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1956 -- Bloom’s Taxonomy – a team led by Benjamin Bloom identified and articulated
levels of cognition.
The Original Taxonomy (1956)
Here are the authors’ brief explanations of these main categories in from the appendix of
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Handbook One, pp. 201-207):

Knowledge “involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and processes,
or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting.”
Comprehension “refers to a type of understanding or apprehension such that the individual
knows what is being communicated and can make use of the material or idea being
communicated without necessarily relating it to other material or seeing its fullest implications.”
Application refers to the “use of abstractions in particular and concrete situations.”
Analysis represents the “breakdown of a communication into its constituent elements or parts
such that the relative hierarchy of ideas is made clear and/or the relations between ideas
expressed are made explicit.”
Synthesis involves the “putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole.”
Evaluation engenders “judgments about the value of material and methods for given purposes.”

The 1984 edition of Handbook One is available in the CFT Library in Calhoun 116. See its
ACORN record for call number and availability.
Barbara Gross Davis, in the “Asking Questions” chapter of Tools for Teaching, also provides
examples of questions corresponding to the six categories. This chapter is not available in the
online version of the book, but Tools for Teaching is available in the CFT Library. See its
ACORN record for call number and availability.

The Revised Taxonomy (2001)

A group of cognitive psychologists, curriculum theorists and instructional researchers, and
testing and assessment specialists published in 2001 a revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy with the
title A Taxonomy for Teaching, Learning, and Assessment. This title draws attention away from
the somewhat static notion of “educational objectives” (in Bloom’s original title) and points to a
more dynamic conception of classification.

The authors of the revised taxonomy underscore this dynamism, using verbs and gerunds to label
their categories and subcategories (rather than the nouns of the original taxonomy). These
“action words” describe the cognitive processes by which thinkers encounter and work with
knowledge:

Remember
Recognizing
Recalling
Understand
Interpreting
Exemplifying
 Classifying
Summarizing
Inferring
Comparing
Explaining
Apply
Executing
Implementing
Analyse
Differentiating
Organizing
Attributing
Evaluate
Checking
Critiquing
Create
Generating
Planning
Producing
In the revised taxonomy, knowledge is at the basis of these six cognitive processes, but its
authors created a separate taxonomy of the types of knowledge used in cognition:

Factual Knowledge
Knowledge of terminology
Knowledge of specific details and elements
Conceptual Knowledge
Knowledge of classifications and categories
Knowledge of principles and generalizations
Knowledge of theories, models, and structures
Procedural Knowledge
Knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms
Knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods
Knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate procedures
Metacognitive Knowledge
Strategic Knowledge
Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including appropriate contextual and conditional
knowledge
Self-knowledge
Mary Forehand from the University of Georgia provides a guide to the revised version giving a
brief summary of the revised taxonomy and a helpful table of the six cognitive processes and
four types of knowledge.

The authors of the revised taxonomy suggest a multi-layered answer to this question, to which
the author of this teaching guide has added some clarifying points:
 1. Objectives (learning goals) are important to establish in a pedagogical interchange so that
teachers and students alike understand the purpose of that interchange.
2. Organizing objectives helps to clarify objectives for themselves and for students.
3. Having an organized set of objectives helps teachers to:
“plan and deliver appropriate instruction”;
“design valid assessment tasks and strategies”;and
“ensure that instruction and assessment are aligned with the objectives.”

As we can see here Unlike the 1956 version, the revised taxonomy differentiates between
“knowing what,” the content of thinking, and “knowing how,” the procedures used in solving
problems. The Knowledge Dimension is the “knowing what.” It has four categories: factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Anderson's taxonomy was developed directly from
Bloom's Cognitive taxonomy, with three important differences: Bloom uses nouns, and
Anderson uses verbs. This is important because it affects the way we demonstrate these abilities
as things we perform. Also revised Bloom's taxonomy emphasizes students' learning outcomes
through the use of refined terms. The revised taxonomy is a refreshed take on Bloom's
Taxonomy from 1956, which examined cognitive skills and learning behavior. Changes to
terminology, structure and emphasis are a part of the revised approach.

1965 -- Instructional Design System – Robert Gagné introduced a model for a systems
approach to designing instruction.
Instructional design has experienced a shift over the last several decades. The instructional
design field has transitioned from an emphasis on skills development and knowledge acquisition
to a focus on personal construction of meaning and user experience. While "programmed
instruction", based on theories of behaviorism dominated the 1950's and 1960's, modern
instructional design is more contextual, fluid, and learner experience driven. Some of the current
instructional design trends are influenced by technology advances in social media, cloud based
services, and big data.

1940's The Birth of Instructional Design

Instructional design commenced during the World War II when several psychologists and
education specialists were asked to create training materials in mass for several thousand
soldiers. Tests were also administered during this time to assess learner's abilities.

1950's

 1954 – B. F. Skinner's published an article titled “The Science of Learning and the Art of
Teaching” suggested that programmed instructional materials, should include small steps,
frequent questions, and immediate feedback; and should allow self-pacing. This type of
instruction is based on theories of "operant conditioning".
 1956 – Benjamin Bloom develops the “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives” identifying
principal domains of learning. Today, the output of this work is referred to as "Bloom's
Taxonomy".
 
1960's
 In 1965, Robert Gagne described three domains of learning outcomes (cognitive, affective,
psychomotor), five learning outcomes (Verbal Information, Intellectual Skills, Cognitive
Strategy, Attitude, Motor Skills), and nine events of instruction in research called “The
Conditions of Learning”. This work sits at the very core of instructional design practices today.

1970's
Several models surfaced that are based on systems information processing. This approach was
developed across military, academia and organizations. These organizations also started to use
media such as filmstrips during this time to improve the effectiveness of instruction.
 
1980's

 1983 – David Merrill developed Component Display Theory (CDT), which concentrates on the
methods of presenting instructional materials.
 PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operation), was one of the the first
commercialized computer assisted instructional system allows computers to be integrated into
instruction.
 Risings interest in the principles of cognitive psychology (or cognitivism).
 
1990's

 The influence of constructivist theory within the field of instructional design became more
active in the 1990s. Constructivists state that learning should be "authentic" and produce real-
world learning experiences that allow the learner to form, and construct their own knowledge.
 Performance improvement and performance support was a fast growing trend in the 90's. 
 Rapid prototyping was also first seen during the 1990s. In this process, training
materials are prototyped quickly and then revised through rapid testing and iterations.
 Computer Based Training (CBT) delivered via CD-ROM became a common vehicle to deliver
interactive training.

2000's
With improved internet penetration online learning (or "eLearning") becomes much
more prevalent in the corporate sector. Companies start to use online learning for on-boarding
new employees and developing new skills. Rich instructional media including video and
simulations became possible as internet bandwidth improved. Initially online learning is
delivered via Learning Management Systems (LMS), which allowed for a single one stop shop to
manage, deliver, and track online learning courses and assessments. 

2010's
 
 With the infusion of smart phones and tablets into corporations and homes, mobile and social
learning becomes starts to penetrate the industry.
 "Blended learning" (a combination of in-person training + online learning) is commonly used
both in education and industry to deliver training experiences. 
2015 and Beyond
Today instructional materials are much more personalized and targeted as a result of "Big Data"
and analytics. Today, the focus is not just on learning outcomes but also on the overall user
experience of the learner. This approach has given rise to Learner Experience (LX) Design
which focuses on the process of creating learning experiences that enable the learner to achieve
the desired learning outcome in a human centered and goal oriented way.

The Final Word:

Instructional design methodology has changed a lot over the last 70 years. Technology has
become more sophisticated and our understanding of human behaviour has advanced.

Instructional designers have reshaped and modernised their approaches. What’s perhaps more
remarkable, however, is how durable many instructional design approaches have proven to be.

Bloom’s Taxonomy was first postulated in 1956. Kirkpatrick created his four-level training
evaluation model in 1959. Gagne’s Nine Levels of Learning were first set down in 1965.
Instructors still adopt these three theories to this very day. The US Army popularised ADDIE in
the 1970s and it’s still the most popular instructional design framework.

As such, the time definitely seems right for an instructional design shake-up. Just as World War
II provided a spark for instructional designers to spring into being, perhaps the global crisis
created by the COVID-19 pandemic will facilitate a similar shift.

1970 -- Cognitive Approach – cognitivists including Ausubel, Bruner, Gagné, and others
dominated thinking about learning.
The cognitive revolution in psychology began with traditional experimental psychology, with a
focus on learning, perception, memory, and thinking, but it quickly spread to other areas of the
field. The cognitive approach to social psychology is based on the idea that interpersonal
behavior is shaped by the actors' perceptions of the social situation, each other, and themselves;
memories of past experiences in similar situations; and decisions about what to do in the current
one. Similarly, the cognitive approach to personality assumes that individual differences in social
behavior are based on individual differences in the construal (categorization) of the social
situation, as well in the declarative and procedural knowledge that each participant brings to bear
on the interaction. Much of experimental psychopathology is concerned with psychological
deficits associated with various forms of mental illness – for example, difficulties of attention in
schizophrenia. And cognitive therapy attempts to change maladaptive behavior by altering the
patients' beliefs and expectations concerning themselves, other people, and the world around
them.