ugly contour is required.
5 This makes our life terrible.

.
784 / 903
785 / 903

1 It would be great if we can replace the ugly contour by a one
with simple shape (such as circle) then the direct integration
easier.
786 / 903

easier.
2 Now we learn the advantage of computing the direct
integration over the contour with a simple shape.
787 / 903

easier.
2 Now we learn the advantage of computing the direct
integration over the contour with a simple shape.
3 Follow the next theorem.
788 / 903
Theorem on deformation contour
789 / 903

Theorem
790 / 903

Theorem
Let C1 and C2 be two simple closed positively oriented contours
such that C2 lies interior to C1 . If f (z) is analytic in a domain D
that contains both the contours and the region between them, then
Z Z
f (z)dz = f (z)dz
C1 C2
791 / 903

Theorem
Z Z
f (z)dz = f (z)dz
C1 C2
1 Both the contours have positive orientation.
792 / 903

Theorem
Z Z
f (z)dz = f (z)dz
C1 C2

2 It is not necessary that the function needs to be analytic inside
the domain enclosed by C2 .
793 / 903

Theorem
Z Z
f (z)dz = f (z)dz
C1 C2

2 It is not necessary that the function needs to be analytic inside
3 In practical situations (examples), f (z) is NOT analytic inside
794 / 903
Proof-outline
795 / 903
Proof-outline
Figure:
796 / 903
Proof-outline
797 / 903
Proof-outline
Figure: f (z) is analytic on the curve and shaded region. It may not be
analytic on the white domain enclosed by C2 .
798 / 903
Proof-outline
Figure: Integration along C1,0 + L1 + C2,0 + L2 is 0 by Cauchy-Goursat

theorem.
799 / 903
Proof-outline
Figure: Integration along C1,1 − L2 + C2,1 − L1 is 0 by Cauchy-Goursat

theorem.
800 / 903
1 Z
=0
C1,0 +L1 +C2,0 +L2
801 / 903
1 Z
=0
C1,0 +L1 +C2,0 +L2
2 Z
=0
C1,1 −L2 +C2,1 −L1
802 / 903
1 Z
=0
C1,0 +L1 +C2,0 +L2
2 Z
=0
C1,1 −L2 +C2,1 −L1
3 Adding together
Z
=0
C1,0 +C1,1 +C2,0 +C2,1
803 / 903
1 Z
=0
C1,0 +L1 +C2,0 +L2
2 Z
=0
C1,1 −L2 +C2,1 −L1
3 Adding together
Z
=0
C1,0 +C1,1 +C2,0 +C2,1
4 Adding together
Z
=0
C1 −C2
804 / 903
1 Therefore,
Z Z
=
C1 C2
805 / 903
1 Therefore,
Z Z
=
C1 C2
2 Thus we can obtain the same integration value along both the
contours.
806 / 903
1 Therefore,
Z Z
=
C1 C2
contours.
3 In piratical situation we consider C1 with simple form such as
CIRCLE.
807 / 903
1 Therefore,
Z Z
=
C1 C2
contours.
3 In piratical situation we consider C1 with simple form such as
CIRCLE.
4 Note that we have applied Cauchy-Goursat theorem TWICE.
808 / 903
Example
809 / 903
Example
1 Compute
1
Z
dz , where the contour encloses origin.
Cugly z
810 / 903
Example
1 Compute
1
Z
Cugly z
2 We deform the ugly contour into a circle |z| = r whose
parametric equation is z = re iθ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
811 / 903
Example
1 Compute
1
Z
Cugly z
3 r will be chosen in such a way that the circle lies inside the
ugly curve.
812 / 903
Example
1 Compute
1
Z
Cugly z
3 r will be chosen in such a way that the circle lies inside the
ugly curve.
4 Direct integration yield 2πi for any r .
813 / 903
ALTERNATIVE Proof-outline
814 / 903
We can prove the theorem by applying cauchy-Goursat theorem
only ONE time.
815 / 903
816 / 903
Figure: One one simply connected domain (shaded portion). Integration

along C1 + L1 − C2 + L2 is 0 by Cauchy-Gaursat theorem.
817 / 903
818 / 903
1 We assume that L1 and L2 are parallel lines and close to each

other.
819 / 903

other.
Thus, L = − −L
R R
2
1 2
820 / 903

other.
Thus, L = − −L
R R
2
1 2
3 Because of analyticity, integrations over the whole contours C1

and C2 do not change value if an innitesimal arch is removed.
4 Hence, Z
=0
C 1+L1 − C2 +L2
821 / 903

other.
Thus, L = − −L
R R
2
1 2
3 Because of analyticity, integrations over the whole contours C1

and C2 do not change value if an innitesimal arch is removed.
4 Hence, Z
=0
C 1+L1 − C2 +L2
5 Finally,
Z Z
=
C1 C2
822 / 903
823 / 903

Theorem
824 / 903

Theorem
Let C be a positively oriented simple closed contour and Ck ,
k = 1, 2, . . . n denote a nite number of positively oriented simple
closed contours all lying wholly within C , but each Ck lies in the
exterior of every other whose interior have no points in common. If
a function f is analytic throughout the closed region D consisting of
all points within and on C except for the points interior to each Ck .
825 / 903

Theorem
Let C be a positively oriented simple closed contour and Ck ,
k = 1, 2, . . . n denote a nite number of positively oriented simple
closed contours all lying wholly within C , but each Ck lies in the
exterior of every other whose interior have no points in common. If
a function f is analytic throughout the closed region D consisting of
all points within and on C except for the points interior to each Ck .
Then
Z Z Z Z
C C1 C2 Cn
826 / 903
Proof:- for doubly connected domain
827 / 903

C
C2
C1
Figure: Think about the proof with for doubly connected domain
828 / 903
829 / 903

C
P1
A
Q1
D1 L1
E
F
R1
L2 Q2
H G
D2
L3
R2
B P2
Figure: Apply the concepts from earlier the theorem
830 / 903
Example with multiply connected domain
831 / 903

1
Z
1 dz where C := |z| = 3
C z2 +1
832 / 903

1
Z
1 dz where C := |z| = 3
C z2+1
2 The function is not analytic at z = i and z = −i which are
inside C
833 / 903

1
Z
1 dz where C := |z| = 3
C z2+1
inside C
3 We make two circles C1 := |z − i| = 1/2 and
C2 := |z + i| = 1/2.
834 / 903

1
Z
1 dz where C := |z| = 3
C z2+1
inside C
3 We make two circles C1 := |z − i| = 1/2 and
C2 := |z + i| = 1/2.
4 Then by Cauchy-Goursat theorem for doubly connected domain
1 1 1
Z Z Z
2
dz = 2
dz + 2
dz
C z +1 C z +1 C z +1
1 2
835 / 903
836 / 903

1
1 1 1 1
Z Z Z
dz = dz − dz
C1 z2 + 1 2i C1 z −i C1 z +i
837 / 903

1
1 1 1 1
Z Z Z
dz = dz − dz
C1 z2 + 1 2i C1 z −i C1 z +i
1 1
Z
2 Now dz = [2πi − 0]
C1 z2 +1 2i
838 / 903

1
1 1 1 1
Z Z Z
dz = dz − dz
C1 z2 + 1 2i C1 z −i C1 z +i
1 1
Z
2 Now dz = [2πi − 0]
C1 z2 +1 2i
3 2πi is calculated by taking z = (1/2)e iθ and second integral
yield zero as the integrand is analytic on and inside C1 .
839 / 903

1
1 1 1 1
Z Z Z
dz = dz − dz
C1 z2 + 1 2i C1 z −i C1 z +i
1 1
Z
2 Now dz = [2πi − 0]
C1 z2 +1 2i
1 1
Z
4 Similarly, 2
dz = [0 − 2πi]
C z +1 2
2i
840 / 903

1
1 1 1 1
Z Z Z
dz = dz − dz
C1 z2 + 1 2i C1 z −i C1 z +i
1 1
Z
2 Now dz = [2πi − 0]
C1 z2 +1 2i
1 1
Z
4 Similarly, 2
dz = [0 − 2πi]
z +1 2i
Z C 2
1 1 1
5 Finally, 2+1
dz = [2πi − 0] + [0 − 2πi] = 0.
C z 2i 2i
841 / 903
842 / 903

1 OK, we are very much successfully to solve the previous
problem.
843 / 903

problem.
sin(πz 2 ) + cos(πz 2 )
Z
2 What about dz where C := |z| = 4?
C (z − 2)(z − 3)
844 / 903

problem.
Z
C (z − 2)(z − 3)
3 Ok, the function is not analytic at z = 2 and z = 3 which are
inside C
845 / 903

problem.
Z
C (z − 2)(z − 3)
inside C
4 We make two circles C1 := |z − 2| = 1/2 and
C2 := |z − 3| = 1/2.
846 / 903

problem.
Z
C (z − 2)(z − 3)
inside C
C2 := |z − 3| = 1/2.
5 Dicult to calculate by applying parametric curve due the
presence of sin(πz 2 ) and cos(πz 2 ).
847 / 903

problem.
Z
C (z − 2)(z − 3)
inside C
C2 := |z − 3| = 1/2.
5 Dicult to calculate by applying parametric curve due the
presence of sin(πz 2 ) and cos(πz 2 ).
6 But we can nd an easy way follows from the next theorem.
848 / 903
Complex Analysis
LECTURE 12
August 19, 2022
849 / 903
Cauchy's integral formula
850 / 903

Theorem
851 / 903

Theorem
Let the function f (z) be analytic on and inside a positively oriented
simple closed contour C and z0 be any point inside C .
852 / 903

Theorem
Let the function f (z) be analytic on and inside a positively oriented
simple closed contour C and z0 be any point inside C .
Then
1
Z
f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz. (3)
2πi C z − z0
853 / 903
Example
854 / 903
Example
cos(e z )
Z
1 Determine dz where C := |z| = 1.
C z
855 / 903
Example
cos(e z )
Z
C z
2 It is dicult to solve by making use of z = e iθ .
856 / 903
Example
cos(e z )
Z
C z
3 We apply Cauchy's integral formula
857 / 903
Example
cos(e z )
Z
C z
3 We apply Cauchy's integral formula
4 Solution:
cos(e z )
Z
dz = 2πi cos(e z )|z=0 = 2πi cos(1).
C z
858 / 903
Example
859 / 903
Example
Z
C (z − 2)(z − 3)
860 / 903
Example
Z
C (z − 2)(z − 3)
2 The function is not analytic at z = 2 and z = 3 which are
inside C .
861 / 903
Example
Z
C (z − 2)(z − 3)
inside C .
C2 := |z − 3| = 1/2.
862 / 903
Example
Z
C (z − 2)(z − 3)
inside C .
C2 := |z − 3| = 1/2.
4 Then by Cauchy-Goursat theorem for doubly connected domain
sin(πz 2 ) + cos(πz 2 ) sin(πz 2 ) + cos(πz 2 )

Z Z
dz = dz
C (z − 2)(z − 3) C (z − 2)(z − 3)
1
Z
+ dz
C (z − 2)(z − 3)
2
863 / 903
Example
1 Now
sin(πz 2 ) + cos(πz 2 ) [sin(πz 2 ) + cos(πz 2 )]/(z − 3)
Z Z
dz = dz
C 1
(z − 2)(z − 3) C (z − 2)
1
= 2πi[sin(πz 2 ) + cos(πz 2 )/(z − 3)]|z=2

= −2πi[sin(4π) + cos(4π)] = −2πi
864 / 903
Example
1 Now
Z Z
dz = dz
C 1
(z − 2)(z − 3) C (z − 2)
1
= 2πi[sin(πz 2 ) + cos(πz 2 )/(z − 3)]|z=2

= −2πi[sin(4π) + cos(4π)] = −2πi
2 Similarly,
Z Z
dz = dz
C 2
(z − 2)(z − 3) C (z − 3)
1
= 2πi[sin(πz 2 ) + cos(πz 2 )]/(z − 2)|z=3

= 2πi[sin(9π) + cos(9π)] = −2πi
865 / 903
Example
1 Now
Z Z
dz = dz
C 1
(z − 2)(z − 3) C (z − 2)
1
= 2πi[sin(πz 2 ) + cos(πz 2 )/(z − 3)]|z=2

= −2πi[sin(4π) + cos(4π)] = −2πi
2 Similarly,
Z Z
dz = dz
C 2
(z − 2)(z − 3) C (z − 3)
1
= 2πi[sin(πz 2 ) + cos(πz 2 )]/(z − 2)|z=3

= 2πi[sin(9π) + cos(9π)] = −2πi
Z
3 Finally, dz = −4πi.
C (z − 2)(z − 3) 866 / 903
Derivative of contour integrals
867 / 903

Theorem
868 / 903

Theorem
If f is analytic on a simply connected domain D then f has
derivatives of all orders in D (which are then analytic in D ) and for
any z0 ∈ D , one has
Z
n! f (z)
f n (z0 ) = dz, (4)
2πi C (z − z0 )n+1
where C is a simple closed contour (oriented counterclockwise)

around z0 in D .
869 / 903
Example
870 / 903
Example
2
ez
Z
1 Determine 2
dz where C is a simple closed curve
C z
enclosing origin.
871 / 903
Example
2
ez
Z
1 Determine 2
dz where C is a simple closed curve
C z
enclosing origin.
2 Solution:
2
ez 2πi d z
Z
2
2
dz = (e )|z=0 = 0.
C z 1! dz
872 / 903
Converse of Cauchy-Goursat's Theorem
873 / 903

Problem statement:
874 / 903

Problem statement: Suppose f (z) is a function with domain D
such that Z
f (z) dz = 0
C
for every closed contour C lying inside D . Can we conclude from
this that f is analytic in D ?
875 / 903

such that Z
f (z) dz = 0
C
1 Answer is
876 / 903

such that Z
f (z) dz = 0
C
1 Answer is NO.
877 / 903

such that Z
f (z) dz = 0
C
1 Answer is NO.
2 Consider the domain D := {z : |z| < 1}
878 / 903

such that Z
f (z) dz = 0
C
1 Answer is NO.
2 Consider (the domain D := {z : |z| < 1}
z if z ∈ D \ { 12 }
3 f (z) = .
1 if z = 12
879 / 903

such that Z
f (z) dz = 0
C
1 Answer is NO.
z if z ∈ D \ { 12 }
3 f (z) = .
1 if z = 12
4 For ever closed contour, one can see:
Z
f (z) dz = 0.
C
880 / 903

such that Z
f (z) dz = 0
C
1 Answer is NO.
z if z ∈ D \ { 12 }
3 f (z) = .
1 if z = 12
4 For ever closed contour, one can see:
Z
f (z) dz = 0.
C
5 But, note that f (z) is NOT analytic in D . 881 / 903

Morera's Theorem
882 / 903
Morera's Theorem
Statement:
883 / 903
Morera's Theorem
Statement: Suppose f (z) is continuous inside a simply connected
domain D and Z
f (z) dz = 0,
C
for any simple closed contour C lying inside D . Then f (z) is
analytic throughout D .
884 / 903
Morera's Theorem
domain D and Z
f (z) dz = 0,
C
1 We say that Morera's theorem is partially converse of

Cauchy-Goursat's theorem.
885 / 903
Morera's Theorem
domain D and Z
f (z) dz = 0,
C

2 Why partially?
886 / 903
Morera's Theorem
domain D and Z
f (z) dz = 0,
C

2 Why partially?
3 Because: Instead of the function f (z), we have imposed
continuity property on f (z) on the domain.
887 / 903
Consequences of Cauchy's Integral Formula

We discuss about three consequences:
1 Cauchy Estimates
888 / 903

1 Cauchy Estimates
2 Liouville's Theorem
889 / 903

1 Cauchy Estimates
2 Liouville's Theorem
3 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
890 / 903
Cauchy Estimates
Let f (z) be analytic on and inside the circle C : |z − z0 | = r . If
|f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ C , then for all n ≥ 0,
n!M
|f (n) (z0 )| ≤ .
rn
891 / 903
Proof
892 / 903
Liouville's Theorem
Liouville's Theorem: Bounded entire function must be a constant
function.
893 / 903
Proof
894 / 903
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Before we present the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra we prove
the following result.
895 / 903

Before we present the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra we prove
the following result.
Result: |P(z)| → ∞ as |z| → ∞ for every polynomial P(z) of

degree n ≥ 1.
896 / 903
Proof
897 / 903
Proof
898 / 903

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: Every polynomial P(z) of
degree n ≥ 1 has a root in C.
899 / 903
Proof
900 / 903

Corollary: Every polynomial P(z) of degree n ≥ 1 has exactly n
(not necessarily distinct) roots in C.
901 / 903
Proof
902 / 903
Thank You
903 / 903

V12 - MA 203 Complex Analysis

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Complex Analysis and Dierential Equations II Course Code: MA 203 Programme: B.Tech.

Complex Analysis and Dierential

1 Dr. Bapan Ghosh:

1 Dr. Bapan Ghosh: First part-complex Analysis

1 Dr. Bapan Ghosh: First part-complex Analysis

1 Dr. Bapan Ghosh: First part-complex Analysis

2 Dr. Santanu Manna:

1 Dr. Bapan Ghosh: First part-complex Analysis

2 Dr. Santanu Manna: Ordinary Dierential Equations part

1 Dr. Vinay Kumar Gupta:

1 Dr. Vinay Kumar Gupta: Partial Dierential Equations part

1 Dr. Vinay Kumar Gupta: Partial Dierential Equations part

2 Dr. Aquil Khan:

1 Dr. Vinay Kumar Gupta: Partial Dierential Equations part

2 Dr. Aquil Khan: Second part-complex Analysis

Tentative Evaluation Plan (out of 100 Marks)

Tentative Evaluation Plan (out of 100 Marks)

Tentative Evaluation Plan (out of 100 Marks)

Tentative Evaluation Plan (out of 100 Marks)

July 27, 2022

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Complex number: Origin

Motivations: Real number vs complex number

Real number vs complex number

Real number vs complex number

Real number vs complex number

Real number vs complex number

Real number vs complex number

Real number vs complex number

Real number vs complex number

Real number vs complex number

Real number vs complex number

Real number vs complex number

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Real function vs complex function

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2 There are two terminologies for complex function:

Real function vs complex function

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Real function vs complex function

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Real function vs complex function

Complex Analysis and Dierential Equations II Course Code: MA 203 Programme: B.Tech.

Complex Analysis and Dierential

2 Dr. Santanu Manna: Ordinary Dierential Equations part

1 Dr. Vinay Kumar Gupta: Partial Dierential Equations part

1 Dr. Vinay Kumar Gupta: Partial Dierential Equations part

1 Dr. Vinay Kumar Gupta: Partial Dierential Equations part

1 If the rst derivative of a real function exists on R, we

1 If the rst derivative of a real function exists on R, we

1 If the rst derivative of a real function exists on R, we

1 If the rst derivative of a real function exists on R, we

1 If the rst derivative of a real function exists on R, we

2 If the rst derivative of any complex function exists on C, then

1 Of course, we need to utilize imaginary number to nd zeros of

1 Of course, we need to utilize imaginary number to nd zeros of

1 Of course, we need to utilize imaginary number to nd zeros of

1 Of course, we need to utilize imaginary number to nd zeros of