Reg. No.

[13ECU101]
KARPAGAM UNIVERSITY
(Under Section 3 of UGC Act 1956)
Coimbatore 641 021
(For the candidates admitted from 2013 onwards)
B.Sc DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER 2013
First Semester
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
Time: 3 Hours

Maximum Marks: 60
ANSWER KEY

PART A (10 X 2=20 Marks)

1. Specify the colour code for the following resistor values.
i) 2.7 5%

= RED, VIOLET, GOLD, GOLD

ii) 6.8M 20% = BLUE,GREY,GREEN,NONE

2. What are the different types of electrostatic capacitors?
There are 3 different types of Electrostatic Capacitors are available. They are
Plastic dielectric type
Mica dielectric type
Ceramic dielectric type

3. What is inductance?
Whenever current passes through conductor lines of magnetic flux are generated around it. This
magnetic flux opposes any change in current due to the induced emf; this opposition is known as
inductance. It is the property of inductor
4. Define frequency?
The number of cycles occurring per second is called frequency
F = 1 / T Hz.
5. Find the current flowing through the circuit

Given:
VT= 40V; I2=50mA; R1= 250; R2=175; R3=375
Since it is a Series circuit so, the current drop at R2 will be the Current Flowing the circuit.

6. A sinusoidal signal has a maximum of 20mV,what is the r.m.s values of the signal.

The sinusoidal signals peak voltage Vm

= 20Mv

RMS value of the sinusoidal signal is Vrms = /

= (20x10-3)/2 =0.01v
7. State Kirchoffs voltage law.
Kirchoffs voltage law states that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed path is always zero.

8. State Super position theorem

In a linear network containing several sources (including dependent sources ),the overall
response (branch current or voltage)in any branch in the network equals the algebraic sum of
responses of each individual sources considered separately with all other sources made in
operative .i.e replaced by internal resistances or impedances.
9. State thevenins theorem?
Any linear, two terminal, bilateral active networks can be replaced by a voltage
source of Thevenins voltage VTH which is in series with thevenins resistance RTH. VTH is the
open circuit voltage across the terminals and RTH is the effective resistance looking back from
the terminals
10. What is the energy band diagram?

Energy bands consisting of a large number of closely spaced energy levels exist in crystalline
materials. The bands can be thought of as the collection of the individual energy levels of
electrons surrounding each atom. The wave functions of the individual electrons, however,

overlap with those of electrons confined to neighboring atoms. The Pauli Exclusion Principle
does not allow the electron energy levels to be the same so that one obtains a set of closely
spaced energy levels, forming an energy band. The energy band model is crucial to any detailed
treatment of semiconductor devices. It provides the framework needed to understand the concept
of an energy band gap and that of conduction in an almost filled band as described by the empty
states.

ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM

11. Draw the symbol and Structure of Zener diode

SYMBOL OF ZENER DIODE

12. What is intrinsic semiconductor?

STRUCTURE OF ZENER DIODE

An intrinsic semiconductor material is chemically very pure and possesses poor conductivity. It
has equal numbers of negative carriers (electrons) and positive carriers (holes). A silicon crystal
is different from an insulator because at any temperature above absolute zero temperature, there
is a finite probability that an electron in the lattice will be knocked loose from its position,
leaving behind an electron deficiency called a "hole". If a voltage is applied, then both the
electron and the hole can contribute to a small current.

13. What do you mean by the term wave Shaping

A process of by which non sinusoidal waveforms are altered in passing through the circuit
elements is called Wave Shaping. The Wave Shaping is used to perform anyone of the
following functions.
To generate one wave from the other
To limit voltage level of the waveform to some preset value and suppressing all other
voltage levels in excess the preset levels
To cut off the positive and negative portions of the input waveform.
14. What are the types of rectifiers?
There are two types of rectifiers are available .they are
Half Wave Rectifier
Full Wave Rectifier
15. What is efficiency?
It may be defined as the ratio of DC output power delivered to the load to the A.C input power
from the secondary winding of the Transformer.

PART B (5x8=40 Marks)

16.
a) Describe the Different types of Capacitors.
The Capacitor, sometimes referred to as a Condenser, is a simple passive device. The
capacitor is a component which has the ability or "capacity" to store energy in the form of an
electrical charge producing a potential difference (Static Voltage) across its plates, much like a
small rechargeable battery. In its basic form, a capacitor consists of two or more parallel
conductive (metal) plates which are not connected or touching each other, but is electrically
separated either by air or by some form of insulating material such as paper, mica, ceramic or
plastic and which is commonly called the capacitors Dielectric. The dielectric could be air, mica,
paper or polyester
Types of capacitors
The capacitors are generally categorized as two, they are
Fixed capacitors
Variable capacitors

Fixed capacitors:
The capacitance value cannot be changed, it is fixed according to the dielectric.
The fixed capacitors can be divided into 2 types generally
i.
ii.

Electrolytic
Non Electrolytic type

Electrolytic Type Capacitors:

Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very large capacitance values are
required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer for one of the electrodes, a semiliquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly or paste is used which serves as the second
electrode (usually the cathode). The dielectric is a very thin layer of oxide which is grown
electro-chemically in production with the thickness of the film being less than ten microns. This
insulating layer is so thin that it is possible to make capacitors with a large value of capacitance
for a small physical size as the distance between the plates, d is very small.
The majority of electrolytic types of capacitors are Polarized, that is the DC voltage
applied to the capacitor terminals must be of the correct polarity, i.e. positive to the positive
terminal and negative to the negative terminal as an incorrect polarization will break down the

insulating oxide layer and permanent damage may result. All polarized electrolytic capacitors
have their polarity clearly marked with a negative sign to indicate the negative terminal and this
polarity must be followed.
Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used in DC power supply circuits due to their large
capacitances and small size to help reduce the ripple voltage or for coupling and decoupling
applications. One main disadvantage of electrolytic capacitors is their relatively low voltage
rating and due to the polarization of electrolytic capacitors, it follows then that they must not be
used on AC supplies. Electrolytic Capacitors are generally come in two basic forms;
Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors and
Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors.

Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors

There are basically two types of Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitor, the plain foil type and the
etched foil type. The thickness of the aluminium oxide film and high breakdown voltage give
these capacitors very high capacitance values for their size. The foil plates of the capacitor are
anodized with a DC current. This anodizing process sets up the polarity of the plate material and
determines which side of the plate is positive and which side is negative.

The etched foil type differs from the plain foil type in that the aluminium oxide on the
anode and cathode foils has been chemically etched to increase its surface area and permittivity.
This gives a smaller sized capacitor than a plain foil type of equivalent value but has the
disadvantage of not being able to withstand high DC currents compared to the plain type. Also
their tolerance range is quite large at up to 20%. Typical values of capacitance for an aluminum
electrolytic capacitor range from 1uF up to 47,000uF.

Etched foil electrolytic's are best used in coupling, DC blocking and by-pass circuits
while plain foil types are better suited as smoothing capacitors in power supplies. But aluminium
electrolytic's is "polarized" devices so reversing the applied voltage on the leads will cause the
insulating layer within the capacitor to become destroyed along with the capacitor.
Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors
Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors and Tantalum Beads are available in both wet (foil) and dry
(solid) electrolytic types with the dry or solid tantalum being the most common. Solid tantalum
capacitors use manganese dioxide as their second terminal and are physically smaller than the
equivalent aluminium capacitors. The dielectric properties of tantalum oxide is also much better
than those of aluminium oxide giving a lower leakage currents and better capacitance stability
which makes them suitable for use in blocking, by-passing, decoupling, filtering and timing
applications.
Also, Tantalum Capacitors although polarised, can tolerate being connected to a reverse
voltage much more easily than the aluminium types but are rated at much lower working
voltages. Solid tantalum capacitors are usually used in circuits where the AC voltage is small
compared to the DC voltage. However, some tantalum capacitor types contain two capacitors inone, connected negative-to-negative to form a "non-polarized" capacitor for use in low voltage
AC circuits as a non-polarized device. Generally, the positive lead is identified on the capacitor
body by a polarity mark, with the body of a tantalum bead capacitor being an oval geometrical
shape. Typical values of capacitance range from 47nF to 470uF.
Non Electrolytic Capacitors:
It has no polarity requirements that can be connected in either direction of the
circuits
There are 2 types of Non electrolytic capacitors are available
Film type
Ceramic Type
Film Capacitors:
Film Capacitors which use polystyrene, polycarbonate or Teflon as their dielectrics are
sometimes called "Plastic capacitors". The construction of plastic film capacitors is similar to
that for paper film capacitors but use a plastic film instead of paper. The main advantage of
plastic film capacitors compared to impregnated-paper types is that they operate well under
conditions of high temperature, have smaller tolerances, a very long service life and high

reliability. Examples of film capacitors are the rectangular metalized film and cylindrical film &
foil types as shown below.

Film type capacitors are available in capacitance ranges from as small as 5pF to as large
as 100uF
The film and foil types of capacitors are made from long thin strips of thin metal foil with the
dielectric material sandwiched together which are wound into a tight roll and then sealed in
paper or metal tubes.
This film type require a much thicker dielectric film to reduce the risk of tears or punctures in the
film, and is therefore more suited to lower capacitance values and larger case sizes.

Ceramic Capacitors
Ceramic Capacitors are generally called as Disc Capacitors are made by coating two sides of
a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are then stacked together to make a capacitor.
For very low capacitance values a single ceramic disc of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic
capacitors have a high dielectric constant (High-K) and are available so that relatively high
capacitances can be obtained in a small physical size.

Ceramic Capacitor
They exhibit large non-linear changes in capacitance against temperature and as a result are used
as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors as they are also non-polarized devices. Ceramic capacitors
have values ranging from a few picofarads to one or two microfarads but their voltage ratings are
generally quite low.
Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their body to identify their
capacitance value in pico-farads. Generally the first two digits indicate the capacitors value and
the third digit indicates the number of zero's to be added. For example, a ceramic disc capacitor
with the markings 103 would indicate 10 and 3 zero's in pico-farads which is equivalent
to 10,000 pF or10nF.
Likewise, the digits 104 would indicate 10 and 4 zero's in pico-farads which is equivalent
to 100,000 pFor 100nF and so on. Then on the image of a ceramic capacitor above the
numbers 154 indicate 15 and 4 zero's in pico-farads which is equivalent to 150,000 pF or 150nF.
Letter codes are sometimes used to indicate their tolerance value such as: J = 5%, K = 10% or M
= 20% etc.

VARIABLE CAPACITOR
A variable capacitor is constructed in such manner that its value of capacitance can be varied. A
typical variable capacitor (adjustable capacitor) is the rotor-stator type. It consists of two sets of
metal plates arranged so that the rotor plates move between the stator plates. Air is the dielectric.
As the position of the rotor is changed, the capacitance value is likewise changed. This type of
capacitor is used for tuning most radio receivers. Its physical appearance and its symbol are
shown in figure.

Figure. - Rotor-stator type variable capacitor.

Another type of variable capacitor (trimmer capacitor) and its symbol are shown in figure 3-20.
This capacitor consists of two plates separated by a sheet of mica. A screw adjustment is used to
vary the distance between the plates, thereby changing the capacitance.

Figure Trimmer capacitor.

These are the various types of Capacitors.

b) Briefly Explain about the Various Types of Fixed Resistors

Resistors ( R ), are the most fundamental and commonly used of all the electronic
components. The principal job of a resistor within an electrical or electronic circuit is to "resist"
(hence the name resistor), regulate or to set the flow of electrons (current) through them by using
the type of conductive material from which they are composed. Resistors can also be connected
together in various series and parallel combinations to form resistor networks which can act as
voltage droppers, voltage dividers or current limiters within a circuit.

SYMBOL OF RESISTOR

Resistors are "Passive Devices", that is they contain no source of power or amplification
but only attenuate or reduce the voltage or current signal passing through them. This attenuation

results in electrical energy being lost in the form of heat as the resistor resists the flow of
electrons through it.
FIXED RESISTORS
The resistivity of the material cannot be changed. It has 3 types they are
Carbon composition type
Film type
Wire wound

Carbon composition:
Carbon Resistors are the most common type of Composition Resistors. Carbon resistors are a
cheap general purpose resistor used in electrical and electronic circuits. Their resistive element is
manufactured from a mixture of finely ground carbon dust or graphite (similar to pencil lead)
and a non-conducting ceramic (clay) powder to bind it all together.
The ratio of carbon dust to ceramic (conductor to insulator) determines the overall resistive value
of the mixture and the higher the ratio of carbon, the lower the overall resistance. The mixture is
molded into a cylindrical shape with metal wires or leads are attached to each end to provide the
electrical connection as shown, before being coated with an outer insulating material and colour
coded markings to denote its resistive value.

CORBON COMPOSITION TYPE RESISTOR

The Carbon Composite Resistor is a low to medium type power resistor which has a
low inductance making them ideal for high frequency applications but they can also suffer from
noise and stability when hot. Carbon composite resistors are generally prefixed with

a "CR" notation (eg, CR10k ) and are available in E6 ( 20% tolerance (accuracy) ), E12 (
10% tolerance) and E24 ( 5% tolerance) packages with power ratings from 0.125 or 1/4 of a
Watt up to 5 Watts.
Film Type Resistors
Carbon composite resistors are very cheap to make and are therefore commonly used in
electrical circuits. However, due to their manufacturing process carbon type resistors have very
large tolerances so for more precision and high value resistances, film type resistors are used
instead.
The generic term "Film Resistor" consist of Metal Film, Carbon Film and Metal Oxide
Film resistor types, which are generally made by depositing pure metals, such as nickel, or an
oxide film, such as tin-oxide, onto an insulating ceramic rod or substrate.
The resistive value of the resistor is controlled by increasing the desired thickness of the
deposited film giving them the names of either "thick-film resistors" or "thin-film resistors".
Once deposited, a laser is used to cut a high precision spiral helix groove type pattern into this
film. The cutting of the film has the effect of increasing the conductive or resistive path, a bit like
taking a long length of straight wire and forming it into a coil.
This method of manufacture allows for much closer tolerance resistors (1% or less) as
compared to the simpler carbon composition types. The tolerance of a resistor is the difference
between the preferred value (i.e, 100 ohms) and its actual manufactured value i.e, 103.6 ohms,
and is expressed as a percentage, for example 5%, 10% etc, and in our example the actual
tolerance is 3.6%. Film type resistors also achieve a much higher maximum ohmic value
compared to other types and values in excess of 10M (10 Million s) are available.

CORBON FILM TYPE RESISTOR

Metal Film Resistors have much better temperature stability than their carbon equivalents,
lower noise and are generally better for high frequency or radio frequency applications. Metal
Oxide Resistors have better high surge current capability with a much higher temperature rating
than the equivalent metal film resistors.

Another type of film resistor commonly known as a Thick Film Resistor is manufactured by
depositing a much thicker conductive paste of CERamic and METal, called Cermet, onto an
alumina ceramic substrate. Cermet resistors have similar properties to metal film resistors and
are generally used for making small surface mount chip type resistors, multi-resistor networks in
one package for pcb's and high frequency resistors. They have good temperature stability, low
noise, and good voltage ratings but low surge current properties.
Metal Film Resistors are prefixed with a "MFR" notation (eg MFR100k) and a CF for Carbon
Film types. Metal film resistors are available in E24 (5% & 2% tolerances), E96 (1%
tolerance) and E192(0.5%, 0.25% & 0.1% tolerances) packages with power ratings of 0.05
(1/20th) of a Watt up to 1/2 Watt.

Wire wound Type Resistors

Another type of resistor, called a Wire wound Resistor, is made by winding a thin metal
alloy wire (Nichrome) or similar wire onto an insulating ceramic former in the form of a spiral
helix similar to the film resistor above. These types of resistors are generally only available in
very low ohmic high precision values (from 0.01 to 100k) due to the gauge of the wire and
number of turns possible on the former making them ideal for use in measuring circuits and
Whetstone bridge type applications.

They are also able to handle much higher electrical currents than other resistors of the
same ohmic value with power ratings in excess of 300 Watts. These high power resistors are
moulded or pressed into an aluminum heat sink body with fins attached to increase their overall
surface area to promote heat loss and cooling. These types of resistors are called "Chassis
Mounted Resistors". They are designed to be physically mounted onto heat sinks or metal plates
to further dissipate the generated heat increasing their current carrying capabilities even further.

WIRE WOUND RESISTOR

Another type of wire wound resistor is the Power Wire wound Resistor. These are high
temperature, high power non-inductive resistor types generally coated with vitreous or glass
epoxy enamel for use in resistance banks or DC motor/servo control and dynamic braking
applications. They can even be used as space or cabinet heaters.
The non-inductive resistance wire is wound around a ceramic or porcelain tube covered with
mica to prevent the alloy wires from moving when hot. Wire wound resistors are available in a
variety of resistance and power ratings with one main use of power wire wound resistor is in the
electrical heating elements of an electric fire which converts the electrical current flowing
through it into heat with each element dissipating up to 1000 Watts, (1kW) of energy.

These are the various types of fixed resistors available.

17.
a) Write notes on
i.

Real Power

ii. Apparent Power

i) Real power:
In a Pure Resistive Circuit all the energy delivered by the Source is Dissipated in the
form of heat by resistance
In a Reactive circuit, all the energy delivered by the source is stored by the inductor or
capacitor in its magnetic or electric field during a portion of the voltage cycles and then is
returned to the source during another portion of cycle. So that no net energy is
alternatively stored and returned by the reactive part and a part is dissipated by resistance

 The amount of energy dissipated is determined by the reactive values of resistance and
reactance
Consider a complex impedance function of the given circuit

V(t) = Vm Cos t

----------------------------------------1

I (t) = Im Cos (t+)

-------------------------------------------2

The equ 1, 2 are the Voltage and Current values

The power at any instant of time is
P (t) = V (t)*I (t)
= Vm Cos t

-------------------------------------------3
Im Cos (t+)

P(t)=

-----------------4

The Equ 4 represents Instantaneous power.It Consists of two Parts. One is Fixed
and another one time varying which has frequency .
The voltage and current wave forms are shown in fig

So thus the Instantaneous power P(t) is called as Real power . In a pure resistive circuit the
phase difference between the current and voltage is 0 so thus the Real power for Resistive circuit
is
P (t) = Vm Im Cos2 t
If is increased the negative portion of the power cycle is increased and lesser power is
dissipated.
If =

then the power of the given circuit is zero.

ii. Apparent Power

In a simple alternating current (AC) circuit consisting of a source and a linear load, both the
current and voltage are sinusoidal. If the load is purely resistive, the two quantities reverse their
polarity at the same time. At every instant the product of voltage and current is positive;
indicating that the direction of energy flow does not reverse. In this case, only real power is
transferred.
If the loads are purely reactive, then the voltage and current are 90 degrees out of phase. For half
of each cycle, the product of voltage and current is positive, but on the other half of the cycle, the
product is negative, indicating that on average, exactly as much energy flows toward the load as
flows back. There is no net energy flow over one cycle. In this case, only reactive energy flows
there is no net transfer of energy to the load.
Practical loads have resistance, inductance, and capacitance, so both real and reactive power will
flow to real loads. Power engineers measure apparent power as the magnitude of the vector sum
of real and reactive power. Apparent power is the product of the root-mean-square of voltage and
current.

Apparent power is a measure of alternating current (AC) power that is computed by multiplying
the root-mean-square (rms) current by the root-mean-square voltage. In a direct current (DC)
circuit, or in an AC circuit whose impedance is a pure resistance, the voltage and current are in
phase, and the following formula holds:

V(t) = Vm Cos t

----------------------------------------1

I (t) = Im Cos (t+)

-------------------------------------------2

The equ 1, 2 are the Voltage and Current values

Then the Apparent power value is
P = Vrms Irms

P= Vm Im/2
where P is the power in watts, Vrms is the root-mean-square (rms) voltage in volts, and Irms is the
rms current in amperes. But in an AC circuit whose impedance consists of reactance as well as
resistance, the voltage and current are not in phase. This complicates the determination of power.
In an AC circuit, the product of the rms voltage and the rms current is called apparent power.
When the impedance is a pure resistance, the apparent power is the same as the true power. But
when reactance exists, the apparent power is greater than the true power. The vector difference
between the apparent and true power is called reactive power.

b. Determine the
R3 using Voltage

voltage Drop across R1, R2, and

Division Rule

Given : V=30V
R1=20k;R2=10K; R3= 70K

The Voltage Division Rule is

This circuit is series circuit so the Total Resistance Rt = R1+R2+R3 in
Rt= 20k+10k+70k =100k
The voltage Drop at Resistor R1 is

V1=(
=6V

The voltage Drop at Resistor R2 is

V2=(
= 3V

The voltage Drop at Resistor R3 is

V2=(
= 21V

So the voltage drop values are

V1=6V
V2=3V
V3=21V

18. a. state and explain Norton theorm.

Norton Theorem
Nortons theorem states that a linear two-terminal network can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source I N in parallel with resistor RN where IN is the
short-circuit current through the terminals and R Ns the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off. If one does not wish to turn off the
independent sources, then RN is the ratio of open circuit voltage to shortcircuit current at the
terminal pair.

a)ORIGINAL CIRCUIT

b) NORTONS EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Figure a shows Nortons equivalent circuit as seen from the terminals a-b of the original
circuit shown in Fig b. Since this is the dual of the Thevenin circuit, it is clear that RN=RTH and
IN =( Vab/RTH). In fact, source transformation of Thevenin equivalent circuit leads to Nortons
equivalent circuit.
Procedure for finding Nortons equivalent circuit:
(1) If the network contains resistors and independent sources, follow the instructions below:
(a) Deactivate the sources and find RN by circuit reduction techniques.
(b) Find IN with sources activated.
(2) If the network contains resistors, independent and dependent sources, follow the steps given
below:
(a)Determine the short-circuit current IN with all sources activated.
(b) Find the open-circuit voltage Vab and. RN=RTH
For example consider the following circuit and nortonized it with the above rules

Problem:

Find the Norton equivalent for the circuit of Fig

STEP 1: remove RL and Short circuit the terminals A and B

STEP 2: find the short circuit current

The short circuit current IN= V/R1
=36V/3

IN=12A
STEP 3: find the Nortons Resistance
Remove the Source Voltage then the circuit will be

he Equivalent Nortons Resistance is RN = R1 || R2

= 2

RN=2
STEP 4 : Norton s Equivalent Circuit diagram

RN
2ohm

12A

RL
2ohm

Hence these are the procedures of Nortonize the given electrical circuit.

b. Discuss about Maximum power Transfer Theorem

Maximum power Transfer Theorem :
In circuit analysis, we are sometimes interested in determining the maximum power that a
circuit can supply to the load. Consider the linear circuit A as shown in Fig

a) CIRCUIT A WITH LOAD RL

Circuit A is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from a and b. To find the value of
the load RL such that the maximum power is delivered to it.

THEVININ EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

The power that is delivered to the load is given by

Assuming that VT and RT are fixed for a given source, the maximum power is a function
of RL. In order to determine the value of R L that maximizes P we differentiate P with respect to
RL and equate the derivative to zero.

Which yields

RL=RT

To confirm that equation (3.17) is a maximum, it should be shown that.

Hence, maximum power is transferred to the load when R L is equal to the

Thevenin equivalent resistance RT. The maximum power transferred to the load is
obtained by substituting RL = RT in equation.
Thus the maximum power transferred to the load is

The maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum power delivered by a source

Represented by its Thevenin equivalent circuit is attained when the load RL is equal to the RT

for example Find the load RL that will result in maximum power delivered to the load for
the circuit of Fig Also determine the maximum power Pmax

Disconnect the load resistor RL. This results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig.
Next let us determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from a-b.

Step 1: Remove the Load Resistor and find the open circuit voltage

Step 2: find the Thevenins Equivalent Resistance

To find RT, deactivate the 180 V source. This results in the circuit diagram of Fig.

The Thevenin equivalent circuit connected to the load resistor is shown in Fig

Then the maximum power is

The Thevenin sou rce Vt actually provides a

total power of

Thus, We Note That One-Half the Power Is Dissipated In RL.

19. a. Draw and explain the VI characteristics of Zener diode

A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction like a
normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown
voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after
Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property.

SYMBOL OF ZENER DIODE

A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is reverse-biased below
its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a

conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is
limited by circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged. In case of large forward bias
(current in the direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to its junction builtin voltage and internal resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the
semiconductor material and the doping concentrations.
A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially
designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By
contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled
breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the Zener
voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage
drop of 3.2 V if reverse bias voltage applied across it is more than its Zener voltage. The Zener
diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an
amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.
The Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction allowing
electrons to Tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the
n-type material. In the atomic scale, this Tunneling corresponds to the transport of valence band
electrons into the empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier between these
bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively high levels of dopings on
both sides. The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process.
While tolerances within 0.05% are available, the most widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%.
Breakdown voltage for commonly available zener diodes can vary widely from 1.2 volts to 200
volts.
Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the
avalanche diode. The two types of diode are in fact constructed the same way and both effects
are present in diodes of this type. In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the Zener effect is the
predominant effect and shows a marked negative temperature coefficient. Above 5.6 volts, the
avalanche effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive temperature coefficient. In a 5.6
V diode, the two effects occur together and their temperature coefficients neatly cancel each
other out, thus the 5.6 V diode is the component of choice in temperature-critical applications.
Modern manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V with
negligible temperature coefficients, but as higher voltage devices are encountered, the
temperature coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient of a 12 V
diode.
All such diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage, are usually marketed under the
umbrella term of "Zener diode".
VI characteristics:
The VI characteristics of Zener diode is shown in fig
In the forward bias direction, the zener diode behaves like an ordinary silicon diode.

 In the reverse bias direction, there is practically no reverse current flow until the
breakdown voltage is reached. When this occurs there is a sharp increase in reverse
current.

VI characteristics of Zener diode

Varying amount of reverse current can pass through the diode without damaging it. The
breakdown voltage or Zener voltage (VZ) across the diode remains relatively constant.
The maximum reverse current is limited, however, by the wattage rating of the diode.
Manufacturers rate Zener diodes according to their Vz value and the maximum Power
Dissipation (PD) at 25C. This gives an indication of the maximum reverse current(IR)that
a diode an safely conduct.
For example, a 1W, 15V Zener diode can conduct an IR of 0.066A(P=VI).
Zener diodes are available in a wide range of breakdown voltages (VZ = 1.4V to 200V).
Each VZ value is generally specified at minimum Zener current(IZ).
In the reverse direction, once this value has been reached, the VZ remains constant over a
wide range of IZ.

 So the power dissipation values are used to indicate the safe operating range. Typical
Power Dissipation ratings are from 150mW to 50W.
While purchasing Zener diode we have to ask like 1W Zener diode at 8.2V Z with 10%
accuracy.

b. Discuss about LED and Tunnel Diode.

LED:
Electrons flowing through a PN junction experience similar transitions in energy level,
and emit radiant energy as they do so. The frequency of this radiant energy is determined by the
crystal structure of the semiconductor material, and the elements comprising it. Some
semiconductor junctions, composed of special chemical combinations, emit radiant energy
within the spectrum of visible light as the electrons change energy levels. Simply put, these
junctions glow when forward biased. A diode intentionally designed to glow like a lamp is called
a light-emitting diode, or LED.
Forward biased silicon diodes give off heat as electron and holes from the N-type and Ptype regions, respectively, recombine at the junction. In a forward biased LED, the
recombination of electrons and holes in the active region in Figure below (c) yields photons. This
process is known as electroluminescence. To give off photons, the potential barrier through
which the electrons fall must be higher than for a silicon diode. The forward diode drop can
range to a few volts for some color LEDs.
Diodes made from a combination of the elements gallium, arsenic, and phosphorus (called
gallium-arsenide-phosphide) glow bright red, and are some of the most common LEDs
manufactured. By altering the chemical constituency of the PN junction, different colors may be
obtained. Early generations of LEDs were red, green, yellow, orange, and infra-red, later
generations included blue and ultraviolet, with violet being the latest color added to the selection.
Other colors may be obtained by combining two or more primary-color (red, green, and blue)
LEDs together in the same package, sharing the same optical lens. This allowed for multicolor
LEDs, such as tricolor LEDs (commercially available in the 1980's) using red and green (which
can create yellow) and later RGB LEDs (red, green, and blue), which cover the entire color
spectrum.

The schematic symbol for an LED is a regular diode shape inside of a circle, with two small
arrows pointing away (indicating emitted light), shown in Figure below.

LED, Light Emitting Diode: (a) schematic symbol. (b) Flat side and short lead of device
correspond to cathode. (c) Cross section of Led die.
This notation of having two small arrows pointing away from the device is common to
the schematic symbols of all light-emitting semiconductor devices. Conversely, if a device is
light-activated (meaning that incoming light stimulates it), then the symbol will have two small
arrows pointing toward it. LEDs can sense light. They generate a small voltage when exposed to
light, much like a solar cell on a small scale. This property can be gainfully applied in a variety
of light-sensing circuits.
Because LEDs are made of different chemical substances than silicon diodes, their
forward voltage drops will be different. Typically, LEDs have much larger forward voltage drops
than rectifying diodes, anywhere from about 1.6 volts to over 3 volts, depending on the color.
Typical operating current for a standard-sized LED is around 20 mA. When operating an LED
from a DC voltage source greater than the LED's forward voltage, a series-connected dropping
resistor must be included to prevent full source voltage from damaging the LED.

Applications:
LED has a lot of applications. Following are few examples.
Devices, medical applications, clothing, toys
Remote Controls (TVs, VCRs)
Lighting
Indicators and signs
Optoisolators and optocouplers

TUNNEL DIODE

A tunnel diode is a pn junction that exhibits negative resistance between two values of
forward voltage (i.e., between peak-point voltage and valley-point voltage).
A conventional diode exhibits *positive resistance when it is forward biased or reverse
biased. However, if a semiconductor junction diode is heavily doped with impurities, it exhibits
negative resistance (i.e. current decreases as the voltage is increased) in certain regions in the
forward direction. Such a diode is called tunnel diode.
Theory:
The tunnel diode is basically a pn junction with heavy doping of p-type and n-type
Semiconductor materials. In fact, a tunnel diode is doped approximately 1000 times as heavily as
a conventional diode. These heavy doping results in a large number of majority carriers. Because
of the large number of carriers, most are not used during the initial recombination that produces
the depletion layer. As a result, the depletion layer is very narrow. In comparison with
conventional diode, the depletion layer of a tunnel diode is 100 times narrower. The operation of
a tunnel diode depends upon the tunneling effect and hence the name.
Tunneling effect: The heavy doping provides a large number of majority carriers. Because of
the large number of carriers, there is much drift activity in p and n sections. This causes many
valence electrons to have their energy levels raised closer to the conduction region. Therefore, it
takes only a very small applied forward voltage to cause conduction.
The movement of valence electrons from the valence energy band to the conduction band with
little or no applied forward voltage is called tunneling. Valence electrons seem to tunnel
through the forbidden energy band.
As the forward voltage is first increased, the diode current rises rapidly due to tunneling effect.
Soon the tunneling effect is reduced and current flow starts to decrease as the forward voltage
across the diode is increased. The tunnel diode is said to have entered the negative resistance
region. As the voltage is further increased, the tunneling effect plays less and less part until a
valley-point is reached. From now onwards, the tunnel diode behaves as ordinary diode i.e.,
diode current increases with the increase in forward voltage.
V-I Characteristics: Fig. Shows the V-I characteristics of a typical tunnel diode.
(i) As the forward voltage across the tunnel diode is increased from zero, electrons from the n
region tunnel through the potential barrier to the p-region. As the forward voltage increases,
the diode current also increases until the peak-point P is reached. The diode current has now
reached peak current IP (= 2.2 mA) at about peak-point voltage VP (= 0.07 V). Until now the
diode has exhibited positive resistance.
(ii) As the voltage is increased beyond VP, the tunneling action starts decreasing and the diode
Current decreases as the forward voltage is increased until valley-point V is reached at valleypoint voltage VV (= 0.7V). In the region between peak-point and valley-point (i.e., between
points P and V), the diode exhibits negative resistance i.e., as the forward bias is increased, the
current decreases. This suggests that tunnel diode, when operated in the negative resistance
region, can be used as an oscillator or a switch.

(i) VI characteristics of tunnel diode

ii) symbol

When forward bias is increased beyond valley-point voltage VV (= 0.7 V), the tunnel diode
behaves as a normal diode. In other words, from point V onwards, the diode current increases
with the increase in forward voltage i.e., the diode exhibits positive resistance once again. Fig.
(ii) Shows the symbol of tunnel diode. It may be noted that a tunnel diode has a high reverse
current but operation under this condition is not generally used.
(iii)

These are the operations of LED and Tunnel Diode.

20. a. with a neat diagram explain the working of regulated power supplies using Zener
diode.

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulators

The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in

parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and
the zener diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the
minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region. It permits current to flow in the forward
direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is
above a certain value - the breakdown voltage known as the Zener voltage. The Zener diode
specially made to have a reverse voltage breakdown at a specific voltage. Its characteristics are
otherwise very similar to common diodes. In breakdown the voltage across the Zener diode is
close to constant over a wide range of currents thus making it useful as a shunt voltage regulator.

The purpose of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant voltage across a load regardless of
variations in the applied input voltage and variations in the load current. A typical Zener diode
shunt regulator is shown in Figure 3. The resistor is selected so that when the input voltage is at
VIN(min) and the load current is at I L(max) that the current through the Zener diode is at least I z(min).
Then for all other combinations of input voltage and load current the Zener diode conducts the
excess current thus maintaining a constant voltage across the load. The Zener conducts the least
current when the load current is the highest and it conducts the most current when the load
current is the lowest.

Fig : Zener diode shunt regulator

If there is no load resistance, shunt regulators can be used to dissipate total power through
the series resistance and the Zener diode. Shunt regulators have an inherent current limiting
advantage under load fault conditions because the series resistor limits excess current.
A zener diode of break down voltage Vz is reverse connected to an input voltage source V i
across a load resistance RL and a series resistor RS. The voltage across the zener will remain
steady at its break down voltage VZ for all the values of zener current IZ as long as the current
remains in the break down region. Hence a regulated DC output voltage V 0 = VZ is obtained
across RL, whenever the input voltage remains within a minimum and maximum voltage.
Basically there are two type of regulations such as:

a) Line Regulation
In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed, only input voltage is
changing. Output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is maintained above a
minimum value.

Percentage of line regulation can be calculated by =

where V0 is the output voltage and VIN is the input voltage and V0 is the change in output
voltage for a particular change in input voltage VIN.

b) Load Regulation
In this type of regulation, input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is varying. Output volt
remains same, as long as the load resistance is maintained above a minimum value.

Percentage of load regulation =

where

is the null load resistor voltage and

is the full load resistor voltage

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig. Shows the complete circuit of a regulated power supply using zener diode as a voltage
regulating device. As you can see, the regulated power supply is a combination of three circuits
viz., (i) bridge rectifier (ii) a capacitor filter C and (iii) zener voltage regulator. The bridge
rectifier converts the transformer secondary a.c. voltage (point P) into pulsating voltage (point
Q). The pulsating d.c. voltage is applied to the capacitor filter. This filter reduces the pulsations
in the rectifier d.c. output voltage (point R). Finally, the zener voltage regulator performs two
functions. Firstly, it reduces the variations in the filtered output voltage. Secondly, it keeps the
output voltage (Vout) nearly constant whether the load current changes or there is change in
input a.c. voltage.
Operation:
The zener will maintain constant voltage across the load inspite of changes in load
current or input voltage. As the load current increases, the zener current decreases so that current
through resistance RS is constant. As output voltage = Vin IRS, and I is constant, therefore,
output voltage remains unchanged. The reverse would be true should the load current decrease.

The circuit will also correct for the changes in input voltages. Should the input voltage Vin
increase, more current will flow through the zener, the voltage drop across RS will increase but
load voltage would remain constant. The reverse would be true should the input voltage
decrease.

Limitations:
A zener diode regulator has the following drawbacks :
(i) It has low efficiency for heavy load currents. It is because if the load current is large, there
will be considerable power loss in the series limiting resistance.
(ii) The output voltage slightly changes due to zener impedance as Vout = VZ + IZ ZZ. Changes in
load current produce changes in zener current. Consequently, the output voltage also changes.
Therefore, the use of this circuit is limited to only such applications where variations in load
current and input voltage are small.
b. write notes on :
i) Clipping circuits

ii) clamping circuits

Clipping circuits:
It is frequently necessary to modify the shape of various waveforms for use in
Instrumentation, controls, computation, and communications. Wave shaping is often achieved by
relatively simple combinations of diodes, resistors, and voltage sources. Such circuits are called
clippers, limiters or amplitude selectors. The most widely used wave shaping circuit is the
rectifier.
There 3 types of clippers are available. They are
Positive Clipper and Negative Clipper
Biased Positive Clipper and Biased Negative Clipper
Combination Clipper

Positive Diode Clipper

In a positive clipper, the positive half cycles of the input voltage will be removed. The circuit
arrangements for a positive clipper are illustrated in the figure given below.
As shown in the figure, the diode is kept in series with the load. During the positive half cycle of
the input waveform, the diode D is reverse biased, which maintains the output voltage at 0

Volts. Thus causes the positive half cycle to be clipped off. During the negative half cycle of the
input, the diode is forward biased and so the negative half cycle appears across the output.
In Figure (b), the diode is kept in parallel with the load. This is the diagram of a positive shunt
clipper circuit. During the positive half cycle, the diode D is forward biased and the diode acts
as a closed switch. This causes the diode to conduct heavily. This causes the voltage drop across
the diode or across the load resistance RL to be zero. Thus output voltage during the positive half
cycles is zero, as shown in the output waveform. During the negative half cycles of the input
signal voltage, the diode D is reverse biased and behaves as an open switch. Consequently the
entire input voltage appears across the diode or across the load resistance R L if R is much smaller
than RL
Actually the circuit behaves as a voltage divider with an output voltage of [R L / R+ RL] Vmax =
-Vmax when RL >> R

Negative Diode Clipper

The negative clipping circuit is almost same as the positive clipping circuit, with only one
difference. If the diode in figures (a) and (b) is reconnected with reversed polarity, the circuits
will become for a negative series clipper and negative shunt clipper respectively. The negative
series and negative shunt clippers are shown in figures (a) and (b) as given below.

In all the above discussions, the diode is considered to be ideal one. In a practical diode, the
breakdown voltage will exist (0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium). When this is taken
into account, the output waveforms for positive and negative clippers will be of the shape shown
in the figure below.

Negative and Positive Clipping Waveforms

Biased Positive Clipper and Biased Negative Clipper

A biased clipper comes in handy when a small portion of positive or negative half cycles of the
signal voltage is to be removed. When a small portion of the negative half cycle is to be
removed, it is called a biased negative clipper. The circuit diagram and waveform is shown in the
figure below.

TIn a biased clipper, when the input signal voltage is positive, the diode D is reverse-biased.
This causes it to act as an open-switch. Thus the entire positive half cycle appears across the
load, as illustrated by output waveform [figure (a)]. When the input signal voltage is negative but
does not exceed battery the voltage V, the diode D remains reverse-biased and most of the
input voltage appears across the output.
When during the negative half cycle of input signal, the signal voltage becomes more than the
battery voltage V, the diode D is forward biased and so conducts heavily. The output voltage is
equal to - V and stays at - V as long as the magnitude of the input signal voltage is greater
than the magnitude of the battery voltage, V. Thus a biased negative clipper removes input
voltage when the input signal voltage becomes greater than the battery voltage. Clipping can be
changed by reversing the battery and diode connections, as illustrated in figure (b).

Some of other biased clipper circuits are given below in the figure. While drawing the waveshape of the output basic principle discussed above are followed. The diode has been considered
as an ideal one.

Combination Clipper

When a portion of both positive and negative of each half cycle of the input voltage is to be
clipped (or removed), combination clipper is employed. The circuit for such a clipper is given in
the figure below.

The action of the circuit is summarized below. For positive input voltage signal when input
voltage exceeds battery voltage + V1 diode D1 conducts heavily while diode D 2 is reversed
biased and so voltage + V1 appears across the output. This output voltage + V 1 stays as long
as. the input signal voltage exceeds + V1. On the other hand for the negative input voltage
signal, the diode D1 remains reverse biased and diode D2 conducts heavily only when input
voltage exceeds battery voltage V2 in magnitude. Thus during the negative half cycle the output
stays at - V2 so long as the input signal voltage is greater than -V2.

Drawbacks of Series and Shunt Diode Clippers

In series clippers, when the diode is in OFF position, there will be no transmission of
input signal to output. But in case of high frequency signals transmission occurs through
diode capacitance which is undesirable. This is the drawback of using diode as a series
element in such clippers.
In shunt clippers, when diode is in the off condition, transmission of input signal should
take place to output. But in case of high frequency input signals, diode capacitance
affects the circuit operation adversely and the signal gets attenuated (that is, it passes
through diode capacitance to ground).
ii) Clamping Circuits

A clamping circuit is used to place either the positive or negative peak of a signal at a desired
level. The dc component is simply added or subtracted to/from the input signal. The clamper is
also referred to as an IC restorer and ac signal level shifter.
In some cases, like a TV receiver, when the signal passes through the capacitive coupling
network, it loses its dc component. This is when the clamper circuit is used so as to re-establish
the the dc component into the signal input. Though the dc component that is lost in transmission

is not the same as that introduced through a clamping circuit, the necessity to establish the
extremity of the positive or negative signal excursion at some reference level is important.
A clamp circuit adds the positive or negative dc component to the input signal so as to push it
either on the positive side, as illustrated in figure (a) or on the negative side, as illustrated in
figure (b).
The circuit will be called a positive clamper, when the signal is pushed upward by the circuit.
When the signal moves upward, as shown in figure (a), the negative peak of the signal coincides
with the zero level.
The circuit will be called a negative clamper, when the signal is pushed downward by the circuit.
When the signal is pushed on the negative side, as shown in figure (b), the positive peak of the
input
signal

coincides with the zero level.

For a clamping circuit at least three components a diode, a capacitor and a resistor are
required. Sometimes an independent dc supply is also required to cause an additional shift. The
important points regarding clamping circuits are:
(i) The shape of the waveform will be the same, but its level is shifted either upward or
downward,

(ii) There will be no change in the peak-to-peak or rms value of the waveform due to the
clamping circuit. Thus, the input waveform and output waveform will have the same peak-topeak value that is, 2Vmax. This is shown in the figure above. It must also be noted that same
readings will be obtained in the ac voltmeter for the input voltage and the clamped output
voltage.
(iii) There will be a change in the peak and average values of the waveform. In the figure shown
above, the input waveform has a peak value of V max and average value over a complete cycle is
zero. The clamped output varies from 2 V max and 0 (or 0 and -2Vmax). Thus ths peak value of the
clamped output is 2Vmax and average value is Vmax.
(iv) The values of the resistor R and capacitor C affect the waveform.
(v) The values for the resistor R and capacitor C should be determined from the time constant
equation of the circuit, t = RC. The values must be large enough to make sure that the voltage
across the capacitor C does not change significantly during the time interval the diode is nonconducting. In a good clamper circuit, the circuit time constant t = RC should be at least ten
times the time period of the input signal voltage.
It is advantageous to first consider the condition under which the diode becomes forward biased.
Clamping circuits are often used in television receivers as dc restorers. The signal that is
sent to the TV receiver may lose the dc components after being passed through capacitively
coupled amplifiers. Thus the signal loses its black and white reference levels and the blanking
level. Before passing these signals to the picture tube, these reference levels have to be restored.
This is done by using clamper circuits. They also find applications in storage counters, analog
frequency meter, capacitance meter, divider and stair-case waveform generator.
Consider a negative clamping circuit, a circuit that shifts the original signal in a vertical
downward direction, as shown in the figure below. The diode D will be forward biased and the
capacitor C is charged with the polarity shown, when an input signal is applied. During the
positive half cycle of input, the output voltage will be equal to the barrier potential of the diode,
V0 and the capacitor is charged to (V VQ). During the negative half cycle, the diode becomes
reverse-biased and acts as an open-circuit. Thus, there will be no effect on the capacitor voltage.
The resistance R, being of very high value, cannot discharge C a lot during the negative portion
of the input waveform. Thus during negative input, the output voltage will be the sum of the
input voltage and the capacitor voltage and is equal to V (V V0) or (2 V V0). The value
of the peak-to-peak output will be the difference of the negative and positive peak voltage levels
is equal to V0-[-(2V-V0)] or 2 V.
The figure shown below can me modified into a positive clamping circuit by
reconnecting the diode with reversed polarity. The positive clamping circuit moves the original
signal in a vertical upward direction. A positive clamping circuit is shown in the figure below. It
contains a diode D and a capacitor C as are contained in a negative clamper. The only difference
in the circuit is that the polarity of the diode is reversed. The remaining explanation regarding the
working of the circuit is the same as it is explained for the negative clamper.

Positive Clamping Circuit