Economy

What Is an Economy?
An economy is a complex system of interrelated production, consumption, and
exchange activities that ultimately determines how resources are allocated
among all the participants. The production, consumption, and distribution of
goods and services combine to fulfill the needs of those living and operating
within the economy.
An economy may represent a nation, a region, a single industry, or even a family.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
 An economy is a system of inter-related production and consumption
activities that ultimately determine the allocation of resources within a
group.
 The production and consumption of goods and services as a whole fulfill the
needs of those living and operating within it.
 Market-based economies, also called free market economies, are self-
regulated, allowing goods to be produced and distributed in response to
demand from consumers.
 Command-based economies are regulated by a government body that
determines the goods which are produced, their quantities, and the price
paid for them.
 In the modern world, few economies are purely market-based or
command-based.

 Understanding Economies
 An economy encompasses all of the activities related to the production,
consumption, and trade of goods and services in an entity, whether the
entity is a nation or a small town.
 No two economies are identical. Each is formed according to its own
resources, culture, laws, history, and geography. Each evolves
according to the choices and actions of the participants.
 These decisions are made through some combination of market
transactions and collective or hierarchical decision-making.
Types of Economies
In the modern world, few nations are purely market-based or purely
command-based. But most lean toward one or the other of these models.

Market-Based Economies
Market-based or "free market" economies allow people and businesses to
freely exchange goods and services according to supply and demand.

The United States is mostly a market economy. Producers determine what’s

sold and produced, and what prices to charge. If they expect to succeed, they
will produce what consumers want and charge what consumers are willing to
pay.  

Through these decisions, the laws of supply and demand determine prices
and total production. If consumer demand for a specific product increases,
production tends to increase to satisfy the demand. The increased demand
causes prices to rise until consumers balk and cut back on their purchases.
Demand for the product will then decline and prices will decline with it.

This constant tug of supply and demand allows a market economy a

tendency to naturally balance itself. As the prices in one sector rise with
demand, the money and labor needed to fill that demand shift to those places
where they're needed.

Command-Based Economies
Command-based economies depend on a central government that controls
the production levels, pricing, and distribution of goods.

In such a system, the government owns industries deemed essential on

behalf of the consumers who use them. Competition among companies is
discouraged or banned. Prices are controlled.

Communism requires a command-based economy. Contemporary examples

include Cuba and North Korea.

A command-based economy attempts to supersede the workings of supply

and demand.

Mixed Economies
Pure market economies rarely exist in the modern world since there's usually
some degree of government intervention or central planning. Even the United
States could be considered a mixed economy. It may not mandate production
but it has ways to influence it. For example:

 In late 2021, President Joe Biden ordered 50 million gallons of oil

released from the nation's Strategic Oil Reserves with the stated aim of
forcing gasoline prices lower by increasing its supply.
 In 2022, the Federal Reserve imposed a series of interest rate
increases on the nation's banks. The purpose was to raise interest
rates throughout the economy in order to reduce demand for loans and
therefore reduce inflation in the costs of goods and services.

In truth, most of the world's developed economies mix market-based and

command-based models.

China had a command economy only until 1978 when it began a series of
reforms that encouraged private enterprise.

Studying Economies
The study of economies and the factors affecting economies is called
economics. The discipline of economics can be broken into two major areas
of focus, microeconomics, and macroeconomics.

Microeconomics
Microeconomics studies the behavior of individual people and businesses in
order to understand why they make the economic decisions they do and how
these decisions affect the larger economic system.

Microeconomics studies how a particular value is attached to a product or

service. It examines how individuals coordinate and cooperate with each
other in business.

Microeconomics tends to focus on economic tendencies, such as how

individual choices and actions impact changes in production.

Clearly, principles of psychology and marketing influence microeconomics.

Macroeconomics
As the name implies, macroeconomics studies the big picture.

Macroeconomics includes the study of economy-wide factors such as the

effect of rising prices or inflation on the economy. It seeks to track and
understand the financial indicators that clarify an economy's success or
failure over time, such as gross domestic product (GDP), changes
in unemployment, and consumer spending.

In short, macroeconomics studies how the economy as a whole behaves.

Economic Indicators
As noted above, macroeconomics is the study of the big picture and that
picture is incomplete without a set of economic indicators. These are some of
the most closely-watched of those indicators.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

Gross domestic product is the total value of all of the completed goods and
services produced by an economy during a period of one year.

The gross domestic product of the United States was about $23 trillion in
2021.

Unemployment
The Unemployment Report estimates the number of people who are working
for pay during a given period. More importantly, the number is tracked over
time in order to determine whether unemployment is worsening.

In the U.S., the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) publishes a monthly

unemployment report that breaks down how many people are working, the
average number of hours they are working, and their average earnings. This
is used to produce the unemployment rate.

Inflation (or Deflation)

Inflation in consumer prices is measured and tracked so that problems in the
economy can be pinpointed. If the rate of inflation is outpacing the rate of
income growth, the economy is in trouble. Inflation can be negative, too, but
overall deflation is relatively rare.

The BLS also publishes a key inflation report for the U.S. The Consumer
Price Index tracks the costs of goods and services from month to month. It
breaks down its report into the vital areas of consumer spending, such as
food, energy, and rent costs.

Those numbers determine the rate of inflation.

Balance of Trade
An economy's balance of trade is a comparison of the amount of money that
is spent on imports of goods and services and the amount of money it earns
on goods and services it exports. It is measured primarily by recording all of
the products that pass through the Customs office of a country.

A nation achieves a positive balance of trade when it exports more than it

imports. It has a negative balance of trade when it buys more than it sells.

Neither is necessarily good or bad. A nation may have a negative balance of

trade because foreign businesses are heavily investing in its future. A nation
with a positive balance of trade may have protectionist policies in place that
could hurt it in the long run.

The U.S. had a balance of trade deficit in 2021 of about $859.1 billion, up
$182.4 billion from the previous year, according to the U.S. Bureau of
Economic Analysis.

History of the Concept of Economy

The word economy derives from the Greek term for household management
and the word is still used in that context.

Economics as an area of study was touched on by philosophers in ancient

Greece, notably Aristotle, but the modern study of economics began in 18th
century Europe, particularly in Scotland and France.

Development of Modern Economics

The Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith, who in 1776 wrote a
landmark book called The Wealth of Nations, was thought of in his own time
as a moral philosopher. He and his contemporaries traced the evolution of
economies from prehistoric bartering systems to money-driven and eventually
credit-driven economies. 

During the 19th century, the development of technology and the growth of
international trade created stronger ties among countries, a process that
accelerated into the Great Depression and World War II. After 50 years of the
Cold War, the late 20th and early 21st centuries have seen a renewed
globalization of economies.

What Is Economics?
Economics is a branch of the sciences that seeks to understand the way a
population functions by studying the way its economy functions. Every group
of people develops a survival plan based on shared labor and resources.
How they do that, and how well they succeed at it, is the study of economics.

What Is Macroeconomics vs. Microeconomics?

Macroeconomics is the study of the overall performance of an economy. It
evaluates the stability and progress of an economy over time by analysis of
key indicators. These include gross domestic product (GDP), employment,
inflation or deflation, and the balance of trade.

Micronomics is the study of the behavior of the individual consumers and

businesses that make up the economy. Their motivations, habits, and
behaviors are studied to determine whether an economy is functioning in their
best interests.

What Is Economics in Real Life?

All of us participate in an economy, with the possible exception of a hermit
living on a desert island. We contribute something to the whole, by producing
or helping to produce a product or offering a service. In return, we receive
money that allows us to buy the goods and services that we can't produce for
ourselves.

The Bottom Line

An economy is a community that is observed by an analysis of its allocation
of resources. Every individual and family in the community has a contribution
to make. In return, each expects a share of the goods and services provided
by other members of the community.

In modern times, the functioning of an economy is analyzed and quantified by

economists.