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    Attenuators and Equalisers

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    Attenuators and Equalisers 3d¢ ATTENUATOR An attenuator is normally a four terminal network, inserted between a source and load. It is introduced to incur specific amount of loss for current and voltages. In order to prevent attenuation distortion, all source frequencies must be attenuated to the same degree and thus the network generally consists of purely resistive components. Fig. 3.1 represents an attenuator in the form of a two port (i.¢., four terminal) network where, Vs = Source voltage (V) Vp = Load voltage (V) Is = Source current (Amp.) Tp = Load current (Amp.) Ps = Power input (Watt) Pp = Power output (Watt) Z, = Input impedance (Ohm) Z, = Output impedance (Ohm) Fig. 3.1. Block diagram representation of attenuator network with current and voltages. 3.2) ATTENUATION Power loss in any network represents attenuation. It is conventional to express attenuation in terms of “‘Neper" (Nep.) or ‘‘Decibel (dB)". The attenuation is defined by the square root ratio of input power (Ps) to the output power (Pp). : P. Thus, attenuation = ~ = (N2) say. [N being the attenuation] R . P. T2R ie., veVt=¥ s Pr T?R ("in any resistive network, power loss is given by /?R] Ts == (3.1) ai LY. er | FILTER AND TRANSMISSION LINES 3.2 NETWORK Vs 3.2) Similarly N, the attenuation = — (3.2) k TynctlgR Rian Ve Nee = Tg RRO Ve Thus, attenuation can also be conveniently expressed in terms of ratio of input to the output current or voltage. * Basically, ‘N’, as defined above, indicates. the level of attenuation However, it is convenient to express attenuation in some unit i.e., decibel or neper, as indicated earlier. Attenuation (D), in decibels, is given by Ps + (Is \2 D=101 — = 10 lo; (+) 0810 Pa B10 ie I = 20 logio (4) »-G.3) TR Vv. Also, D= 20 logy (> ) (3.4) Ve : Is Vs és Substituting N for (> } or. (> } equations (3.3) and (3.4) become dr VR N= Anti log (4) B.5) 3.2.1. Relationship between decibel (dB) and neper (nep.). As the attenuation dB is given by D = 20 Jogio (N), hence, it can also be written as D = 20 log, (N) x logio (e) = 20 log. (N) x 0.434 = 8.686 log, (N). Attenuation ‘in neper being given by log, (N), the relation between decibel and neper is given by Attenuation in dB = 8.686 x attenuation in neper oy -(3.6) Attenuation in neper = 0.1151 x attenuation in dB a “*R indicates the input impedance of any symmetrical asymmetrical attenuator, 3 fF (em fy fF, = = =— jassumi Pp Ug?Ra ty Ry ME Ri and Ry to be the impedance ‘of the attenuator, looking from the input and 3 attenuator. In case of a a 313, Input Rp ° Output 3 6 d b Ren: d Asyreettical lattice attenuator a ¢ C R> R$ Output lL. Asymmetrical m type attenuator. Fig. 3.2. Circuit configurations of asymmetrical attenuators. \ 3.4 NETWORK FILTER AND TRANSMISSION LINES 3.3. CLASSIFICATION OF ATTENUATORS j Atte.uators may be classified in two types ViZ., symmetrical and asymmetrical. : : Symmetrical attenuator. It is a resistive network installed between source and load having equal input and output resistances (Ry = Ra). cal attenuator. It is also a resistive network installed between Asymmetric: source and load having unequal input resistance when looked into from the input and output terminals separately. Attenuator mmetrical and asymmetrical) are usually of any of T, bridged T and lattice configuration. Asymmetrical attenuators may also have Liype configuration. Fig. 3.2 shows the circuit configurations of asymmetrical attenuators, In case of symmettical attenuators, T type is obtained by making R, = Ry in asymmetrical T type attenuator, 7 type symmetrical section is obtained by making Rp = Ry in asymmetrical % section, symmetrical bridged T section is obtained by making R= Rp of the asymmetrical bridged T section. Symmetrical lattice section is obtained by making Ry = Ry, Rp, = Rp, of the asymmetrical lattice section: 3.4, USE OF ATTENUATORS A resistive attenuator may be used for matching’ between circuits of different resistive impedances. These networks may therefore be used in place of a transformer. Variable attenuators are used in laboratories for obtaining small values of voltage and current for testing purposes. The volume controls of a communication receiver etc. are the typical examples of the variable attenuators. In high frequency signal transmission, resistive attenuators are also used (viz., movable vane attenuator and flap attenuator). Attenuators are also used to enhance the magnitude of the input impedance of an equipment or instrument. T and & type attenuators are in wide use as an inserted network between a signal generator and a load such that there is no reflection from the load to signal generator. The use of asymmetrical attenuator is most commonly found for perfect matching of impedance between source and load. 25, ANALYSIS OF A SYMMETRICAL T ATTENUATOR b Source Ji Fig, 3.3. Current and voltages in a symmetrical T type attenuator. ATTENUATORS AND EQUALISERS a5) Fig. - a represents a symmetrical T type attenuator (also known as ** Itis one oe Most common types of attenuators. The series arm impedances ate given by Ry and the shunt arm impedance by Ry. A voltage source with ni ceanance Ro Preise at the input ports (a — b) while the output (c ~ d) feeds a resistor (Ro) equivalent to the characteristic edance eae ree characteristic impedance of T Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law in loop-2 of Fig. 3.3. (Us = +—+1 pint) RR : ie. pushes Ro” Rp ) (3.16) Again, assuming terminal (a ~ b) open in the Fig. 3.4 and looking through it, the network looks like that in Fig. 3.6. ‘The input impedance is given by Fig. 3.6. Syminetrical x section looking from the input terminals (a — b). RoRo ] Ry + Ro RaRo Ry + Ro RiRy + RiRo + RoRo Ro ( Ry + Ro ) Vp tes ee) y+ | R, Rat (Rit ee ® Ra [ Re ky Ro= Ry +Rp+ ca) [utilising equation (3.15)] on é Ry (NR2Ro) = "Ry Ra + Ro + NRO) NR2Ro = Ry + Ry + NRo C NETWORK FILTER AND TRANSMISSION LINES or, Ro (Rp + Ry + NRy) = NR)Ro oh Ro + NRo = NR2 ~ Ry or, Ry (N= 1) = Ryo (N+ 1) which gives -W+t) yp GAT) CEDany Substituting the value of Ro from the equation (3.17) in equation (3.16), (N+1) (N +1) N= 1) Ry | 2 x Ry | = Ry | Ro SR w= 1) Ry [EP x Ro | = [Ro G Nee 1 or, (N + 1) Ro? = Ri (Ry N + Ro + Ro N ~ Ro) Ty Fy Ro N+ 2 (N2 — 1) or, Riese a yaa ay 2 RoN 2 NRo Ro (N2-1 or, Le Bo Nis D. (3.18) 2N Equations (3.17) and (3.18) represent the design equation of the symmetrical 7 attenuator. If the values of Ro and N are known, value of Ry d R; can be determined. On the other hand, if Ry and R2 are known, for any ‘fic design impedance, Ro, the attenuation N can be obtained. sp 3.7. ANALYSIS OF SYMMETRICAL BRIDGED T TYPE ATTENUATOR Fig. 3.7 shows the circuit configuration and current voltage distribution in a symmetrical bridged 7 attenuator. The network may be designed to have a constant impedance Rg ‘connected at the output terminals (c — d) while the source impedance has also been assumed to have internal impedance Ry, Rao 1 Im | s Be Zr, Va pie Male ed Fig, 3.7. Symmetrical bridged T attenuator. Ry and arm impedances have been selected in such a way so that Ry. Ry = Ry? = Ro? «.(3.19) ‘This indicates that the attenuation can be adjusted by adjusting Ry and Ry without altering Ro- The design formulae for the bridged T attenuator can be obtained as R, = Ro (3.20) (rTENUATORS AND EQUALISERS 3.9 From the theory of two port network (Ref. Ch. 2) /of a bridged T network is given by Z, ev= (1 + i ), % which, for the resistive bridged T attenuator becomes R (i )-(1 ys =| Ro Ro [from (3.19), RaRo = Ro? eLen A Thus, R= Ri ROnA goRobtrs MiKo (3.21) Ry Ra (RafRo)- (N-1) Ry = Ro (N - 1) +n(3.22) 3,8. ANALYSIS OF SYMMETRICAL LATTICE TYPE ATTENUATOR A symmetrical attenuator alongwith source voltage and design resistance has been shown in Fig. 3.8. (IsTyTR) Fig. 3.8. Symmetrical lattice attenuator. Fig. 3.9 represents the open circuit impedance diagram with simplified reduced network where, +R) + RD Row = (Ry +R) + (Ra + Rd) (Ry + Ry) a Roe = — 2 2 (3.23) Fig. 3.10 represents the short circuit impedance diagram with simplified reduced network. R\Ry RR 2 RR, Here, Reet PLE Eitan B24) R,+R, Ri +R, (Ri + Ry) e. ‘\ 2.10 NETWORK FILTER AND TRANSMISSION LINES Here R,,. = open circuit resistance looking from input terminals and Rye = short circuit resistance looking from input terminals. Ry Fig. 3.10. Short circuit equivalent network of lattice attenuator. Utilising the concept of two port network, the.characteristic impedance (ie., the design impedance) Ry is given by ect 2RiR> (R, +R) Ro = WRocRuc = J 2 RRs Ri + Ra) (Ri) +R) * 2 VRiRy w-(3.25) Applying Kirchoff’s voltage laws in the loop acdb of Fig. 3.8, : Ri + TaRo + (s— y+ Ip) Ry = V5= lok or, TsRo = IpRo + IsRy + IpRy or: Is (Ro ~ Ri) = Tp (Ro + Ry) Is Ro +R, or, TeGtRS = Reo S i ATTENUATORS AND EQUALISERS 3.11 ie. N, the attenuation — Rot Ri) (® Ry) ++(3,26) Equation (3.26) can further be written as Nea 8 Rot Ri—Rot+ Ri Ry N+1~ Ry +R, +Ry—R, ~ Ry of, R=ER ( New ) 1 = Ro | —__ Naa -(3.27) Substituting the value of Ro from equation (3.25) in equation (3.27), m= RR (Tot) eae \2 or, R= RR (T+) N+1 N-1 \? or, R,=R. i 2 ( Waa ) +(3.28) Substituting the value of R; from equation (3.28) in (3.27) N-1\2 N-1 R {fos ia ) (We ) N+1 , R= or. 2 Ro N-1 ) (3.29) Equations (3.27) and (3.29) give the design equation of the lattice attenuator. e 3.9. CONFIGURATIONS OF BALANCED T, x AND L TYPE ATTENUATORS The configurations of the attenuator sections discussed. so, far are unbalanced attenuators. They can be balanced by segmenting the series arm(s) of the unbalanced attenuators into two identical halves and inserting each half in each leg. Fig. 3.11 illustrates this for L, and T section attenuators. Ri ca a Ry/2 . R, Re R,/2 b 5 da Unbalanced L type Balanced L type (C section) 3.12 NETWORK FILTER AND TRANSMISSION LINES . Ro/2 2 oo ANA- —~0 ee ANN —2 R 3 a Ry Ry : 4 be mee bie =, Ral2 Unbalanced x type Balanced m type (0 section) [if Ry = Ry, it is symmetrical also} R, R, Ry/2 Ro/2 + ao Te oars MWA———o @ R3 Rs Ri/2 R2/2 be £1 be, A\W——od Unbalanced T type Balanced T type (H type) [if Ry = Ro, it is symmetrical also} Fig. 3.11. Unbalanced and Balanced 7, m and L type attenuators 3.10. ANALYSIS OF ASYMMETRICAL L ATTENUATOR WORKING BETWEEN TWO EQUAL RESISTANCES Fig. 3.12 represents the asymmetrical L attenuator placed between two equal impedances R,, [R,, being the iterative impedance of the L attenuator] Applying Kirchoff’s law to the closed loop (ecd ), Ry (Is — Tp) = Igy, or, IsRy = Ip (Ry + Ro) Is a ec ipy ic SK ATTENUATORS AND EQUALISERS 3.13 Is Ry + Ro Hence, el ..(3.30) Tr Ry of, NR, = Ry, + Ry or, Ry (N- 1) = Ry Ry or; oa (3.31) (N- 1) Applying the same Jaw to the loop acdb, Vs = IsRy + [py or, IsRy = 1sRy + Tey [Vs = IsRul or, Ts (Ry ~ Ry) = TeRy Tr Ry -R Tr or, NR, — NR, = Ry N-1 or, Rie Ry, la) 3.32) But iterative impedance of the asymmetrical L network of Fig. 3.12 is given by Ry XR; Ry = Ry + Ry + Ry or, Ry? + RoRy, = RiRy + RyRy + RRy R, + ¥R,2 +4 RR or, Ce ae +VR)2 +4 RiRp 2 R R or, Rast Vy thik (3.33) Equations (3.31) and (3.32) form the design equation of the L type attenuator. Equation (3.33) gives the value of the equal resistances, the iteration resistance, between which it has to function. 3.11. ANALYSIS OF AN ASYMMETRICAL L TYPE ATTENUATOR FOR MATCHING BETWEEN TWO UNEQUAL RESISTANCES L attenuator is frequently needed for matching purpose. The design requires maximum attenuation alongwith impedance matching. Utilising Fig. 3.13, from the concept of two port network, Ri, = Woe Zver 3.34) Rig = Yog X Zac (3.35) 3.14 NETWORK FILTER AND TRANSMISSION LINES where, Rj, = input resistance (image imp.) from terminal ‘ a~ b keeping a —b open and Ry = input resistance looking from terminal ¢ ~ d keeping c — d open j Fig. 3.13. An asymmetrical L network working between two unequal impedances. Here, Zoe = (Ry + Ra) and Similarly, and she = RAPA 3.39) Substituting the values of Zoey, Zoyey Ziey and Zyey from eqns. (3.36) to (3.39) im the respective equations (3.34) and (3.35), Ri = VR + Ro) Ry = VR,? + RAR (3.40) RiRy RR? Ry = aks : = NS (3.41) Ri + Ry Ri +R Now, from equation (3.40), : Ry? - Ri? R= aR (3.42) Substituting the value of Ry from (3.42) in equation (3.41), 2 pd wate (Ia, =e R,2 R Ry = RAR, (Ry? — R292 RyP Ri? Ri? + Ry? Ry?) 1 _ (Ri? - Ry)? Ry? RFR? = Ra? — RAP Rep Ra? — Ry? RAE Ri (Ry = Ry) Ri+ or, or, ATTENUATORS AND EQUALISERS 3.15 R= Vk, Ri, : Ry) 8.43) Substituting the value of R, from equation (3.43) to equation (3.42), y= Fat Rall. fF WRiy (Ri, - Rip) Ri (Riy — Rin) = Vl Rika? (3.44) Ri a Rin Ae Equations (3.43) and (3.44) represent the design equation of the L attenuator working between two unequal resistances and behaving as impedance matching element. 3.12, VARIABLE ATTENUATORS This type of attenuator is generally provided for obtaining variable attenuator. It has a constant input and output impedance. Configuration-wise there are several types of variable attenuators, namely, 1 type, T type, bridged T type etc. Fig. 3.14 represents some of the variable attenuators. The arrows in the figure indicate the variable resistances in the arms. Bridged T type variable attenuators are advantageous because only two resistors (the bridge arm and the shunt arm) have to be varied while the three constituent resistors of m and T types are to be varied. Variable attenuators are commonly used in laboratories for obtaining small values of voltage and current signals for testing purposes. The volume control of a broadcast receiver is the simplest example of a variable attenuatér. T type variable attenuator. 1% type variable attenuator. Bridged T type variable attenuator. i Fig. 3.14. Variable attenuators different configurations. / 3.16 NETWORK FILTER AND TRANSMISSION LINES j 3.13. ASYMMETRICAL T ATTENUATOR When an attenuator is required to operate between two unequal impedances, an asymmetrical 7 attenuator may be employed, In such cases, the attenuation is given as the ratio of (Ps and Pp). Figure 3.15 shows an asymmetrical T network (operating between two unequal impedances). The attenuator offers image Fig. 3.15. An asymmetrical T attenuator. impedance Rj, and Rj at input and output ports respectively. - Riek, + R3(Ro + Ri2) R3 +R, +Rp or RyRy + RipRz + Ri Rin = RyRz + RoR + RR + R3R2 + R3Ri2_ 3.45) >, -Ra(Ri + Ri) Also Ro= Ret Re RR or RR, + RigR3 + RiRi2 = Riz + R3Rjy + RoR, + Rao + RoR ..B.46) Adding Eqs. (3.45) and (3.46) \ RiaRj + R3(Riy + Rig) + RipRa + WRiRi2 = 2AR Ry + RzRo + RoR) + RaRy + Ra(Ri + Riz) + Ri Ro or Riy_. Riz = (RiR3z + R3Ro + RR) (3.47) Subtracting Eq. (3.46) from Eq. (3.47) Rjy(R3 + Rz) = Rio(Ry + R3) Ry _ Rv + Rs or pcan a area Ris Rie Ry «(3.48) From Fig. 3.15 we obtain the voltage equation using KVL \ Tp (Rz + Ri2) — (ls — Ir) R3 = 0 or Ip (R3 + Rz + Riz) = IsR3 Ry + Ry + R; 5 or (Is/Ip) = SR de pe ; wer [ER ve [Ria _ Rat Ro+ Rin | Ri a Pr Tr2-Rin Ip Ry Rin etl a Ri Rika fh] Ry +R3 VRiRo i Ry NV Rat Ry R3 Ry +R" RB; i (Utilising eqn. (3.48)) ee ee he B.S0}| | NVR + Ray + Ro) +VRaRn : | SAM ile, VR + + R3)(R3 + Ro) , NRaRp i N- R3 R3 Ra Habs aN Ra ies UA MR + Ral Ra + Ra) + Vika -* | N241 (Ri + R3\(R3 + Ro) + RiiRia + AN RiRiaRi + R3(Rs + Ro) + Rs? | or Ra a ae N RAN (Ry + RNR + Raf VRiRial f B51) | But RisRin = (RiR3 + Rao + RoR) | Ry Rig + R32 = Ry Ra + RaRz + RoRy + R37 or Ri Rig + R32 = (Ry + Ra)(R3 + Ro) 2.3.52) 44 Substituting the value of Eq, (3.52) in Eq. (3.51) i N2 41 BU + R3)(Ra + Ro) + VRaRia(Ri + R3)(R3 + Ro) N RylV(Ri + Ra\(R3 + Ro) + VRaRial a N? +1 VR + R3)(R3 +. Rz) (V(Ri + R3)(R3 + Ro) + VRiRia) 2N Ry IVR + RaNRs + Re) SAR) if VCR, + Ra)(R3 + Ro) ee Utah Rial oho) 3.53) Ry eh N2-1 VRiRi2 ee similarly | oN Rs (3.54) ror From Eq. (3.54) R3 = VRiRi2 - Sa oss | Dividing Eq. (3.54) by Eq. (3.53) NUT fio Rake N2+1. Y (Ry + R3)(R3 + Ro) N2-1 : R3+R R2 or ( ) (Ry + Ro) = Veakin| pes a Rakax| “2 =Ra N241 Ry + Ry Ra N241 ' hy + R= Ro (S57) a 3.18 NETWORK FILTER AND TRANSMISSION LINES Substituting the value of R3, we obtain. N241 2N 3.56) Ry = Rin (44) SRR rae 1 RaRia ot Again ( —| (Ry + R3) = nj (Ry + R3) N24+1 (Ri + R3)(R3 + Ro) a ay Sua +R3) ie R3 + Ro N2-1 Rin X Rit or (Ry + Ry) = 9 Set ay N241 Rr N2 +1 or Ry + R= Ry (A * 1) N241)., 2N R=R, ( )-VR Ray 357) I il N2-1 ‘iL 12 N21 Equations (3.55) to (3.57) give the values of circuit elements of the asymmetrical T attenuator. 3.14. ASYMMETRICAL x TYPE ATTENUATOR Fig. 3.16 represents a % type asymmetrical attenuator with series arm R2 and shunt arms Ry and R3. The design equations are given by Is 1G Iq Rip | Vs‘ | b 3 Fig. 3.16. type asymmetrical attenuator. fs i? N21 R= hy (| GB.58 " \n2-2NS +1 Oe Ry = vRiRn (N?-1 a= (ot ) B59) | 3 i Ry = Ra (—*51_) G60) | icon: a a Fi _ 2 bcd Ra . G.61) ATTENUATORS AND EQUALISERS 3.19 3.15. LADDER ATTENUATOR* A ladder attenuator is formed when a number of symmetrical attenuator Sections are joined in series. Most commonly, symmetrical T or x attenuator Sections are joined in series to form a ladder, One end of the ladder is connected to the load while the input is connected at the other end. .16. EQUALISERS Distortion in amplitude and phase may occur to a signal passing through an electrical circuit. Networks, inserted in the original circuit to counteract these distortions are called equalisers, Networks that provide compensation against ‘ attenuation distortion are called attenuation equalisers while those used for balancing phase distortion are called Phase equalisers. In fact, the equaliser characteristics are inverse to that of distortion characteristics. Tecording etc. and phase equalisers are used in FAX and TV circuits, 3.16.1. Concept of Inverse Network. Two networks are said to be \ Attenuation equalisers are frequently used in carrier telephony, sound { inverse provided the geometrical mean of their impedances is a constant’and a real number ; i.e., if Zj and Zp are the two impedances, they are said to be inverse if 2 x Zp = Ro? (3.62) [R being a. pure resistance] To illustrate the concept of the inverse network let Z, be an inductance such that Z, =x, = joL (L being the inductance] The network will be inverse provided Ro? =%, Ro? aa ‘ ie Bid 3.63 q % Zi O\L ee Thus it is evident that if Z, is purely inductive, Z)should be capacitive ieee Mie ON ‘ as Z) =- - Tr acl ; C being equal to the, value of L/R|. On the other hand if Z; is capacitive, Zp must be inductive. : 1 L ya Thus Z|Zz = joL x joc =e Ro*) = constant ...(3.64) If Z, is resistive (say having resistance R’), Z,.Zy = Ro? *(Asymmetrical attenuator sections may also be used to form a ladder attenuator. Image. termination is used in this arrangement. A balancing resistance is usually added at the input of the ladder attenuator.} — . j BRS ab derts ie ' 3.20 NETWORK FILTER AND TRANSMISSION LINES Me RO? Ro? or, 2 = GRo* 4 [assuming I/R’ = G, the conductance] _...(3.65) ligation can be made by stating that when two networks rk is directly proportional to the ing a constant. ‘Thus a gener are inverse, the impedance of one netwo! admittance of the other network, their ratio be! 3.17. SERIES EQUALISER When an. equaliser is connected in series with the load whose response ‘/ is to be corrected, it is called a series equaliser. Let Ro = resistance of the load as well that of the source, N = attenuation of the equaliser in series with the circuit, D = attenuation in dB Ps = input power (input power of the load) Pr = load power (output power of the load) 2X, = reactance of the equaliser V = supply voltage With reference-to Fig. 3.17, when the equaliser is NOT present, Ps D N& — = Anti ea Paes ( 10 ) (3,66) v-\2 Also, Ps= (sp ) + Ro P=PRo an = ¥] y ° ., 2Ro ; v2 CN " 2 AR (3.67) Again, when the equaliser is \, connected he odie NA V(2Ro)? + (2X)? - Pr=DPRo -(——+ 2 oe | Ro V?Ro ——— 3.68) 4(Ro? + Xi?) a} ig. 3.17. i : ; Then from eqn. (3.66), Operation of series equaliser. Py 2, pees VAR Sas emit Pri, 2 VRo Ro2 4(Ro? +X, 2) X= Rov (N - 1) 3.69) i LA i ATTENUATORS AND EQUALISERS 3.21 The values of Ro and N being known, X; can be determined. In order to have decreasing attenuation with increase of signal frequency, a capacitive equaliser is to be selected and to have increasing attenuation with increasing frequency, an inductor as equaliser is to be selected. 3.18. SHUNT EQUALISER A shunt equaliser is to be connected across the load resistance Ro (Ref. Fig. 3.18). ¥ Let, Ro = resistance of load as well as source supply voltage ource current receiving end current jource power to the load ‘ Pr = load power (output power) HI xX > = reactance of shunt equaliser When the equaliser is not connected, v2 Vv f Ps= « Ro| = — and Ps = J?Ro, 2 aR? AU WORD oe T being equal to Is or Ip] ) v2 “ " ~ ARo When the equaliser is connected as shown in the Fig, 3.18, Ro + (GX1 « Ro(2Ro + JX) 3.22 NETWORK FILTER AND TRANSMISSION LINES V(2Ro + jX1) © Ro (2Ro + 5X1) + 5X1 Ro | V (2Ro + jX1) © Ro Ro + IXY 4 IX 12) IX j and Tr= Is. XS 2Ro + 5X Rotiz 2 ' _ _V QRo + 5X1) IX ( © 2Ro (Ro + 5X1) * (2Ro + JX1) [substituting the value of Js] iVX, 2Ro (Ro + 5X1) V2x,2 Ro (Ro? + X12) Ps V2/4Ro ry v2xX,2 4Ro (Ro? + X12) Ro? + Xi2 Ro \2 Be ames Eg ( =) Xt xX Provided that the values of Ro and X; are given, the value of X; can be jetermined. \ Xi (3.70) (3.71) However, PR = IIpl2Ro = | of Thus, N=a +-(3.72) Ro +-@.73) Thus if the attenuation is to increase with frequency, X; should be capacitive. On the other hand if the attenuation is to decrease with frequency, X; should be inductive. 3.19. CONSTANT RESISTANCE EQUALISER The drawback of the reactance equalisers discussed above is that their impedance changes with change in frequency causing mismatch in the circuit. In order to obtain constant attenuation or phase shift characteristic even after the equaliser is connected, impedance matching between the source and load is to be maintained. Equalisers designed for this purpose are called constant resistance equalisers. Ordinary reactance equalisers are two terminal network while the constant resistance equalisers are four terminal networks. Constant resistance equalisers are so designed that their shunt and series arm impedances are inverse to each other, the geometrical mean of the impedance of them being a constant (obviously resistive). The design impedance 4 Ms ‘ pe) gees i ATTENUATORS AND EQUALISERS 3.23 is made equal to the characteristic impedance of the circuit where the equaliser is to be used. Though constant resistance equalisers can be built with the help of T, n, L, lattice and bridged-T networks still it is convenient to use bridged-T +. br lattice networks for fabricating the constant resistance equaliser as for these two.circuits, YZ}Z) = Ro, Moreover, these two circuits are cost effective too. 3.20. BRIDGED T ATTENUATION EQUALISER Let Z; represents the impedance of the bridged arm while Zz represents that of the shunt arm. Ry. joly =Ry+ Z,=Ry joc, Zo = Ro {." in the equaliser Z, x Z) = Ro?, Zi, Za being the inverse impedances] Output Sit i ate $22 Re } =c; } Fig. 3.19. Bridged T attenuation equaliser. The propagation constant y, for a bridged T network is given by yein[1 + Alam [re 2] { [for the derivation, please refer to the chapter ‘Two Port Network’’] R, . jo, ¥ Here, pein[i+ 2 x | p Ri + jal; = Ro — 4... joR\L 1 4 R lie, aren [i+ x — | = ny Ry + jol; Ro (y= a+ jB, @ being the attenuation and B the phase constant] NETWORK FILTER AND TRANSMISSION LINES @, the real part is given by (RoR)? + (@L1)?(Ro + Aes = [eee (RoR)? + (@L;Ro)? 1 Ro2R1? + @2L42Ro2 + W7L17R1? + 207L42RoR, A ale a Ro?R? + @7L;7Ro* 21,2, R ib

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