AN AMPLITUDE MODULATION RADIO RECEIVER

NAME: STEPHEN MORURI MOGERE.

INDEX:

THE KISUMU NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC.

SUPERVISOR:

SUBMITTED TO THE KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATION

COUNCIL FOR THE AWARD OF DIPLOMA IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
(TELECOMMUNICATION)

DATE:
 DECLARATION

This project proposal is my original work and have never been presented for the
award of diploma or any other award in any institution, for the award of certificate in
any education level.

Name…………………................ Signature………………..
Date………………………
 APPROVAL
This project has been submitted for examination with my approval as the supervisor.

Name ………………………………… Sign ………………… Date ……………………

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
The Kisumu National Polytechnic.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am overwhelmed in all humbleness and gratefulness to acknowledge my depth to
all those who have helped me to put these ideas, well above the level of simplicity
and into something concrete.

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher as well as our

principal who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the
topic “AN AMPLITUDE MODULATION RADIO RECEIVER”, which also helped me in
doing a lot of Research and I came to know about so many new things. I am really
thankful to them.

Any attempt at any level can’t be satisfactorily completed without the support and
guidance of my parents and friends.
I would like to thank my parents who helped me a lot in gathering different
information, collecting data and guiding me from time to time in making this project,
despite of their busy schedules, they gave me different ideas in making this project
unique.
 ABSTRACT
The complex impedance concept has traditionally been a challenge for an
introductory ECE class. An appropriate laboratory exercise may support this concept
and spark student interest in the subject matter. A logical choice is to present a
“wireless” project as it naturally includes the concept of complex impedances.
Building a basic radio receiver on the proto-board is a challenge due to instability of
the RF low noise amplifier within an unpredictable proto-board environment. My
numerous attempts to build an AM station receiver on the proto-board have indicated
the following difficulties:
1. The design is difficult to debug; sometimes the flawless circuit simply does not
function.
2. One critical point is shorting out the power rail of the proto-board (connecting it to
the ground plane of the proto-board). Since this ground plane is made of aluminum
and is glued to the board, such a connection cannot work well for the standard board
3. A laboratory room may be electrically shielded. In our case, the room is located
inside the ECE building and has walls reinforced with a metal grid.
In this paper, I describe an alternative laboratory project that does not make use of
the low noise amplifier. Instead, I boost the voltage received by a Faraday’s coil
using a shunt capacitor (parallel LCR circuit), purely passively. The RF part of the
receiver circuit (coil antenna, matching capacitor, and an envelope detector with a
zero bias Germanium diode) is purely passive too. Students build a short-range 500-
1500 kHz complete TX/RX link on every laboratory bench. A low-cost function
generator (Instek), which is a standard bench component, is used for the transmitter.
An external audio modulation is introduced from a computer or iPod.
The laboratory material described was successfully implemented in an introductory
ECE class with mixed major content.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration…………………………………………………………………………………
Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………...
Approval……………………………………………………………………………………
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………
Table of contents…………………………………………………………………………
Chapter one……………………………………………………………………………….
References………………………………………………………………………………..
Circuit diagram…………………………………………………………………………….
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………...
Data sheets……………………………………………………………………..
 CHAPTER ONE
Initially, I set out to build a basic AM radio receiver. This included attempts both with
PCB design and on the proto-board. This design is composed of four
compartmentalized stages to aid in student understanding. These stages include a
resonant LC circuit, a front end amplifier, an envelope detector, and the audio
amplifier.
Generally, this radio design worked quite well, however, there were several problems
that made it impractical for use as a laboratory assignment. The first problem was
the inconsistency due to the electrically shielded laboratory room and building. The
same stations could not be reliably detected in all parts of the academic building. A
secondary concern was the price of the board and all of the accompanying
components, which amounted to considerably more than a standard laboratory
activity.

Advantages.
The advantages of AM radio are that it is relatively easy to detect with simple
equipment, even if the signal is not very strong. The other advantage is that it has a
narrower bandwidth than FM, and wider coverage compared with FM radio.

Applications.
AM broadcasting is radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation (AM) transmissions. It
was the first method developed for making audio radio transmissions, and is still used
worldwide, primarily for medium wave (also known as "AM band") transmissions, but
also on the longwave and shortwave radio bands.
 CHAPTER TWO (LITERATURE REVIEW)
CAPACITORS

Capacitors are simple passive device that can store an electrical charge on their plates when
connected to a voltage source

In this introduction to capacitors tutorial, we will see that capacitors are passive electronic
components consisting of two or more pieces of conducting material separated by an
insulating material. The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store
energy in the form of an electrical charge producing a potential difference (Static Voltage)
across its plates, much like a small rechargeable battery.

There are many different kinds of capacitors available from very small capacitor beads used
in resonance circuits to large power factor correction capacitors, but they all do the same
thing, they store charge.

In its basic form, a capacitor consists of two or more parallel conductive (metal) plates
which are not connected or touching each other, but are electrically separated either by air
or by some form of a good insulating material. This insulating material could be waxed
paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a liquid gel as used in electrolytic capacitors.

As a good introduction to capacitors, it is worth noting that the insulating layer between a
capacitors plates is commonly called the Dielectric.
Introduction to capacitors

A Typical Capacitor

Due to this insulating layer, DC current cannot flow through the capacitor as it blocks it
allowing instead a voltage to be present across the plates in the form of an electrical charge.

The conductive metal plates of a capacitor can be either square, circular or rectangular, or
they can be of a cylindrical or spherical shape with the general shape, size and construction
of a parallel plate capacitor depending on its application and voltage rating.

When used in a direct current or DC circuit, a capacitor charges up to its supply voltage but
blocks the flow of current through it because the dielectric of a capacitor is non-conductive
and basically an insulator. However, when a capacitor is connected to an alternating current
or AC circuit, the flow of the current appears to pass straight through the capacitor with
little or no resistance.
There are two types of electrical charge, a positive charge in the form of Protons and a
negative charge in the form of Electrons. When a DC voltage is placed across a capacitor, the
positive (+ve) charge quickly accumulates on one plate while a corresponding and opposite
negative (-ve) charge accumulates on the other plate. For every particle of +ve charge that
arrives at one plate a charge of the same sign will depart from the -ve plate.

Then the plates remain charge neutral and a potential difference due to this charge is
established between the two plates. Once the capacitor reaches its steady state condition
an electrical current is unable to flow through the capacitor itself and around the circuit due
to the insulating properties of the dielectric used to separate the plates.

The flow of electrons onto the plates is known as the capacitors Charging Current which
continues to flow until the voltage across both plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to
the applied voltage Vc. At this point the capacitor is said to be “fully charged” with
electrons.

The strength or rate of this charging current is at its maximum value when the plates are
fully discharged (initial condition) and slowly reduces in value to zero as the plates charge up
to a potential difference across the capacitors plates equal to the source voltage.

The amount of potential difference present across the capacitor depends upon how much
charge was deposited onto the plates by the work being done by the source voltage and
also by how much capacitance the capacitor has and this is illustrated below.

Introduction to capacitors the symbol

The parallel plate capacitor is the simplest form of capacitor. It can be constructed using two
metal or metallized foil plates at a distance parallel to each other, with its capacitance value
in Farads, being fixed by the surface area of the conductive plates and the distance of
separation between them. Altering any two of these values alters the value of its
capacitance and this forms the basis of operation of the variable capacitors.

Also, because capacitors store the energy of the electrons in the form of an electrical charge
on the plates the larger the plates and/or smaller their separation the greater will be the
charge that the capacitor holds for any given voltage across its plates. In other words, larger
plates, smaller distance, more capacitance.

By applying a voltage to a capacitor and measuring the charge on the plates, the ratio of the
charge Q to the voltage V will give the capacitance value of the capacitor and is therefore
given as: C = Q/V this equation can also be re-arranged to give the familiar formula for the
quantity of charge on the plates as: Q = C x V

Although we have said that the charge is stored on the plates of a capacitor, it is more exact
to say that the energy within the charge is stored in an “electrostatic field” between the two
plates. When an electric current flows into the capacitor, it charges up, so the electrostatic
field becomes much stronger as it stores more energy between the plates.

Likewise, as the current flowing out of the capacitor, discharging it, the potential difference
between the two plates decreases and the electrostatic field decreases as the energy moves
out of the plates.

The property of a capacitor to store charge on its plates in the form of an electrostatic field
is called the Capacitance of the capacitor. Not only that, but capacitance is also the property
of a capacitor which resists the change of voltage across it.
The Capacitance of a Capacitor

Capacitance is the electrical property of a capacitor and is the measure of a capacitors

ability to store an electrical charge onto its two plates with the unit of capacitance being the
Farad (abbreviated to F) named after the British physicist Michael Faraday.

Capacitance is defined as being that a capacitor has the capacitance of One Farad when a
charge of One Coulomb is stored on the plates by a voltage of One volt. Note that
capacitance, C is always positive in value and has no negative units. However, the Farad is a
very large unit of measurement to use on its own so sub-multiples of the Farad are generally
used such as micro-farads, Nano-farads and Pico-farads, for example.
RESISTORS
Resistors are the most fundamental and commonly used of all the electronic components,
to the point where they are almost taken for granted but they play a vital role within a
circuit

There are many different Types of Resistor available for the electronics constructor to
choose from, from very small surface mount chip resistors up to large wirewound power
resistors.

The principal job of a resistor within an electrical or electronic circuit is to “resist” (hence
the name Resistor), regulate or to set the flow of electrons (current) through them by using
the type of conductive material from which they are composed. Resistors can also be
connected together in various series and parallel combinations to form resistor networks
which can act as voltage droppers, voltage dividers or current limiters within a circuit.
Typical resistor type

A Typical Resistor

Resistors are what are called “Passive Devices”, that is they contain no source of power or
amplification but only attenuate or reduce the voltage or current signal passing through
them. This attenuation results in electrical energy being lost in the form of heat as the
resistor resists the flow of electrons through it.
Then a potential difference is required between the two terminals of a resistor for current
to flow. This potential difference balances out the energy lost. When used in DC circuits the
potential difference, also known as a resistors voltage drop, is measured across the
terminals as the circuit current flows through the resistor.

Most types of resistor are linear devices that produce a voltage drop across themselves
when an electrical current flows through them because they obey Ohm’s Law, and different
values of resistance produces different values of current or voltage. This can be very useful
in Electronic circuits by controlling or reducing either the current flow or voltage produced
across them we can produce a voltage-to-current and current-to-voltage converter.

There are many thousands of different Types of Resistor and are produced in a variety of
forms because their particular characteristics and accuracy suit certain areas of application,
such as High Stability, High Voltage, High Current etc, or are used as general purpose
resistors where their characteristics are less of a problem.

Some of the common characteristics associated with the humble resistor are; Temperature
Coefficient, Voltage Coefficient, Noise, Frequency Response, Power as well as a resistors
Temperature Rating, Physical Size and Reliability.

In all Electrical and Electronic circuit diagrams and schematics, the most commonly used
symbol for a fixed value resistor is that of a “zigzag” type line with the value of its resistance
given in Ohms, Ω. Resistors have fixed resistance values from less than one ohm, ( <1Ω ) to
well over tens of millions of ohms, ( >10MΩ ) in value.

Fixed resistors have only one single value of resistance, for example 100Ω, but variable
resistors (potentiometers) can provide an infinite number of resistance values between zero
and their maximum value.
Standard Resistor Symbols
resistor symbol

The symbol commonly used in schematic and electrical drawings for a Resistor can either be
a “zig-zag” type line or a rectangular box.

All modern fixed value resistors can be classified into four broad groups:

Carbon Composition Resistor – Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage values
Film or Cermet Resistor – Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage
values
Wire-wound Resistor – Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting, very high wattage ratings
 Semiconductor Resistor – High frequency/precision surface mount thin film technology

There are a large variety of fixed and variable resistor types with different construction
styles available for each group, with each one having its own particular characteristics,
advantages and disadvantages compared to the others. To include all types would make this
section very large so I shall limit it to the most commonly used, and readily available general
purpose types of resistors.
Composition Types of Resistor

Carbon Resistors are the most common type of Composition Resistors. Carbon resistors are
a cheap general purpose resistor used in electrical and electronic circuits. Their resistive
element is manufactured from a mixture of finely ground carbon dust or graphite (similar to
pencil lead) and a non-conducting ceramic (clay) powder to bind it all together.
carbon composite types of resistor

Carbon Resistor

The ratio of carbon dust to ceramic (conductor to insulator) determines the overall resistive
value of the mixture and the higher the ratio of carbon, the lower the overall resistance. The
mixture is moulded into a cylindrical shape with metal wires or leads are attached to each
end to provide the electrical connection as shown, before being coated with an outer
insulating material and colour coded markings to denote its resistive value.
Carbon Resistor

carbon resistor type

The Carbon Composite Resistor is a low to medium type power resistor which has a low
inductance making them ideal for high frequency applications but they can also suffer from
noise and stability when hot. Carbon composite resistors are generally prefixed with a “CR”
notation (eg, CR10kΩ ) and are available in E6 ( ± 20% tolerance (accuracy) ), E12 ( ± 10%
tolerance) and E24 ( ± 5% tolerance) packages with power ratings from 0.250 or 1/4 of a
Watt up to 5 Watts.

Carbon composite resistor types are very cheap to make and are therefore commonly used
in electrical circuits. However, due to their manufacturing process carbon type resistors
have very large tolerances so for more precision and high value resistances, film type
resistors are used instead.
Film Type Resistors

The generic term “Film Resistor” consist of Metal Film, Carbon Film and Metal Oxide Film
resistor types, which are generally made by depositing pure metals, such as nickel, or an
oxide film, such as tin-oxide, onto an insulating ceramic rod or substrate.
film construction

Film Resistor

The resistive value of the resistor is controlled by increasing the desired thickness of the
deposited film giving them the names of either “thick-film resistors” or “thin-film resistors”.

Once deposited, a laser is used to cut a high precision spiral helix groove type pattern into
this film. The cutting of the film has the effect of increasing the conductive or resistive path,
a bit like taking a long length of straight wire and forming it into a coil.

This method of manufacture allows for much closer tolerance resistors (1% or less) as
compared to the simpler carbon composition types. The tolerance of a resistor is the
difference between the preferred value (i.e. 100 ohms) and its actual manufactured value
i.e. 103.6 ohms, and is expressed as a percentage, for example 5%, 10% etc. and in our
example the actual tolerance is 3.6%. Film type resistors also achieve a much higher
maximum ohmic value compared to other types and values in excess of 10MΩ (10 Million
Ohms) are available.
Film Resistor

film construction

Metal Film Resistors have much better temperature stability than their carbon equivalents,
lower noise and are generally better for high frequency or radio frequency applications.
Metal Oxide Resistors have better high surge current capability with a much higher
temperature rating than the equivalent metal film resistors.

Another type of film resistor commonly known as a Thick Film Resistor is manufactured by
depositing a much thicker conductive paste of CERamic and METal, called Cermet, onto an
alumina ceramic substrate. Cermet resistors have similar properties to metal film resistors
and are generally used for making small surface mount chip type resistors, multi-resistor
networks in one package for pcb’s and high frequency resistors. They have good
temperature stability, low noise, and good voltage ratings but low surge current properties.

Metal Film Resistors are prefixed with a “MFR” notation (eg, MFR100kΩ) and a CF for
Carbon Film types. Metal film resistors are available in E24 (±5% & ±2% tolerances), E96
(±1% tolerance) and E192 (±0.5%, ±0.25% & ±0.1% tolerances) packages with power ratings
of 0.05 (1/20th) of a Watt up to 1/2 Watt. Generally speaking Film resistors and especially
metal film resistors are precision low power components.
Wirewound Types of Resistor
Another type of resistor, called a Wirewound Resistor, is made by winding a thin metal alloy
wire (Nichrome) or similar wire onto an insulating ceramic former in the form of a spiral
helix similar to the film resistor above.
wire wound resistance example

Wire wound Resistor

These types of resistor are generally only available in very low ohmic high precision values
(from 0.01Ω to 100kΩ) due to the gauge of the wire and number of turns possible on the
former making them ideal for use in measuring circuits and Wheatstone bridge type
applications.

They are also able to handle much higher electrical currents than other resistors of the same
ohmic value with power ratings in excess of 300 Watts. These high power resistors are
moulded or pressed into an aluminium heat sink body with fins attached to increase their
overall surface area to promote heat loss and cooling.

These special types of resistor are called “Chassis Mounted Resistors” because they are
designed to be physically mounted onto heatsinks or metal plates to further dissipate the
generated heat. The mounting of the resistor onto a heatsink increases their current
carrying capabilities even further.

Another type of wirewound resistor is the Power Wirewound Resistor. These are high
temperature, high power non-inductive resistor types generally coated with a vitreous or
glass epoxy enamel for use in resistance banks or DC motor/servo control and dynamic
braking applications. They can even be used as low wattage space or cabinet heaters.

The non-inductive resistance wire is wound around a ceramic or porcelain tube covered
with mica to prevent the alloy wires from moving when hot. Wirewound resistors are
available in a variety of resistance and power ratings with one main use of power
wirewound resistor is in the electrical heating elements of an electric fire which converts the
electrical current flowing through it into heat with each element dissipating up to 1000
Watts, (1kW) of energy.

Because the wire of standard wire wound resistors is wound into a coil inside the resistors
body, it acts like an inductor causing them to have inductance as well as resistance. This
affects the way the resistor behaves in AC circuits by producing a phase shift at high
frequencies especially in the larger size resistors. The length of the actual resistance path in
the resistor and the leads contributes inductance in series with the “apparent” DC
resistance resulting in an overall impedance path of Z Ohms.
Impedance ( Z ) is the combined effect of resistance ( R ) and inductance ( X ), measured in
ohms and for a series AC circuit is given as, Z2 = R2 + X2.

When used in AC circuits this inductance value changes with frequency (inductive reactance,
XL = 2πƒL) and therefore, the overall value of the resistor changes. Inductive reactance
increases with frequency but is zero at DC (zero frequency). Then, wirewound resistors must
not be designed or used in AC or amplifier type circuits where the frequency across the
resistor changes. However, special non-inductive wirewound resistors are also available.
Wirewound Resistor

wirewound

Wirewound resistor types are prefixed with a “WH” or “W” notation (eg WH10Ω) and are
available in the WH aluminium clad package (±1%, ±2%, ±5% and ±10% tolerance) or the W
vitreous enameled package (±1%, ±2% and ±5% tolerance) with power ratings from 1W to
300W or more.
Resistor Types Summary

Then to summarize, there are many different types of resistor available from low cost, large
tolerance, general purpose carbon type resistors through to low tolerance, high cost,
precision film resistors as well as high power, wire wound ceramic resistors. A resistor
regulates, impedes or sets the flow of current through a particular path or it can impose a
voltage reduction in an electrical circuit.

The resistive value of a resistor, its ability to limit current flow is measured in Ohm’s ( Ω )
ranging from less than one Ohm each to many millions of Ohm’s, (Mega-Ohm’s). Resistors
can be of a fixed value, for example: 100 Ohms, (100Ω) or variable as in 0 to 100Ω.

A resistor will always have the same resistance value no matter what the frequency of the
supply from DC to very high frequencies and all resistors have one thing in common, their
resistive value in Ohm’s in a circuit will ALWAYS be positive in nature and never negative.

The uses and applications of a resistor within an electrical or electronic circuit are vast and
varied with virtually every electronic circuit ever designed using one or more types of
resistor. Resistors are commonly used for purposes such as current limiting, providing
appropriate control voltages to semiconductor devices, such as bipolar transistors,
protecting LEDs or other semiconductor devices from over current damage, as well as
adjusting or limiting the frequency response in an audio or filter circuit.

In digital circuits different types of resistors can be used for pulling up or pulling down the
voltage at the input pin of a digital logic chip or by controlling a voltage at a point in a circuit
by placing two resistors in series to create a voltage divider network, the list is endless!.

In the next tutorial about Resistors, we will look at the different ways of identifying the
resistive value of the different types of fixed resistors with the most common method of
identification being the use of Colour Codes and colour bands around the body of the resisto

DIODES
Diodes are used to protect circuits by limiting the voltage and to also transform AC into DC.
Semiconductors like silicon and germanium are used to make the most of the diodes. Even
though they transmit current in a single direction, the way with which they transmit differs.
There are different kinds of diodes and each type has its own applications.
Diode Symbol

Diode Symbol

A standard diode symbol is represented as above. In the above diagram, we can see that
there are two terminals that are known as anode and cathode. The arrowhead is the anode
that represents the direction of the conventional current flow in the forward biased
condition. The other end is the cathode.
Diode Construction

Diodes can be made of either of the two semiconductor materials, silicon and germanium.
When the anode voltage is more positive than the cathode voltage, the diode is said to be
forward-biased, and it conducts readily with a relatively low-voltage drop. Likewise, when
the cathode voltage is more positive than the anode, the diode is said to be reverse-biased.
The arrow in the diode symbol represents the direction of conventional current flow when
the diode conducts.

This article lets you understand in detail about various types of diodes.
Types of Diodes
  Light Emitting Diode
 Laser diode
 Avalanche diode
 Zener diode
 Schottky diode
 Photodiode
 PN junction diode

Types of Diode with Symbols

Different Diodes and their Notation

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

When an electric current between the electrodes passes through this diode, light is
produced. In other words, light is generated when a sufficient amount of forwarding current
passes through it. In many diodes, this light generated is not visible as there are frequency
levels that do not allow visibility. LEDs are available in different colours. There are tricolour
LEDs that can emit three colours at a time. Light colour depends on the energy gap of the
semiconductor used.
Laser Diode

It is a different type of diode as it produces coherent light. It is highly used in CD drives,

DVDs and laser devices. These are costly when compared to LEDs and are cheaper when
compared to other laser generators. Limited life is the only drawback of these diodes.
Avalanche Diode

This diode belongs to a reverse bias type and operates using the avalanche effect. When
voltage drop is constant and is independent of current, the breakdown of avalanche takes
place. They exhibit high levels of sensitivity and hence are used for photo detection.
Zener Diode

It is the most useful type of diode as it can provide a stable reference voltage. These are
operated in reverse bias and break down on the arrival of a certain voltage. If current
passing through the resistor is limited, a stable voltage is generated. Zener diodes are widely
used in power supplies to provide a reference voltage.
Schottky Diode

It has a lower forward voltage than other silicon PN junction diodes. The drop will be seen
where there is low current and at that stage, voltage ranges between 0.15 and 0.4 volts.
These are constructed differently in order to obtain that performance. Schottky diodes are
highly used in rectifier applications.
Photodiode

A photo-diode can identify even a small amount of current flow resulting from the light.
These are very helpful in the detection of the light. This is a reverse bias diode and used in
solar cells and photometers. They are even used to generate electricity.
P-N Junction Diode

The P-N junction diode is also known as rectifier diodes. These diodes are used for the
rectification process and are made up of semiconductor material. The P-N junction diode
includes two layers of semiconductors. One layer of the semiconductor material is doped
with P-type material and the other layer with N-type material. The combination of these
both P and N-type layers form a junction known as the P-N junction. Hence, the name P-N
junction diode.

P-N junction diode allows the current to flow in the forward direction and blocks the flow of
current in the reverse direction.
Characteristics Of Diode

The following are the characteristics of the diode:

 Forward-biased diode
 Reverse-biased diode
 Zero biased diode

VI Characteristics of Diode
Forward-biased Diode

There is a small drop of voltage across the diode when the diode is forward-biased and the
current is conducting. For silicon diodes, the forward voltage is 690mV and for germanium,
300mV is the forward voltage. The potential energy across the p-type material is positive
and across the n-type material, the potential energy is negative.
Reverse-biased Diode

A diode is said to be reverse-biased when the battery’s voltage is dropped completely. For
silicon diodes, the reverse voltage is -20μA and for germanium, -50μA is the reverse voltage.
The potential energy across the p-type material is negative and across the n-type material,
the potential energy is positive.

Zero-biased Diode
When the diode is zero-biased, the voltage potential across the diode is zero.
Diode Applications

Following are the applications and uses of the diode:

 Diodes as a rectifier
 Diodes in the clipping circuit
 Diodes in clamping circuits
 Diodes in logical gates
 Diodes in reverse current protection

INDUCTORS
Inductors much like conductors and resistors are simple components that are used in
electronic devices to carry out specific functions. Normally, inductors are coil-like structures
that are found in electronic circuits. The coil is an insulated wire that is looped around the
central core.

Inductors are mostly used to decrease or control the electric spikes by storing energy
temporarily in an electromagnetic field and then releasing it back into the circuit.
An inductor is a passive component that is used in most power electronic circuits to store
energy in the form of magnetic energy when electricity is applied to it. One of the key
properties of an inductor is that it impedes or opposes any change in the amount of current
flowing through it. Whenever the current across the inductor changes it either acquires
charge or loses the charge in order to equalize the current passing through it. The inductor
is also called a choke, reactor or just coil.

An inductor is described by its distinctive nature of inductance, which is defined as the ratio
of the voltage to the rate of change of current. Inductance is a result of the induced
magnetic field on the coil. It is also determined by several factors such as;

 The shape of the coil.

 The number of turns and layers of the wire.
 The space that is given between the turns.
 Permeability of the core material.
 The size of the core.
The S.I. unit of inductance is henry (H) and when we measure magnetic circuits it is
equivalent to weber/ampere. It is denoted by the symbol L.

Meanwhile, an inductor is totally different from a capacitor. In the case of a capacitor, it

stores energy as electrical energy but as mentioned above, an inductor stores energy in the
form of magnetic energy. One key feature of the inductor is that it also changes its polarity
while discharging. In this way polarity during discharging can be made opposite to the
polarity during charging. The polarity of the induced voltage is well explained by Lenz law.

Symbols for an inductor are given below:

Construction of an Inductor

If we look at the construction of an inductor it usually consists of a coil of conducting

material (widely used ones include insulated copper wire) that is wrapped around a core
that is made up of plastic material or ferromagnetic material. One advantage of using a
ferromagnetic core is that it has high permeability which helps in increasing the magnetic
field and at the same time confining it closely to the inductor. Ultimately this results in
higher inductance.

On the other hand, inductors with low frequency are usually constructed like transformers.
They have cores made up of electrical steel that is laminated to help prevent eddy currents.
‘Soft’ ferrites are also widely used for cores above audio frequencies.

Inductors do come in many shapes and types. In some inductors, you will find an adjustable
core that allows changing the inductance. Inductors that are used in blocking very high
frequencies are mostly made by stringing a ferrite bead on a wire.

Planar inductors are made using a planar core while small value inductors are built on
integrated circuits using the processes of making interconnects. Typically, an aluminium
interconnect is used and fixed in a spiral coil pattern. However, small dimensions have some
limitations. They restrict the inductance.

There are also shielded inductors which are commonly used in power regulation systems,
lighting, and other systems requiring low-noise operating conditions. These inductors are
often partially or fully shielded.
Different Types of Inductors

Depending on the type of material used inductors can be classified as follows:

 Iron Core Inductor

 Air Core Inductor
 Iron Powder Inductor
 Ferrite Core Inductor which is divided into,

 Soft Ferrite
 Hard Ferrite

Iron Core Inductor

As the name suggests the core of this type of inductor is made of iron. These inductors are
low space inductors that have high power and high inductance value. However, they are
limited in high-frequency capacity. These inductors are used in audio equipment.

Air Core Inductor

These inductors are used when the amount of inductance required is low. Since there is no
core, it does not have a core loss. But the number of turns the inductor must have is more
for this type when compared to the inductors with the core. This results in a high-Quality
factor. Usually, ceramic inductors are often referred to as air-core inductors.

Iron Powder Inductor

In this type of inductor, the core is Iron Oxide. They are formed by very fine and insulating
particles of pure iron powder. High magnetic flux can be stored in it due to the air gap. The
permeability of the core of this type of inductor is very less. They are usually below 100.
They are mainly used in switching power supplies.
Ferrite Core Inductor

In this type of Inductor, ferrite materials are used as core. The general composition of
ferrites is XFe2O4. Where X represents transition material. Ferrites can be classified into two
types. Soft ferrites and hard ferrites.
 Soft Ferrite: Materials that have the ability to reverse their polarity without any external
energy.
Hard Ferrite: These are permanent magnets. That is their polarity will not change even
when the magnetic field is removed.

Choke
A choke is a type of inductor that is used mainly for blocking high-frequency alternating
current (AC) in an electrical circuit. On the other hand, it will allow DC or low-frequency
signals to pass. As the function of this inductor is to restrict the changes in current it is called
a choke. This inductor consists of a coil of insulated wire wound on a magnetic core. The
main difference between chokes and other inductors is that in their cases they do not
require high Q factor construction techniques meant to reduce the resistance in inductors
found in tuned circuits.

Inductors can be used for two primary functions.

 To control signals.
 To store energy.

Controlling Signals

Coils in an inductor can be used to store energy. The function of the inductor depends upon
the frequency of the current passing through it. That is for higher frequency signals will be
passed less easily and vice versa. This function tells that it blocks AC Current and passes DC
Current. Hence, it can be used to block AC signals.

Storing Energy
Inductor stores energy in the form of magnetic energy. Coils can store electrical energy in a
form of magnetic energy using the property that an electric current flowing through a coil
produces a magnetic field, which in turn produces an electric current. In other words, coils
offer a means of storing energy on the basis of inductivity
Inductors In Parallel Form

If two terminals of an inductor are connected to two terminals of another inductor, then the
inductors are said to be parallel. We know that when resistors are connected in parallel,
their effective resistance decreases. Similarly, when inductors are connected in parallel
form, their effective inductance decreases. Inductors in parallel are somewhat similar to the
capacitors in series.
Consider the example below:

Inductors in Parallel Form

Here, the current flowing through each inductor will be different. This current depends upon
the inductance value. However, the voltage across each conductor will be the same. By
using Kirchhoff’s Current law total current is the sum of the current through each branch.
That is

IT = I1 + I2 +I3
We know that the voltage across an inductor is given by the equation
V = L di / dt
We can write,
vAB = LTotal x dlt / dt
VAB = LTotal x d (I1 + I2 + I3) / dt
We can further write it as
vAB = LTotal x dl1 / dt + LTotal x dl2 / dt + LTotal x dl3 / dt
That is
vAB = LTotal ( V / L1 + V / L2 + V / L3 )
Since voltage are equal we can simplify the equation as,
1 / LTotal = 1 / L1 + 1 / L2 + 1 / L3

Inductors in Series
When the inductors are chained together in a straight line or when they are connected end
to end, then the inductors are said to be in series connection. We know that when resistors
are connected in series, their effective resistance increases.

Similarly, when inductors are connected in series, their effective inductance increases.
Inductors in series are somewhat similar to the capacitors in parallel. In Order to get the
total inductance, it is very easy. You only have to add every inductance. That is when
inductors are connected in series, the total inductance is the sum of all inductance.

Consider the connection below:

Inductors in Series

Here three inductors, and are connected in series. In this case, the current flowing through
each inductor is the same while the voltage across each inductor is different. This voltage
depends upon the inductance value. By using Kirchhoff’s voltage law total voltage drop is
the sum of the voltage drop across each inductor. That is

VT = V1 + V2 +V3
We know that the voltage across an inductor is given by the equation
V = L di / dt
So here we can write,
LTotal dl / dt = L1 x dl1 / dt + L2 x dl2 / dt + L3 x dl3 / dt
But
I = I1 = I2 = I3
Therefore,

L dl / dt = L1 x dl / dt + L2 x dl / dt + L3 x dl / dt
LTotal = L1 + L2 + L3

Energy Stored In an Inductor

When a current passes through an inductor an emf is induced in it. This back emf opposes
the flow of current through the inductor. So in order to establish a current in the inductor
work has to be done against this emf by the voltage source.

Consider a time interval dt.

During this period, work done dW is given by

dW = Pdt = – Eidt = iL di / dt x dt = Lidi
To find the total work done the above expression must be integrated.
W = 0∫ILidi = ½ LI2
Therefore energy stored in an inductor is given by the equation,
W = ½ LI2

Impedance of an Inductor
AC resistance mostly determines the opposition of current flowing through a coil. This AC
resistance is most commonly known as impedance. In this section, since we are discussing
the opposition given by the inductor, this can be called as Inductive Reactance. Inductive
reactance which is given the symbol XL is the property in an AC circuit that opposes the
change in the current.

It is given by the equation,

XL = VL / IL = Lω
From the equation, it is clear that inductive reactance is proportional to frequency.
The plot of frequency vs reactance is given below:

Frequency vs Reactance

MK484

A drawing of the MK484

The MK484 AM radio IC is a fully functional AM radio detector on a chip. It is constructed in
a TO-92 case, resembling a small transistor. It replaces the similar ZN414 AM radio IC from
the 1970s. The MK484 is favored by many hobbyists. It is advantageous in that it performs
well with minimal discrete components, and can run from a single 1.5-volt cell.[1][2]

The MK484 has now in turn been replaced by the TA7642.

 REFFERENCES
1. S. Makarov, R. Ludwig, and S. Bitar, Electric Circuits and Circuit Components,
Wiley Custom, Hoboken, NJ, 2011, ISBN 978-1-118-23356-8.
2. Laboratory #6, ECE2010-Intro to ECE, ECE Dept., WPI 2011-2012.
3.Online:http://courses.cit.cornell.edu/ee476/FinalProjects/s2010/pel29_slp56/
pel29_slp56/index.html 4. Online:
www.engr.uconn.edu/ece/.../projects/ecesd21/final-report-291.pdf
5.Online:http://web.eecs.utk.edu/~snaciri/courses/ece342/project2/Project
%20%232%20Report%20ECE%20342.pdf
6. Online: http://www.ece.vt.edu/ugrad/viewcourse.php?number=4676-149
7. Online: http://www.ik4hdq.net/doc/testi/HRL.pdf
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 APPENDICES
Data sheets.
MK484 data sheet

TDA 7052 data sheet