PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials V-1

Crop Processing

Arnold R. Elepaño
Associate Professor
Agricultural and Bio-Process Division
Institute of Agricultural Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology
University of the Philippines Los Baños

I. Glossary ( from American Society of Agricultural Engineers,

1987)

Air-moving device (AMD) – A revolving, wheel-type, mechanical device used to move air for
drying or aeration. For the purposes of this Standard, an AMD shall include the wheel or
blade assembly, mounting structure and casing, but may or may not include a power
source.

Aeration - The purposeful movement of air at a low rate through a product to maintain or
improve product quality. Air flow rates usually do not exceed 0.08 cubic meters per
minute per cubic meter of product (0.1 cubic feet per minute per bushel of product)
through a dry product and 0.80 cubic meters per minute per cubic meter of product
(1cubic feet per minute per bushel of product) through a wet product.

Ambient temperature – The temperature of the surrounding air.

Approved - The use of ”approved” or “approved-type” refers to listing by a recognized testing

agency or laboratory.

Available heat- In drying a harvested crop, the quantity of heat in air that can be utilized in
evaporating water from the product.

Batch - A quantity of a harvested crop put into a bin or container on a repetitive basis
specifically for treatment, such as drying.

Blending - The process of mixing two or more different products together, such as grains and
supplements, to obtain desired food ratios, or the process of mixing different quantities
of the same product with different moisture contents to obtain a final mass with a
uniform moisture content.

Bushel - One bushel by volume equals 1.25 cubic feet.

- One dry bushel is that weight of grain defined by government grain standards as a
standard unit for trading at a specific moisture (e.g. 56 pounds at 15.5 percent w.b.for
number 2 corn).
- A wet bushel is the weight of wet grain which when dried will give one dried bushel as
specified in paragraph above (e.g. 63.5 lb of 25.5 percent w.b. corn).
Casing - The outer enclosure surrounding the entire heat exchanger and confining the
air being heated.

Combustible material – Combustible refers to a material or structure, which can burn.

Combustible is a relative term. Many materials, which will burn under one set of
conditions, will not burn under other. For example, structural steel is not combustible,

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but fine steel wool is combustible. The term combustible is not related to any specific
ignition temperature.

Conduction - Transmission through or by means of a conductor, distinguished in the case of

heat from convection and radiation.

Control - Any component of a dryer, or dryer heat source, so designed to affect or limit any
normal or abnormal condition of the drying operation.

Convection - Transference of heat or electricity by moving masses of matter, as by currents in

gasses and liquids caused by differences in density, or by electrically charged particles
across a spark gap.

Cooling stage - The time required to move a cooling zone entirely through the product mass.

Cooling zone - That portion of the product mass in storage where the product temperature of
the crop is falling during aeration.

Cubic meters per minute (CFM) – Volumetric measure of quantity of flow. (CFM is the most
common customary measure.)

Curing - A form of conditioning as opposed to simple drying in which a chemical change

occurs, such as in tobacco, sweet potatoes, etc., to prepare the crop for storage or use.

Cycling burner – Type of operation wherein application of maximum heat is periodic such as
cycling between high fire and low fire, cycling between high fire and constant pilot; and
cycling from high fire to “off”, then restarted to high fire by constant or intermittent
ignition.

Dehydration - The rapid removal of moisture, usually to a very low level.

Depth factor (Df) – When drying with air, a depth which would contain enough product that, if
all the theoretical heat available for drying could be used, it would all dry to equilibrium
in a period of time equal to the time required for the fully exposed product to dry half-
way to equilibrium.

Dryer - A unit which provides the conditions for removing moisture from a product.

Dryer, batch - Any dryer wherein the product to be dried is placed in the dryer, the complete
drying or drying and cooling operation performed, and then removed for storage or
further processing. Usually it is self-contained comprising a drying compartment, either
horizontal or vertical, to contain the product being dried while heated air is forced or
drawn through it from a central portion usually called a plenum chamber. Cooling is
usually carried out in the same manner. Integral conveying equipment provides for
loading and unloading the dryer. Also included are the AMD, burner, and control system.
Batch dryers are usually portable, but may be stationary.

Dryer, circulating – A batch dryer equipped to circulate or mix the product during the drying
and cooling period.

Dryer, concurrent flow – A type of continuous flow dryer wherein the product being dried
moves in the same direction as drying air. Sometimes referred to as parallel flow.

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Dryer, continuous-flow - Any dryer wherein the product to be dried is in continuous
movement through the dryer and air movement is continuous, in contrast to batch
operation.

Dryer, counter-flow – A type of continuous-flow dryer wherein the product being dried moves
in one direction and the drying air moves in the opposite direction.

Dryer, cross-flow – A type of dryer wherein the flow of air is transverse to the direction of the
flow of the product being dried.

Dryer, direct-fired – Type of dryer in which the products of combustion come into direct
contact with the product being dried.

Dryer, fluidized or spouted bed – A dryer where the product is in suspension, or is moved
through the dryer by the drying and/ or the cooling air.

Dryer, indirect-fired – Type of dryer in which the products of combustion do not come in
contact with the products being dried.

Dryer, in storage – A dryer in which the drying bin or compartment is also used to store the
product after it is dried.

Dryer, self- contained – Any dryer manufactured as a package unit consisting of the drying
and cooling chamber, necessary heat or radiation source, all AMD’s and duct work, along
with the necessary controls and product handling equipment. These dryers may be either
fixed or portable.

Dryer, tunnel - A type of dryer wherein the product being dried is conveyed through a tunnel-
like chamber. It may be continuous or batch-type.
Drying - The removal of moisture from a product, usually to some
predetermined moisture content.

Drying air - The air being passed through the product which is being dried.

Drying air temperature – The temperature of the air entering the product being dried.

Drying front - The divisional layer between dried and undried products in drying systems.

Drying time maximum permissible – The maximum elapsed time that may be used to
complete the drying of any portion of the product without undesirable change in quality.

Drying zone - The band or layer of product in which most of the drying is occurring at any
instant.

Electrical induction – Act or process by which an electric conductor becomes electrified when
near a charged body.

Equilibrium moisture content – The moisture content of a product when it is in equilibrium

with the surrounding atmosphere.

Equilibrium relative humidity – The relative humidity of air surrounding the product in
equilibrium with given moisture content. The air and product are at the same
temperature.

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Fail-safe control – A control designed so that a malfunction of any of its components will stop
the operation of the device or equipment controlled by it.

Fuel train - The fuel train, mounted on the grain dryer structure and connected to the gas
burner, includes all piping components of fuel flow control and safety shut-off valves.

Heat exchanger – A device used to transfer heat from one fluid stream to another without
intermixing.

Heating-air drying – Use of forced ventilation with the addition of heat for removing moisture.

Heated-air unit - Basic heated-air-producing unit including AMD, burner system, and electrical
system. It is usually coupled to drying structure by means of a flexible duct. It may have
transport chassis and wheels for portability.

Insulating fitting- A type of fitting designed to prevent galvanic current flow when used
between two dissimilar metals.

Joule (BTU) - A measure of quantity of heat. One joule will raise the temperature of one
gram of water one degree Celsius. (One BTU will raise the temperature of one
pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.)

Line pressure - The pressure of the fuel in the supply line to the dryer.

LP-gas - A mixture of gaseous petroleum products normally stored and transported as a liquid
under pressure. The principal constituents are propane and butane.

Modulate (as applied to crop drying in reference to regulation of fuel in continuous

flow) – Automatically governing the rate of fuel flow by a control which is temperature-sensitive
in order to maintain a constant temperature at the location of the sensing device.

Moisture content (dry basis) – For products, expressed as percentage, by weight, of water in
the product divided by dry matter.
Weight of water in product
Moisture content, percent = (100) x -------------------------------------
Weight of dry matter

Moisture content (wet basis) – For agricultural producers, usually expressed as percentage,
by weight, of water in the product, wet basis.
Weight of water in product
Moisture content, percent = (100) x --------------------------------------
Weight of dry matter + water

Natural gas - A gaseous hydrocarbon, odorless and flammable, found in its natural state in
particular geologic formation as a product of decomposition of organic matter. The
composition is chiefly of the methane series with varying amounts of other components
such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and helium often being present.

Orifice - The opening through which gas is admitted to the burner.

Pascal (psi – pounds per square inch or inches of water column) – A measure of pressure or
stress. Assumed to be gage pressure unless followed by the term “absolute”.

Pilot- continuous – The pilot remains lit during the time power is supplied to the burner.

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Pilot- interruptible – The pilot is lit during the time combustion is being established. When
combustion is established the pilot is de-energized.

Pilot-standing - The pilot is manually lit and remains lit until manually shut off.

Plenum - An air chamber maintained under pressure (positive or negative) usually connected to
one or more distributing ducts in a drying or aeration system. The term is also used to
designate the air chamber under the perforated floor in a grain bin and the pressure
chamber between grain columns in some types of batch or continuous dryers.

Pressure regulator – A mechanical device which reduces the fluid (liquid or gas) pressure to
a relatively constant delivery pressure while the inlet pressure may vary and while the
volume of gas may also vary.

Pressure system – Method of air movement in which air is forced through the product with the
air duct or ducts at a pressure above atmospheric pressure. It is called a pushing or
forcing system of air movement.

Pre- ventilation – As applied to crop dryers, the term refers to clearing or purging the
plenum chamber or duct of any volatile gases prior to ignition of the burner. It is usually
accomplished by a device which insures that the fan must operate for a certain period of
time before ignition will be permitted.

Radiation - The process by which energy is emitted from molecules and atoms owing to the
internal changes. Also the combined process of emission, transmission, and absorption of
radiant energy.

Recirculation - As applied to crop dryers, the term refers to the return of the portion of the
exhaust air to the air intake of the dryer, or to the return of underdried grain to the dryer
or container from which it was removed.

Relative humidity – A measure of the moisture content of air expressed as a percentage. It is

the ratio of the weight of water vapor in a given volume of air at a given temperature to
the maximum quantity of water vapor which the same volume of air could hold at the
same temperature.

Static pressure – A measure of air pressure usually expressed in pascals [inches of water
column (WC)].

Steady state - Condition when the operation or process reaches equilibrium.

Suction system – Method of air movement in which the air is moved through the product
with the air duct or ducts at a pressure lower than atmospheric. It is also called an
exhaust system of air movement.

Supervision - Continuous monitoring to react automatically to flame failure so as to

shut off gas flow to the unit.

Supplemental heat - Any heat added to that already present in the atmosphere to obtain a
limited temperature rise, usually less than 11°C (20°F), to accomplish drying within the
maximum permissible drying time to prevent spoilage.

Temperature rise – As applied to crop drying, the term refers to the difference between
ambient temperature and the temperature and the temperature of the drying air
resulting from the addition of heat by the dryer burner.

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Tempering - Equilization of moisture or temperature throughout the product. Bringing a product

to a desired moisture content or temperature for processing.

Time of drying - The elapsed time from the start of the drying process to the instant the drying
front arrives at any point or place in the product.

Time of one-half response – Time required to dry fully exposed products halfway to
equilibrium.

Turning - The process of moving a product through the air within a bin or storage structure, or
from one bin or storage structure to another.

Valve, excess-flow – A check valve which permits flow of fluid in either direction but which
limits excessive flow in one direction. If the designated flow is exceeded, the valve
automatically closes.

Valve, pressure relief – A valve designated as a safety device to open, and remain open, to
discharge a fluid whenever the fluid pressure reaches the start-to-discharge setting of
the valve. When the fluid pressure drops below this setting, the relief valve automatically
closes.

Valve, quick-acting – A manually operated valve specially designed to accomplish rapid shut-
off to fuel flow to dryer.

Valve, solenoid – A valve which is opened or closed by a solenoid (electromagnet). In the

normally closed type, for example, the valve is opened by the solenoid but closed by a
return spring and held closed by the fluid pressure upstream from the valve.

Vapor pressure (fuel) – Commonly taken to mean saturated vapor pressure which is the vapor
pressure of a vapor in contact with its liquid form. An example is the pressure in an LP-
gas storage tank. The term is also used for the pressure of the vaporized fuel being fed
to the burner orifice.

Vaporizer - In an LP-gas system, the vaporizer is a heat exchanger wherein heat is supplied to
change the liquid fuel to vapor, ready for combustion. The vaporizer may be integral with
the burner so that part of the heat of combustion is used for vaporization.

Vaporizer-burner – An integral vaporizer-burner unit, dependent upon the heat generated by

the burner as the source of heat to vaporize the liquid fuel.

Velocity of air flow for conditioning:

Apparent velocity in meters per minute (feet per minute) – The rate of air flow
determined by dividing the quantity of air flow in cfm by the cross-sectional area.

Average velocity – The rate of air travel through product void space. It is determined by
dividing the apparent velocity by the product void space expressed as a decimal. The
average velocity is always greater than the apparent velocity.

Traverse time – The in-product travel time of air from entrance to any point, usually in
seconds.

Ventilation - Air movement through space.

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Ventilation front – The locus of all points of equal traverse time in the product being
conditioned.

Void space - The space between particles in a bulk of stored crop, usually expressed as percent
of total volume.

Weatherproof – So constructed or protected that exposure to the weather will not interfere
with safe operation.

II. Conversion Factors

Quantity SI to English English to SI

Area 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
= 1550.0 in2 1 in2 = 6.452 x 10-4 m2
Density 1 kg/ m3 = 0.06243 lbm/ ft3 1 lbm/ ft3 = 16.018 kg/ m3
1 slug/ ft3 = 515.379 kg/ m3
Energy 1 J = 9.4787 x 10-4 Btu 1 Btu = 1055.056 J
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 lbf.ft = 1.3558 J
1 hp.h = 2.685 x 106 J
Energy per unit mass 1 J/kg = 4.2995 x 10-4 Btu/ lbm 1 Btu/ lbm = 2326 J/kg
Force 1 N = 0.2248 lbf 1 lbf = 4.448 N
1 pdl = 0.1382 N
Heat flux 1 W/ m2 = 0.3171 Btu/ (h.ft2) 1 Btu/ (h.ft2) = 3.1525 W/ m2
1 kcal/ (h.m2) = 1.163 W/ m2
1 cal/ (s.cm2) = 41.870 x 103 W/ m2
Heat generation per unit 1 W/ m3 = 0.09665 Btu/ (h.ft3) 1 Btu/ (h.ft3) = 10.343 W/ m3
volume
Heat transfer coefficient 1 W/ (m2.K) = 0.17612 Btu/ (h.ft2.°F) 1 Btu/ (h.ft2.°F) = 5.678 W/ (m2.K)
1 kcal/ (h.m2.°C) = 1.163 W/ (m2.K)
1 cal/ (s.cm2.°C) = 41.870 x 103 W/ (m2.K)
Heat transfer rate 1 W = 3.4123 Btu/ h 1 Btu/ h = 0.2931 W
Length 1 m = 3.2808 ft 1 ft = 0.3048m
= 39.370 in 1 in = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m
Mass 1 kg = 2.2046 lbm 1 lbm = 0.4536 kg
1 slug = 14.594 kg
Mass flow rate 1 kg/ s = 7936.6 lbm/ h 1 lbm/ h = 0.000126 kg/s
= 2.2046 lbm/ s 1 lbm/ s = 0.4536 kg/s
Power 1 W = 3.4123 Btu/ h 1 Btu/ h = 0.2931 W
1 Btu/ s = 1055.1 W
1 lbf.ft/s = 1.3558 W
1 hp = 745.7 W
Pressure and stress 1 N/ m2 = 0.020886 lbf/ ft2 1 lbf/ ft2 = 47.88 N/ m2
= 1.4504 x 10-4 lbf/ in2 1 lbf/ in2 = 6894.8 N/ m2
= 4.015 x 10-3 in water 1 psi = 1lbf/ in2 = 6894.8 N/ m2
= 2.953 x 10-4 in Hg 1 std atmosphere = 1.0133 x 105 N/ m2
1 bar = 1 x 105 N/ m2

Quantity SI to English English to SI

Specific heat 1 J/ (kg.K) = 2.3886x10-4 Btu/ (lbm.°F)
Surface tension 1 N/ m = 0.06852 lbf/ ft
Temperature T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15
= T(°R)/ 1.8
= [T(°F) + 459.67]/ 1.8
T(°C) = [T(°F) – 32] / 1.8
Thermal diffusivity 1 m2/ s = 10.7639 ft2/ s
Thermal resistance 1 K/ W = 0.52750°F.h/ Btu
Velocity 1 m/ s = 3.2808 ft/ s
Viscosity (dynamic) 1 N.s/ m2 = 0.672 lbm/ (ft.s)
= 2419.1 lbm/ (ft.h)
= 5.8016 x 10-6 lbf.h/ ft2
Viscosity (kinematic) 1 m2/ s = 10.7639 ft2/ s
1 Btu/ (lbm.°F) = 4187 J/ (kg.K)
1 lbf/ ft = 14.594 N/ m
1 dyn/ cm = 1 x 10-3 N/ m
T(°R) = 1.8 T(K)
= T(°F) + 459.67
T(°F) = 1.8 T(°C) + 32
= 1.8 [T(K) – 273.15] + 32
1 ft2/ s = 0.0929 m2/ s
1 ft2/ h = 2.581 x 10-5 m2/ s
1 °F.h/ Btu = 1.8958 K/ W
1 ft/ s = 0.3048 m/ s
1 lbm/ (ft.s) = 1.4881 N.s/ m2
1 lbm/ (ft.h) = 4.133 x 10-4 N.s/ m2
1 centipoise = 10-2 poise = 1x10-3 N.s/ m2
1 ft2/ s = 0.0929 m2/ s

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PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials V-8
2 -5 2
1 ft / h = 2.581 x 10 m / s
Volume 1 m3 = 35.3134 ft3 1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3
1 in3 = 1.6387 x 10-5 m3
1 gal (US liq.) = 0.003785 m3
1 gal (UK liq.) = 0.004546 m3
Volume flow rate 1 m3/ s = 35.3134 ft3/ s 1 ft3/ h = 7.8658 x 10-6 m3/ s
= 1.2713 ft3/ h 1 ft3/ s = 2.8317 x 10-2 m3/ s
1 gal (US liq.)/ min. = 6.309 x 10-5 m3/ s

IV. References

Hall, C.W. 1980. Drying and Storage of Agricultural Crops. AVI Publishing Co., Inc.

Crop Processing