THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES

NAME : SILUMBA MERCY NCHIMUNYA

COMPUTER NUMBER : 18052959

COURSE CODE : HIS 4110

LECTURER : N.M NAMWANYI

TASK : ASSIGNMENT ONE

DUE DATE : 11th April, 2022

POSTAL ADDRESS : CHASA SECONDARY SCHOOL, P/BAG 2,

SINDA

CELL NUMBERS : 0973600535 / 0963972118

EMAIL : msilumb@gmail.com

QUESTION: How did mines in Zambia and Zimbabwe recruit and control African labour?
Mining in Pre-Colonial and colonial era in Central Africa was one of the activities done on a small
scale. In Pre-colonial era, Africans mined copper and iron ore which they refined using traditional
methods. From these minerals they made various implements and ornaments contrary to Eurocentric
views. Copper, for example, was mined at Kansanshi where mine pits existed in an area of about 5km
in diameter. There is also evidence of copper mining activities around the Hook of the Kafue River as
late as 1890. Salt was another important mineral mined in various part of Pre-Colonial Central, and
was used in both local and regional trade. Gold mining was also done in Zimbabwe at Mashonaland
Mining. These mining activities, however, were not large scale. Large scale mining in Central Africa
began with the coming of colonial rule. The British South Africa Company, believing that there was
gold in Central African set about prospecting for minerals as soon as they colonised the territory.
This essay however discuss how African labour mobilised, recruited and controlled by the mining
industrial sector in Zambia and Zimbabwe. A conclusion will be made based on the discussion.

The history of mining in Zambia and Zimbabwe can be traced back in early 1880s when the British
landed in the region. They took over control and their potential of the region mineral wealth was not
known.1 Even early capitalist growth was very slow. For instance, in 1902, Edmund Davis of the
Rhodesia Copper Company and an associate of John Cecil Rhodes, discovered Zinc and Lead at
Broken Hill. This discovery led to the formation of the Broken Hill Company (BHC) which had to
exploit the resources by developing a mine.2

The main source of demand for labour in Zimbabwe was the gold mining industry. What gold miners
wanted was cheap unskilled labour. Attempts to recruit local labour was not only a problem but
proved far inadequate to the demands of the industry. It would be wrong to suggest that difficulties
encountered were due to low wages, at least in the beginning but working conditions were certainly a
major hindrance to Africans who were yet to be proletarianised. Apart from being arduous, work for
a European was a new development to Africans not accustomed to regular work shifts, let alone
working in remote parts of the country and underground. The white miners working world was too
alien and regular work under what were extremely harsh conditions on a mining 'frontier', was
enough to dissuade anyone from mining labour.3 Secondly, Africans responded to the arrival of
Europeans and opening up of mines by producing for the market. Cattle, grain, eggs and other local

1
W. J. Barber, The Economy of British Central Africa (London: Longman, 1961), 67.
2
A. Roberts, A history of Zambia (London: Heinemann Educational Books, 1976), 135.
3
Roberts, A history of Zambia, 137.

1
produce provided a basis for commerce between Africans and Europeans settlers, miners and colonial
administrators. As long as Africans had access to the local markets and as long as they could earn
enough to meet their local needs and pay tax, when this was introduced, it did not made sense to
expect them to voluntarily contract for wage labour.4

Later, prospectors obtained concessions from the British South African Company (BSA) which had
obtained mining rights in the area from King Lewanika of the Lozi in 1900. As more copper deposits
were found, Zambia was put under direct British rule as a protectorate under the Colonial Office in
1924. Population increase lead to the establishment of settlements which rapidly grew into new
towns. Support industries emerged and infrastructure such as hospitals, schools, roads, markets, and
recreational facilities were built.5 The copper produced in Zambia contained rich ore and maximized
the profits. Flotation technology for separating copper sulphide minerals from ores had been
commercialized and this advance enabled large quantities of copper to be produced. 6 By 1964,
Zambia was a major player in the world copper industry, contributing over 12% of global output. The
economy grew to an extent where, in 1969, the nation was classified a middle-income country. The
mining sector continued providing direct and indirect employment, such that, by 1972, 62 000 people
were directly employed by the mines.7

Zimbabwe has also its own history of mining. In Zimbabwe, Cecil John Rhodes’ ambition to control
what was to become the eponymous Southern Rhodesia in 1890 was premised on the discovery of
gold reefs comparable to the Rand. His British South Africa Company (BSAC), having obtained a
mandate to administer the territory through the Royal Charter, established an administrative system
that oversaw the economic and political order of the new state for the next three decades. 8 Rhodes’
goal was to establish an economy anchored by mining enterprise. As a business, the BSAC was
supposed to produce profits so that it could pay dividends to its shareholders. It made strenuous
efforts to bolster mining development through pro-mining legislation. Although a formal agricultural
policy was adopted in 1908, mining remained the favored child.9

4
Roberts, A history of Zambia, 138.
5
Orde Browne, The African labourer, 125.
6
Barber, The Economy of British Central Africa, 68.
7
Roberts, A history of Zambia, 138.
8
I. R. Phimister, “Rhodes, Rhodesia and the Rand,” Journal of Southern African Studies, 1, 1 (1974), 91.
9
Phimister, “Rhodes, Rhodesia and the Rand,” 92.

2
In Zimbabwe, the foundation of the Colonial Economy during the time when the Pioneer Column
crossed the Limpopo into Southern Rhodesia in 1890 in the wake of the gold rush on the
Witwatersrand anticipated finding a “Second Rand”. They hoped to establish an economy based on
mining. Indeed, the passing of the Mashonaland Mining Regulation number 1 in 1890 which
embodied the American apex principle, and the subsequent opening of two large mines, the Cotopaxi
and the Dickens, in Fort Victoria District in 1893, marked the genesis of large scale mining. In
addition, numerous mining claims were parceled out by the BSAC administration. 10 It also
encouraged floatation116 of mining companies, as it aspired to maximize profits since it held a 50
percent share in all mining ventures. Mining therefore, became the initial cornerstone on which the
colonial economy was built. Its successful execution became the primary goal of the newly minted
Southern Rhodesian State an ambition also shared by some settlers.11

In line with its vision of a mining-led economy, the Company administration was at pains to create an
enabling atmosphere for the successful operation of the mining sector. This was facilitated by the
crafting, and passage of appropriate legislation such as the Mines and Minerals Ordinance of 1895
which granted miners water, timber and grazing rights. This piece of legislation provided that a
licensed prospector had the right to peg claims on land owned by others and that on the land so
pegged he could freely graze twenty draught animals, take indigenous wood for domestic purposes
on payment of compensation, take water for free when this was required for domestic purposes and
erect temporary buildings within the limits of the pegged area. There was a shift, as this chapter will
demonstrate, in settler goals, as these exclusive rights were detested and then contested by settler
farmers.12

Having discussed the brief background of mining in Zimbabwe and Zambia, there is need to discuss
what the question demands. When the development of mining increased, there was demand for
human capital and also labour migration became inevitable. The recruitment of labour in Zimbabwe
and Zambia was similar.13 Before the opening of mines for instance in Northern Rhodesia, Africans

10
Phimister, “Rhodes, Rhodesia and the Rand,” 94.
11
W. H. Shaw, “They Stole Our Land: Debating the Expropriation of White Farms in Zimbabwe”, Journal of Modern
African Studies, Vol. 41, No.1 (2003), 79.
12
Guene Enid, “Copper’s Corollaries: Trade and Labour Migration in the Copperbelt (1910-1940)”, Zambia Social
Science Journal, Vol. 4, No. 1 (2013), 350.
13
D. Towriss, “Buying Loyalty: Zimbabwe’s Marange Diamonds”, Journal of Southern African Studies, Vol. 39, No.1
(2013), 101.

3
worked on the railway project from Livingstone to Katanga (1904-10). This however was not on a
large scale. However, labourers were recruited in streams and in case of Zambia, four main streams
of Zambian labour was destined during the colonial period, that is, Katanga in the Belgian Congo,
Southern Rhodesia, South Africa and Lupa Goldfields in Tanganyika.14

With the passing of time, the British South African Company was happy that Africans were able to
pay taxes through deferred payments obtained from mine. These mines were important because it
initiated the aspect of organised labour recruitment. In this vein, labour recruiting companies were
established. In Zambia, one of the first to be set up was Robert Williams and Company. It recruited
labour from Northern Rhodesia for the Katanga. Although the government received money from
migrants working in the Congo, it was not happy because it wanted the labour to go to Southern
Rhodesia and South Africa.15

The Southern Rhodesia to some extent depended imported labour from Northern Rhodesia. Labor
recruitment in Southern Rhodesia was organised by the Southern Rhodesia Native Labour Bureau
(SRNLB) which began operating in Nyasaland and North-Eastern Rhodesia in 1906. By 1912 the
Bureau had also established itself in North-Western Rhodesia. After signing a contract with the
Bureau, a migrant worked for between 6 to 12 months. A medical examination had to be undertaken
by each recruit. The company provided transport up to the destination. It is vital to mention that 50%
of the wages earned were transferred to the Northern Rhodesian government by the employer for tax
purposes, and the migrant got the remainder upon his return home at the end of the contract.16

For South Africa, the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association (WNLA or “WENELA” in siLozi)
recruited labour specifically from Bulozi. The notion of deferred payments was also utilised. This
recruitment exercise was stopped in 1966. However with the development of the Copperbelt in the
mid-1920s, labour demands in Zambia came from the need to exploit the copper ores discovered in
the territory.17 This demand was for both skilled and unskilled labour. Most of the labour that was
employed on the Copperbelt was from within the country. However there was also a large presence
of foreign labour especially from Nyasaland and Tanganyika. Foreign labour was mainly brought in

14
Orde Browne, The African labourer, 126.
15
Shaw, “They Stole Our Land: Debating the Expropriation of White Farms in Zimbabwe”, 80.
16
I. R. Phimister, “The reconstruction of the Southern Rhodesian gold mining industry, 1903 –1910”, The Economic
History Review, Vol. 29, No.3 (1976), 470.
17
Shaw, “They Stole Our Land: Debating the Expropriation of White Farms in Zimbabwe”, 81.

4
for specific tasks. Those from Nyasaland were brought in to do clerical work because education had
been introduced by missionaries in that territory quite early than in Zambia. On the other hand, the
Nyakyusa from Tanganyika were engaged in the more difficult tasks of underground work. They
constituted the second largest group after the Bemba in underground mining.18

Even if much of the labour on the Zambian Copperbelt came from within the country, it did not come
from areas where mining was done. This was mainly because the population in the mining areas was
still low. Due to low population, labour had to be sourced from elsewhere within the territory, and
this was how contract labour began. In the early days it was for a period of 180 days (6 months). This
labour came from different parts of the country mostly from Luapula and Northern provinces. The
people from Barotseland played a major role as they too came in number unlike the people from
Eastern and Central provinces who only came in small numbers. Eastern province is only credited for
labour that was provided in South Africa.19

On the other hand, the late development of mining in Northern Rhodesia was an advantage in as far
as the aspect of labour was concerned. This was because at the time mines were being developed in
Zambia, Africans were already accustomed to the rigours of mine life. On the other hand, the late
development was also a demerit as Zambian mines had to compete against the older and well-
established mines of Katanga, Southern Rhodesia, Tanzania and South Africa which already offered
better conditions of service. For example, in the 1920s, 47.8% of the total African labour force in
Katanga under UMHK came from Zambia. In 1938, about 24,000 Zambians were employed in
Southern Rhodesia.20

For the above reasons, mine administrators in Northern Rhodesia came together and created the
Native Labour Association (NLA) to operate as a private company but under control of mine owners.
Colonel A. Stephenson was appointed its Director and was tasked with the responsibility of securing
and supplying sufficient labour to the mines as and when required. The company was paid £5 per
recruit, an amount to cater for food, the first blanket and transport. To facilitate its operations, the

18
Phimister, “The reconstruction of the Southern Rhodesian gold mining industry, 1903 –1910”, 471.
19
B. Terminski, “Mining induced displacement and resettlement: Social problem and human rights issue”, African
Journal of Mining. Vol. 3, No. 1 (2012), 125.

20
Terminski, “Mining induced displacement and resettlement: Social problem and human rights issue”, 128.

5
company placed 27 members at strategic places all over the provinces where labour was obtained.
There were also many sub-agents in the villages.21

Once labour was mobilised, laborers were recruited, the contents of the contract were explained and
the men were checked physically by the local European. They were transported by road to the mining
site such as Bwana Mkubwa where a depot for the reception and deployment was done. Conditions in
the contract were once more checked and when the recruits accepted them they were signed in the
presence of the District Commissioner. After a thorough medical examination, recruits chose which
mines they wanted to work for. The successful ones went to their mines where they were examines
by a mine Medical Officer once more. An orientation program then followed, for instance, taught
names of tools to be used, mine safety procedures, drilling operations, language of communication (a
lingua franca that came from South Africa called “Chilapalapa”), and general conditions of labour.
Contracts were initially six tickets of 30 days each; and from the mid-1930s were extended to 12
tickets.22

Labour was controlled by measures imposed at the mining sector. In most cases, legislation played a
major role in the control of labour. In this case, once labour is recruited, it was put in recruit. There
were sanctions introduced so as to make sure labour was controlled. Compound system was another
way of controlling labour. This was one way in which those who escaped were sanctioned. Tickets
were also used to control labour in which each worker was to show the ticket. This was done on a
daily basis. Lining up was common for workers to show their tickets to the supervisors’.23.

Another way of controlling labour was by token system. A box system was used to control labour in
which workers were given boxes which they would use when they wanted to buy their basic needs.
Food was also used as a control measure in which the workers were provided food to work hard. Beer
played a major role as some workers felt good to be provided with beer. Education was also used to
control labour. In colonial times, education was a tool to enhance social life and improve economic
status.24 Recreation was too vital as a control measure. This was very important especially during the
21
Roberts, A history of Zambia, 140.
22
Chauncey George, “The Locus of Reproduction: Women’s Labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953”, Journal of
South African History, 7, 2 (1981), 139.
Jane Parpart, “The Household and the Mine Shaft: Gender and Class Struggles on the Zambian Copperbelt, 1926-64”,
23

Journal of South African History, 13, 1 9 (1986), 40.

24
Chauncey George, “The Locus of Reproduction: Women’s Labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953”, Journal of
South African History, 7, 2 (1981), 146.

6
weekend. During recreation, workers were free to play games, drink beer and this to some extent was
the way some people spent their leisure.

Sports were used to control labour. In most cases, Africans were subjected to sports activities. These
were very important act ivies that brings people together and help in the socialization process.
Football was a common activity that took place. This to some extent was the beginning of football in
Africa. Cinemas were too used for entertainment. Nice movies were displayed on the Cinema and
Africans could watch. This was a good moment for an African. Traditional dances has been in
existence since the time in memorial and these were used to control miners in both Zambia and
Zimbabwe. According to Mbiti, Africans are dancing people and this was one of the activities that
Africans enjoyed. Dancing was one way of spending leisure.25

In some cases, saving bank accounts were used to control labour. Those who opened account were
only allowed to withdraw within specified period. Hence, some people could not leave the work
place until the time of withdrawing. Religion was another way that was used to control labour in
mining industries. Religion has been a major tool of controlling Africans. Since missionaries brought
in western religions, some people committed themselves in religious activities.26

In conclusion, the history of mining industry in Southern and Northern Rhodesia started when the
British South African company landed on the region. This history offers an important caveat to the
aphorism that geography is destiny. Through much of history centred on the economic opportunities
available in a geographic region, this shaped the social infrastructure of people who inhabited the
region. The essay has discussed how labour was recruited, mobilised and controlled. In central
Africa, labour has been one of the human activities since the creation of mine. Many people looked
for employment as labourers for various reasons underlying which is the element of survival or the
search for an improved life. It sometimes seems to be the only logical and rational thing to do when
one is faced with situations that border on survival and is also faced with making a choice.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barber, W. J. The Economy of British Central Africa. London: Longman, 1961.

Bbole, Dandule. “Women and Mine workers Struggles on the Zambian Copperbelt, 1926 – 1964”
MA Dissertation, University of Zambia, 2012.
25
Terminski, “Mining induced displacement and resettlement: Social problem and human rights issue”, 129.
26
Terminski, “Mining induced displacement and resettlement: Social problem and human rights issue”, 130.

7
Enid, Guene. “Copper’s Corollaries: Trade and Labour Migration in the Copperbelt (1910-1940)”.
Zambia Social Science Journal. Vol. 4, No. 1 (2013), 345-376.

George, Chauncey. “The Locus of Reproduction: Women’s Labour in the Zambian Copperbelt,
1927-1953”. Journal of South African History, 7, 2 (1981), 135-164.

Orde Browne, G. S. J. The African labourer. London: Oxford UP, 1933.

Parpart, Jane. “The Household and the Mine Shaft: Gender and Class Struggles on the Zambian
Copperbelt, 1926-64”. Journal of South African History,, 13, 1 9 (1986), 36-56.

Phimister, I. R. “The reconstruction of the Southern Rhodesian gold mining industry, 1903 –1910”.
The Economic History Review. 29, 3 (1976), 465 – 481.

Phimister, I.R. “Rhodes, Rhodesia and the Rand,” Journal of Southern African Studies, 1, 1 (1974),
89-98.

Roberts, A. A history of Zambia. London: Heinemann Educational Books, 1976.

Shaw, W. H., “They Stole Our Land: Debating the expropriation of white farms in Zimbabwe”.
Journal of Modern African Studies. 41, 1 (2003), 75-89.

Tapiwa, Madimu. Farmers, Miners and the State in Colonial Zimbabwe (Southern Rhodesia) 1895-
1961. Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History) in Faculty of Arts and
Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University.

Terminski, B. “Mining induced displacement and resettlement: Social problem and human rights
issue”. African Journal of Mining. Vol. 3, No. 1 (2012), 123-146.

Towriss, D., “Buying Loyalty: Zimbabwe’s Marange Diamonds”. Journal of Southern African
Studies. 39, 1 (2013), 99–107.

Van Onselen, C. “The role of collaborators in the Rhodesian mining industry, 1900-1935”. African
Affairs. 72, 289 (1973), 401-418.