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Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000
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Procedia Manufacturing 24 (2018) 40–47
4th International
ProcediaConference
Manufacturing 00on System-Integrated
(2017) 000–000 Intelligence
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia

Application Scenarios
4th International Conference on ofSystem-Integrated
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A. Mayr *, M. Weigelt , M. Masuch , M. Meiners , F. Hüttel , J. Franke
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Institute for Factory Automation and Production Systems (FAPS), Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg (FAU),
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Introduction
address: andreas.mayr@faps.fau.de

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andreas.mayr@faps.fau.de
in modern production systems. In general, it is defined as unused capacity or production potential and can be measured
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 4th International Conference on System-Integrated Intelligence.
in several ways: tons of production, available hours of manufacturing, etc. The management of the idle capacity
2351-9789 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
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Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 4th International Conference on System-Integrated Intelligence.

2351-9789 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Peer-review
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This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 4th International Conference on System-Integrated Intelligence.
10.1016/j.promfg.2018.06.006
 A. Mayr et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 24 (2018) 40–47 41
2 A. Mayr et al./ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000

various fields of computer science, production engineers are facing significant challenges in making use of such
advanced theories. Therefore, applied research must close the gap between theory and practice by providing concrete
solutions for concrete problems.
Among manufacturing industry, especially the electric drives production is becoming increasingly important.
Megatrends such as the electric mobility or process automation are all built upon energy efficient and cost-effective
electric drives. Besides advancing ideas on the design of electric drives, the organization of the manufacturing
processes and systems is of great importance. [1, 2, 3] This is where AI technologies come into play: On the one hand,
AI technologies could assist the production planner in choosing the optimal production processes for a given electric
drive design. On the other hand, such technologies could be used for building intelligent systems, which autonomously
adapt their process parameters to changing conditions. This not only reduces costs, but also increases the robustness
and resource efficiency of the required processes. However, hardly any AI-based approaches have been proposed in
the field of electric drives production yet.
Therefore, this paper focuses on transferring the potential of relevant AI technologies to the production of electric
drives. After this introduction, the basics of relevant AI technologies, namely knowledge-based systems (KBS) and
machine learning (ML), are explained, followed by a short overview about the electric drives production processes.
By summarizing the few existing AI-based approaches, the need for action is addressed. Section 3 then gives a
structured overview about various application scenarios within the electric drives production. In addition to existing
concepts, a large number of approaches from related industrial sectors, which can be transferred to the present case of
application, are shown. By identifying and disclosing application scenarios for KBS and ML in the production of
electric drives, this paper serves as a starting point for future research in the respective fields.

2. Theoretical background

2.1. Fundamentals of relevant AI technologies

It is vital to have a clear definition of AI when discussing its potentials. AI represents the generic term for a diverse
field of research. On the one hand, it includes general concepts such as learning and perception. On the other hand, AI
addresses specific tasks like playing chess, proving mathematical theorems, driving a car or diagnosing diseases. Due
to the variety and dynamics in the field of AI, finding a universal definition is rather difficult. Existing definitions are
either focused on human performance or on rationality, i.e. ideal performance. [4] Rich et al. define AI as the “study
of how to make computers do things which, at the moment, people do better” [5]. In order to act humanly, a system
requires capabilities of natural language processing, knowledge representation, automated reasoning, machine
learning, computer vision and robotics [4]. As one can see, AI comprises a wide range of technologies, depending on
the problem definition [6]. Therefore, this paper only focuses on those AI technologies that hold great potential for
improving the production of electric drives, namely KBS and ML.

2.1.1. Knowledge-based systems and knowledge engineering

A KBS is an intelligent, computer-based program or software system which arose from the research of the just
mentioned AI. The main task of a KBS is to store knowledge as well as to provide the human user with information
to support the problem solving and decision-making process. [7, 8] As shown in Fig. 1, a KBS consists of a knowledge
base, an inference engine and a user interface [6]. The knowledge base contains formalized knowledge, whereas the
inference engine implements the solution algorithm. The separation between knowledge representation and knowledge
processing brings multiple benefits: The underlying models can be adjusted or exchanged without changing the
algorithm. Furthermore, different algorithms can be applied to one knowledge base, facilitating the use of existing
knowledge for different tasks. [9] Knowledge can be acquired by means of knowledge engineering, using available
resources such as human experts, knowledge engineers or data bases. Furthermore, self-learning systems actively
discover knowledge from databases and their environment. [6] The process of knowledge discovery is described in
the following paragraph.
42 A. Mayr et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 24 (2018) 40–47
A. Mayr et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 3

Knowledge sources Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge User

acquisition processing
Knowledge
engineer

Expert Knowledge-based system

Knowledge
engineering
Knowledge Inference User
Data bases base engine interface
Knowledge
discovery
Environment

Knowledge

Data Interpretation Unsupervised

Transfor- Clustering
Prepro- mining /Evaluation learning
mation
Selection cessing
Data Supervised Classification
Classical Machine learning
Regression
statistics learning
Reinforcement
learning

Fig. 1. Connection between a knowledge-based system, the knowledge discovery process and machine learning

2.1.2. Knowledge discovery, data mining and machine learning

Knowledge discovery in databases (KDD) can be regarded as a multidisciplinary approach describing the entire
process of gaining useful information from large data sets. The general aim is to transform low-level data into more
compact, more abstract or more useful one. As shown in Fig. 1, data mining represents one specific step of this process
which is applied for extracting patterns after data has been selected, preprocessed and transformed. By interpreting
and evaluating the derived patterns, valuable knowledge can be obtained. [10] Since data mining commonly uses
techniques evolving from ML to analyze gathered data, these fields are closely related and to some extent overlapping
[10, 11]. However, ML also addresses fields which are not relevant for KDD or rather data mining [11, 12].
Samuel describes ML as a domain that enables computers to learn, eliminating the necessity for explicit
programming [13]. Mitchell specifies that a computer program learns if it enhances its performance regarding a
specific task by gaining experience. ML algorithms are particularly useful in complex domains where humans lack the
required understanding and knowledge to develop efficient algorithms, as well as in domains where the adaptation to
altering conditions is essential. [12] Within ML, different learning methods can be distinguished, namely supervised,
unsupervised and reinforcement learning. For ML problems, manifold algorithms can be utilized, depending on the
application. Frequently used are artificial neural network (ANN) algorithms to which backpropagation networks, self-
organizing maps, autoencoders or convolutional neural networks (CNN) belong, just to name a few. Further algorithms
include, for example, support vector machines (SVM), decision trees, random forests, k-nearest neighbor, k-means or
temporal difference learning. [14] The term deep learning refers to ML techniques which apply multiple data
transformation steps to be particularly effective in extracting information from large data sets [15].

2.2. Short overview about the production processes of electric drives

After having explained the relevant AI technologies, the application domain, in this case the electric drives
production, has to be described briefly. The main components of an electric drive are the stator and the rotor,
surrounded by a housing. The movement of the rotor results from an electromagnetic force in the magnetic field of the
stator. The production process can be divided into several sub-processes whose exact sequence varies depending on
the motor type. The housing is commonly formed in a pressure die-casting process. The laminated core, a component
required both for the stator and the rotor, consists of electrical sheets which are cut out by punching or laser cutting.
The individual sheets are joined using common techniques such as riveting, welding or adhesive bonding.
 A. Mayr et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 24 (2018) 40–47 43
4 A. Mayr et al./ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000

Subsequently, insulations and windings are mounted to the laminated core. For joining the insulated copper wires,
various contacting techniques can be applied, namely crimping, welding or soldering. In addition, the rotor shaft has
to be formed, machined and subsequently joined with the laminated core of the rotor. In case of an asynchronous
motor, a rotor cage is formed in a pressure die-casting process, whereas in case of a permanent magnet synchronous
motor, magnets are assembled. Finally, all components are assembled and tested. More information on the production
of electric drives can be found in the referenced literature. [1, 2, 3]

3. Application scenarios of AI technologies within the electric drives production

3.1. State of the art and classification of the approaches found in the literature review

Although AI technologies are already used in several industrial sectors, hardly any AI-based approaches have been
proposed for the increasingly important electric drives production yet. Only recently, some basic concepts for the use
of KBS and ML were presented in [16, 17]. While KBS seem to be eminently suitable for supporting the decision
making during the planning and design phase of the production system, ML-based approaches show great potential
for optimizing single production processes. In this context, process control, quality management (QM) and predictive
maintenance represent the three major applications as described in [17]. Applying ML in process control is expected
to result in a higher adaptability to changing conditions, stabilizing output quality while simultaneously reducing reject
rates. In QM, ML-based models can be used to monitor or predict the quality of the product, whereby quality measures
like checking random samples become unnecessary. In contrast to process control, QM focuses on the final product
and therefore does not involve any process adjustments. When it comes to predictive maintenance, ML algorithms can
estimate the condition of machines or tools and predict the optimal time for maintenance or tool changes. However,
all three applications depend on measurement systems which record relevant process parameters and quality features
of the product. [17, 18]
In addition to the aforementioned approaches, various AI applications in related manufacturing processes exist from
which analogies to the electric drives production can be drawn. Table 1 provides an overview of application scenarios
which are examined in detail in the following paragraphs. Underlined approaches directly refer to electric drives
production, whereas non-underlined applications are derived from related fields.

Table 1. Overview about various application scenarios of AI technologies in electric drives production
Electric drives AI technologies Applications
production Process optimization
Knowledge-based Machine Process planning Process Quality Predictive
system (KBS) Learning (ML) and design control management (QM) maintenance
[16], [19], [20], [16], [19], [20],
Overall production system
[21], [22] [21], [22]
Housing production [23] [23], [24], [25], [23], [25], [39] [24], [39], [40] [39]
[39], [40]
[26], [27], [28], [28], [33] [26], [27], [29], [27]
Laminated core
[29], [30], [31], [30], [31], [32],
production
[32], [33], [34] [34]
Single process steps

Winding and
insulation
[17], [35], [30], [17], [33] [17], [35], [30], [17], [35]
[31], [32], [33], [31], [32], [34],
Contacting
[34], [36], [37], [36], [37], [38]
[38]
Shaft and rotor cage [23] [23], [24], [25], [23], [25], [39] [24], [39], [40] [39]
production [39], [40]
Magnet assembly [17], [41], [42] [17], [41], [42]
Final assembly [43], [44] [43], [44]
Key: Underlined references directly address electric drives production, non-underlined references are derived from related fields
44 A. Mayr et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 24 (2018) 40–47
A. Mayr et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 5

3.2. Knowledge-based planning and design of the electric drives production system

The development and production of electric drives as mechatronic products involve several engineering domains.
In this context, an intelligent information system would support in mastering the complexity and managing the
knowledge of all engineering disciplines involved, especially in developing the suitable production system.
Therefore, in [16] a concept for a KBS supporting the product and process development of electric drives is
presented. As a kind of production configurator, a KBS could draw conclusions from the electric drive design and
derive the optimal production system. After presenting the principle architecture of the aspired KBS, Mayr et al. focus
on the key component of such a system, the knowledge base. In order to formalize the experts’ knowledge, a proper
knowledge representation method, in this case a semantic network, is chosen. For the implementation of a first
prototype a graph database, especially the platform Neo4j, has proven the best applicability and will be used for further
development within the underlying research project. An exemplary extract of the graph-based knowledge
representation is shown in Fig. 2a, whereas more details are given in [16].
In addition to this concrete concept, analogies can be drawn from knowledge-based approaches in related fields.
Since most approaches are related to the development of the product, there are few approaches for knowledge-based
planning and design of production systems. To enable the documentation of expertise and know-how about
dependencies within the development of products and production systems, Gausemeier et al. make use of semantic
technologies, to which the KBS also belongs [19]. Similarly, Bauer’s knowledge-based planning tool builds upon the
basic structure of a KBS and provides targeted support for the planning of a production system with CONSENS. The
specification method CONSENS allows a semi-formal graphical modeling of the system and serves as a coordination
and communication medium. [20] Further notable approaches are described in [21] or [22].

a) b) Features ML algorithm Label

• Visual • Convolutional • Electrical
appeareance of Neural resistance
connection Network • Withdrawal
• Acoustic • Support Vector force
emissions Machine

Component Process Attribute Relation …

Fig. 2. (a) Extract of a graph-based knowledge representation of alternative process chains; (b) ML-based prediction of the crimping quality

3.3. ML-based optimization of single production processes

In contrast to KBS concepts, which mostly affect the overall production system, ML approaches rather focus on
the optimization of individual process steps. In the following paragraph, several ML-based concepts suitable for the
electric drives production are presented.
For forming the housing as well as the rotor cage, analogies can be found in related casting processes. Saleem et al.
develop a comprehensive system for the control of these processes. This includes ML techniques, a relational database
and a KBS. By evaluating process data with intelligent tools and detecting implied correlations, process parameters
can be optimized dynamically. [23] In addition, Rössle and Kübler present a ML approach for real-time quality
prediction in die-casting based on process data acquired by high-resolution sensors [24]. Patel et al. describe a ML
approach based on ANN which facilitates an automated process control system for squeeze casting. They develop a
process model which utilizes forward mapping to predict the casting quality. Moreover, reverse mapping can be used
to determine the appropriate input parameters which are necessary for meeting certain quality requirements. This
model can be adapted for pressure die-casting since the respective processes show high similarities. [25]
The production process of laminated cores offers numerous opportunities for the application of ML techniques.
Rebouças Filho et al. present a supervised learning approach for the production of electrical steel sheets. The
microstructures of non-grain oriented electrical steels serve as input data to predict the electromagnetic performance
 A. Mayr et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 24 (2018) 40–47 45
6 A. Mayr et al./ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000

and thus to classify the material. [26] In production processes like sheet metal processing, large amounts of data are
generated, offering high potential for the application of data mining and ML techniques. Accordingly, Bauer et al.
describe an approach for error identification and predictive maintenance in laser cutting processes. Additionally, they
develop a supervised learning model which can predict the feed rate of a punch laser machine based on audio signals.
Thus, machine faults can be diagnosed without altering the production process. [27] Slomp and Klingenberg propose
an autonomous process control system for punching operations, utilizing ANN to derive quality-indicating
characteristics from the force-displacement graph [28]. Rahman et al. address the identification of defects in metal-
stamping processes. In their supervised learning model, ANN serve as a pattern recognizer, using statistical features
from the manufacturing process as input data. [29]
After being cut out, the individual electrical sheets are joined. From the field of welding, different approaches can
be transferred to electric drives production. Petković presents a supervised learning approach for quality prediction in
welding processes, using support vector regression. Therefore, various process parameters are utilized as input data,
while weld strength and weld dimensions represent quality-relevant output parameters. [30] Similarly, Chen et al. use
SVM for quality modeling in gas tungsten arc welding [31]. Sumesh et al. consider acoustic features for quality
monitoring in welding processes. In their approach supervised learning algorithms are used for the classification of
welds based on arc sound signals, distinguishing between defect-free welds, lack of fusion and burn through. [32]
Günther et al. introduce a self-improving laser welding system. Significant features are extracted by an deep
autoencoder. Subsequently, two reinforcement algorithms are applied to acquire process knowledge and control the
process. [33] Khumaidi et al. present a visual inspection system for the classification of welding defects based on CNN
[34].
In general, most of the ML-based approaches which are directly related to electric drives production refer to
contacting technologies. Fleischmann et al. propose a self-adapting monitoring system for thermo-crimping processes
in the production of electric drives, allowing for quality monitoring and predictive maintenance. Variations in energy
consumption and process temperature are used to determine electrode wear and joint quality. In their model, ANN are
applied for classification and prediction tasks. [35] Mayr et al. expand this approach and consider not only thermo-
crimping but also the innovative ultrasonic crimping process. In doing so, they examine the potential of ML algorithms
for each of the three major applications mentioned in Tab. 1. In terms of QM, a ML model can predict the quality of a
joint based on process parameters or its visual appearance, eliminating the need for QM measures such as random
checks. The input parameters vary between ultrasonic and thermo-crimping, while contact resistance and withdrawal
force serve as quality indicators for both types. With regard to predictive maintenance, ML algorithms can estimate
the tool condition in-situ without requiring expensive measurement devices. For this purpose, the functional relations
presented in [35] are proposed as a foundation. Another potential application is process control: A ML-based model
can predict the process behavior, allowing for the adjustment of process parameters. Besides listing these potentials, a
practical example is presented to validate the application of ML in ultrasonic crimping. Different regression models
are considered for estimating the withdrawal force of a crimped connection based on input parameters. All three
regressors, namely SVM, random forest and AdaBoost, show satisfactory results. Moreover, a SVM and a CNN are
used to classify the quality of connections based on visual features. Another concept uses acoustic features for
classification. The last two examples are illustrated in Fig. 2b, whereas more details are given in [17].
In addition to these ML-based models for crimping, application scenarios from other joining processes can be
transferred to electric drives production. As described above, several approaches can be found in welding processes.
Further applicable concepts can be derived from soldering processes. Wu proposes a method which obtains images of
solder joints and uses an ANN to identify solder joint defects [36]. Similarly, Hao et al. and Cai et al. focus on the
optical inspection of solder joints. In Hao et al.’s approach, a backpropagation network is used for the classification
of solder joint defects [37]. Cai et al. present a deep learning approach using CNN [38].
Concerning the production of the shaft as well as the post-processing of the housing and the rotor cage, multiple
approaches can be transferred from machining processes. Al-Zubaidi et al. provide a literature overview addressing
the application of ANN in milling processes. Accordingly, ANN can be used for process control, QM and predictive
maintenance. The presented models focus on the prediction of surface roughness and cutting force, as well as the
estimation of tool life and wear. [39] Satorres Martínez et al. describe a method for the visual inspection of machined
metal parts. They introduce a supervised learning model for the automated quality inspection of metallic surfaces based
on ANN. [40]
46 A. Mayr et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 24 (2018) 40–47
A. Mayr et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 7

Besides, ML can also be applied in magnet assembly processes. Coupek et al. introduce a cloud-based control for
selective magnet assembly. Their concept includes a ML approach to compensate magnetic deviations. Self-organizing
maps are used for clustering the parts based on their magnetic profile. With these clusters, the assembly process can
be optimized to achieve a uniform magnetic field. [41] Similarly, Mayr et al. present an application scenario for ML
algorithms in selective magnet assembly processes, including the selection of magnets from a storage system, the
rearrangement of magnets on the rotor and the shifting and rotation of individual magnets. Magnetic and geometric
properties as well as assembly characteristics are considered as input parameters in their model. [17] Another concept
is introduced by Murakami, who utilizes a ML algorithm to optimize the arrangement of magnets [42].
Further ML applications can be found in end-of-line testing. Sun et al. present a deep learning approach for quality
testing of motors. They solely use vibration signals of defect-free motors as training data for an autoencoder, which is
subsequently able to reconstruct such signals. In this way, potential deviations between the reconstructed and the
recorded signal from the test motor serve as an indicator for defects. [43] Besides, Nan describes a methodology for
fault diagnosis which can be transferred to end-of-line testing. A SVM in combination with an optimization algorithm
is applied for the classification of mechanic faults such as shaft crack, bearing fault or permanent bending. [44]

4. Conclusion and outlook

In addition to the described application scenarios, several other approaches in related fields exist. However, the
limited scope of this paper does not allow to describe all of them. Therefore, it focuses on a small selection of the
presumably most relevant approaches. The resulting overview reveals that KBS are especially suited for supporting
the planning and design of the electric drives production system, whereas ML-based approaches have great potential
for optimizing single production steps. It seems as if the most achievable potentials of ML techniques lie primarily in
joining processes, i.e. the contacting and laminated core production. Other promising approaches can be found in
casting and machining processes, as used for the production of housings and rotor cages. In addition, the example of
the selective magnet assembly shows how optimized production processes can even positively influence the running
characteristics of electric drives. For handling tasks like winding, other AI technologies such as robotics and computer
vision should be considered. By identifying and disclosing application potentials for KBS and ML in the electric drives
production, this paper serves as a starting point for further research in the respective fields. Thereby, the research focus
of the authors is primarily on the aforementioned knowledge-based planning and design of electric drives production
systems as well as the ML-based optimization of contacting processes, such as the innovative ultrasonic crimping.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to the Bavarian State Ministry for Science, Research and
Culture for funding this research in the framework of the research association “Green Factory Bavaria”.

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