CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A certain number of components when connected on a purpose in a specific

electrical and electronics circuits. fashion makes a circuit. An electrical circuit deals
with just the flow of electrons and has components, like resistors, inductors, and
capacitors and uses alternating current source.

Physical principles underlying the modeling of circuit elements; first and

second order circuits; circuits in sinusoidal steady state; Kirchhoff’s rules; whetstone
bridge. An electric circuit is an interconnection of various elements in which there is
at least one closed path in which current can flow. An electric circuit is used as a
Component for any engineering system. In electronics, we have different components
that serve different purposes. There are various elements which are used in many
types of circuits depending on the applications. A component is a basic element that
contributes for the development of an idea into a circuit for execution. 

Now circuits can be constructed of discrete components connected by

individual pieces of wire, but today it is much more common to create
interconnections by photolithographic techniques on a laminated substance. A Printed
circuit board or PCB, and solder the components to these interconnections to create a
finished circuit. In an integral circuit or IC, the component and interconnection are
formed on the same substrate typically a semiconductor such as doped situation or
(less commonly) Gallium arsenide. An electronic circuit can usually be categorized as
an analog circuit a digital circuit, or a mixed signal circuit.
In electronic circuit there are number of components.
 Active Components
 Passive Components
 Linear Components
 Non-linear Components

1
 CHAPTER 2
ELECTRICITY
This answer can be very complicated but for our focus we are going to keep it
as simple as possible.  An electron is a very small entity with a negative charge
circulating a nucleus of protons in an atom. Electricity is the flow of electrons from a
negative pole or charge to a positive pole or charge through a conductor.

A Conductor is a material that allows the flow of electrons trough it and all

metals are good conductors, on the other hand an insulator is a material that
doesn’t allow the flow of electrons through it like glass or plastic. Resistance is the
measurement of the ability of electrons to flow through a material.

Electrons can’t move on their own through a conductor and they are moved by
an attractive force which is an electromotive force called voltage to pull the electrons
from one place to another. The flow of electrons through the conductor is referred to
as an electric current.

That is great and everything but how can we interpret electrical current,

voltage and resistance in an understandable way that everyone can understands? The
best way to understand it is to use the following:

Electrical Current – Think of electrical current as water flowing through a pipe. The

pipe can be small in which case only a small amount of water will flow through it or it
can be a big pipe allowing a big amount of water flowing through it.

Voltage – The pressure under which the water flows can be seen as the Voltage, if the
water pressure is low the water will just flow out of the pipe but if the
water pressure is high the water will gush out of the pipe.

Resistance - The diameter of the pipe can be seen as electrical resistance. A pipe with
a small diameter will have a higher resistance than a pipe with a big diameter. A tap in
the pipe can be seen as a variable resistor where the water flow can be restricted to
zero.

2
2.1 WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ELECTRICITY

 Static electricity - rubbing two surfaces together like a hairbrush through your

hair creates two opposite charged surfaces, bringing these two surfaces
together again can result in a electrical spark jumping over from one surface to
the other. The electricity created in this way is known as static electricity.
Lightning is the ultimate in static electricity and huge amounts of energy can
be generated.

 Direct Current (DC) – is the flow of electric current in one continuous

direction from negative to positive. Batteries is a DC source but power
supplies can also supply DC.

 Alternating Current (AC) – is the flow of electric current in alternating

directions normally changing direction 50 or 60 times per second. A cycle is
the flow of current from zero to a maximum in one direction back to zero and
then in the opposite direction to a maximum and then back to zero again. The
frequency of AC current is 50 or 60 Hz, that is 50 or 60 cycles per second. The
power utility companies supply AC power and there are many reasons for that
one being that AC power can be passed through transformers.

3
 CHAPTER 3

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

3.1 RESISTOR

3.1.1 Fixed Resistor

Fig:3.1 Fixed Resistor

A resistor is a component that adds electrical resistance to a circuit by making

it more difficult for electricity to flow through it. Various types of resistors exist such
as wire wound, carbon and film. Resistors come in various ranges such as the 1%, 5%
or 10% ranges. For a Resistor in the 5% range the value of the resistor can vary + or –
5%. Each range has a different set of resistors values based on the percentage ratings.

Function
There a couple of functions for resistors in electronics, here are a few examples:

1. Limiting the current in a circuit to protect other components like LED’s.

2. Potential dividers.

3. RC Filter applications.

Reading Resistor Colour Codes

4
 Fig:3.2 Reading Resistor Colour Codes

The Resistor Colour Code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic
resistors.  The colour code was introduced because it was easier to mark small
components than to print values on them.

Normally there are three or four colour bands grouped together and then there
are a bit of a space in the grouping followed by one last colour band. The first two
colour bands in the group indicate the value of the resistor and the third band is the
multiplier. The multiplier is used to scale up the size of the resistor. The last colour
band specifies the tolerance or accuracy of the resistor. A gold band indicates
a tolerance of 5% and a silver band indicates a tolerance of 10%. With a tolerance of
5% a resistor’s value can vary from -5% to +5% of the indicated value.

Colour Code Example

Using the colour code a resistor of 10 Ohm with a tolerance of 5% will have
the following code, Brown, Black, Black and Gold. A resistor of 1000 Ohm with a
tolerance of 5% will have a colour code of Brown, Black, Red and Gold.

3.1.2 Variable Resistor

Fig:3.3 Variable Resistor

A variable resistor is a component that has three connection points. The two
outside connectors has a fixed resistance value and the connection point in the middle
can be adjusted towards the one end of the resistor or towards the other end by turning
the knob of the variable resistor. If the variable resistor is turned anti-clockwise till it
stops the resistance between the bottom connection point and the middle connection
point is 0 ohm. If it is turned in a clockwise direction the resistance increases until the
wiper reaches the top end and then it will have the maximum resistance equal to the
value of the variable resistor.

What is the difference between a potentiometer and a variable resistor? The

answer is very little. A potentiometer is normally for low current applications and
tends to be set at a value and then left alone like a trimmer.

5
 Potentiometers are of a lower quality because they only need to be set a couple
of times with a screwdriver. Where as variable resistors are normally for higher
current applications and are of a higher quality.

Function

The most common use of this type of resistor is as a volume control in audio
circuits but it can also be used as a potential divider or in any place where an
adjustable resistor is required.

3.1.3 Light Dependent Resistor ( L.D.R)

Fig:3.4 Light Dependent Resistor(L.D.R)

A light dependent resistor (LDR) is an electronic component whose resistance

decreases with increasing incident light intensity. In other words when it is dark it has
a high electrical resistance and when it is light it has a low electrical resistance.

Function

The light dependent resistor is normally used in a potential divider setup with

a second regular resistor to provide a voltage input for other analogue or digital
circuits (more about potential dividers later). Light Dependent Resistors are used in
applications where an indication of light or darkness is required such as street lights,
clock radios and outdoor clocks.

3.1.4 Potentiometer

Fig:3.5 Potentiometer

6
 A potentiometer is a component that has three connection points. The two
outside connectors has a fixed resistance value and the connection point in the middle
can be adjusted towards the one end of the resistor or towards the other end by turning
the adjustable center of the potentiometer.

If the potentiometer is turned anti-clockwise till it stops the resistance between

the bottom connection point and the middle connection point is 0 ohm. If it is turned
in a clockwise direction the resistance increases until the wiper reaches the top end
and then it will have the maximum resistance equal to the value of the potentiometer.

What is the difference between a potentiometer and a variable resistor? The

answer is very little. A potentiometer is normally for low current applications and
tends to be set at a value and then left alone like a trimmer. Potentiometers are of a
lower quality because they only need to be set a couple of times with a screwdriver.
Where as variable resistors are normally for higher current applications and are of a
higher quality.

Function

The most common use of this type of resistor is as a potential divider (variable

voltage) on a circuit board.

3.2 CAPACITOR

3.2.1 NON - POLARISED

Fig:3.6 Capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conducting plates with an isolation material called

a dielectric between them. The conducting plates can be aluminum discs, aluminum
foil or a thin film of metal. When a potential difference like a battery is applied to the
two different plates of the capacitor electricity flows into the plates and they are
charged up until they are at the same potential as the battery.

7
 When the battery is removed the capacitor retains it’s charged up state for a
while until the charge slowly leaks away. Capacitance is measured in Farads but a
Farad is a very big unit and most capacitors are in the Micro Farad and Pico Farad
range.

Function

Capacitors are used in various electronic applications, here are a few examples:

1. Smoothing voltage ripples.

2. Removing the DC component in signals with an AC and DC component.

3. In RC filter applications.

3.2.2 Polarised Capacitor

Fig:3.7 Polarised Capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conducting plates with an isolation material called

a dielectric between them. The conducting plates can be aluminium discs, aluminium
foil or a thin film of metal. When a potential difference like a battery is applied to the
two different plates of the capacitor electricity flows into the plates and they are
charged up until they are at the same potential as the battery. When the battery is
removed the capacitor retains it’s charged up state for a while until the charge slowly
leaks away. Capacitance is measured in Farads but a Farad is a very big unit and most
capacitors are in the Micro Farad and Pico Farad range.

A Polarised Capacitor’s plates are polarity sensitive and are normally

electrolytic and tend to be bigger than normal non-polarised capacitors.

Function
Capacitors are used in various electronic applications, here are a few examples:

1. Smoothing voltage ripples.

2. In RC Filter Applications

8
3.3 DIODE

Fig:3.8 Diode

A diode is a two terminal electronic component and most diodes used today is
made of a semiconductors. The two terminals are called the anode (the arrow side)
and the cathode (the bar side). A diode has the property to let current pass in one
direction from the anode to the cathode but it blocks current flowing in the other
direction from the cathode to the anode. The arrow in the symbol points in
the opposite direction as electron flow because it was based on conventional current
flow before the discovery of electrons. In other words current will flow through the
diode if the anode (arrow side) is positive and the cathode (bar side) is negative.

Function
The diode is mostly used today in the following applications:

1. Rectifying circuits in power supplies.

2. Protection of relay coils from back EMF generation.

3.3.1 Light Emitting Diode ( L E D )

Fig:3.9 Light Emitting Diode

A light emitting diode is an electronic component and semiconductor light

source. The two terminals are called the anode (the arrow side) and the cathode (the
bar side). An LED has the property to create light when current pass in one direction
from the anode to the cathode but it blocks current flowing in the other direction from
the cathode to the anode and no light is created in this direction. The arrow in the
symbol points in the opposite direction as electron flow because it was based
on conventional current flow before the discovery of electrons.

9
 In other words current will flow through the LED if the anode (arrow side) is
positive and the cathode (bar side) is negative.

LED’s are available in various colours including the visible, ultraviolet

and infrared wavelengths.

Function

LED’s are widely used in everyday life and the following is a few application
examples:

1. Indicator lamps in electronic devices.

2. Infrared remote controls.

3. Motorcar breaklights and indicators, traffic lights and other lighting

applications.

3.3.2 Photodiode

Fig:3.10 Photodiode

A photodiode is an electronic component that can detect light by converting

light into either current or voltage depending on the application, and is a type of photo
detector. The two terminals are called the anode (the arrow side) and the cathode (the
bar side) and the normal mode of operation is in the reverse biased direction when the
anode is negative and the cathode is positive.

Function
Photodiodes is used as photo detectors in varies applications:

1. Receivers for infrared remote controls.

2. Smoke Detectors

3. Digital isolation circuits where inputs are isolated from the main circuit.

4. Various sensors to measure speed and obstructions.

10
3.4 TRANSISTOR

3.4.1 NPN Transistor

Fig:3.11 NPN Transistor

A NPN Transistor is a three terminal electronic component made from

semiconductor material. The three terminals are called the Collector (C), Base (B) and
the Emitter (E). The transistor can be used in amplifying and switching applications.
The operation of the transistor is quite complex and it is a theory on its own so we’re
not going to go into detail for our purpose.

The Collector terminal is normally connected to a positive supply and the

Emitter to a negative supply with a resistor in either the collector or emitter circuit or
both depending on the application. The voltage supplied to the Base terminal controls
the ON/OFF state of the transistor. When the Base voltage is the same as the Emitter
the transistor is off and as the Base voltage increases with respect to the Emitter the
transistor becomes more switched on until it is fully switched on. Using this property
the transistor can be used as a switch or an amplifier where a small variance in the
Base voltage will be amplified on the Collector and Emitter side of the transistor.

Function

The two basic functions of a transistor are to amplify signals or to switch

circuits digitally on or off.

3.4.2 PNP Transistor

Fig:3.12 PNP Transistor

11
 A PNP Transistor is a three terminal electronic component made from
semiconductor material. The three terminals are called the Collector (C), Base (B) and
the Emitter (E). The transistor can be used in amplifying and switching applications.
The operation of the transistor is quite complex and it is a theory on its own so we’re
not going to go into detail for our purpose.

The Collector terminal is normally connected to a positive supply and the

Emitter to a negative supply with a resistor in either the collector or emitter circuit or
both depending on the application. The voltage supplied to the Base terminal controls
the ON/OFF state of the transistor. When the Base voltage is the same as the Emitter
the transistor is off and as the Base voltage decreases with respect to the Emitter the
transistor becomes more switched on until it is fully switched on. Using this property
the transistor can be used as a switch or an amplifier where a small variance in the
Base voltage will be amplified on the Collector and Emitter side of the transistor.

Function

The two basic functions of a transistor are to amplify signals or to switch

circuits digitally on or off.

3.5 RELAY

Fig:3.13 Relay

A relay is an electronic\electric component that is used to operate a switch

electrically. The relay consists of two components an electromagnet and the electrical
contacts that can be closed or opened when the electromagnet is activated. There are
various types of relays too many to mention, from low current to high voltage with a
varying number of switching contacts and configurations. Normally a control circuit
will connect the coil of the relay to the supply voltage this will activate the
electromagnet and the relay will then switch on, making or breaking contacts
depending on the configuration.

12
Function

Relay’s are used in almost every thinkable application the following is just

few application examples:

1. Switching on large amounts of power with a small electronic signal.

2. Switching on AC powered equipment with a low power digital signal.

3. Connecting or disconnecting equipment remotely.

3.6 BATTERY

Fig:3.14 Battery

A Battery is a DC power source to power electronic circuits. The side with the
long crossbar is the positive side and the side with the short bar is the negative bar.
One long and one short bar represent one battery cell of 1.5 volt.

Function

Supply DC power to electronic circuits.

13
 CHAPTER 4

SCHEMATIC SYMBOL
Electronic components are represented by schematic symbols, we have already
covered the most common ones in the Electronic Components Symbols page. We also
need to represent the wires connecting the components together, see the table for a list
of representations:

Normal connections are just drawn as a single line between components.

When two wires cross and they are connected, the connection is indicated with a dot
where they cross. When two wires cross but they are not connected, the two wires just
cross each other without the dot or the one wire is drawn as going over the other wire.

14
 CHAPTER 5

OHM’S LAW
What is the relationship between current, voltage and resistance?

The current (I) through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential

difference (V) across the conductor. Mathematically the relationship can be written as
I = V/R where R is a constant defined as resistance and measured in Ohms.

The triangle on the left is an easy way to remember Ohm’s law. The following
three formulas is represented in the triangle where V=Voltage measured in volt,
I=Current measured in Ampere and R=Resistance measured in Ohms:

V = I x R 
I = V/R
R = V/I

So how is this useful? If we know two of the entities the third can be

calculated with one of the three formulas above.

Let’s look at a practical example.

We want to run a LED off a 9 volt battery. We can’t just connect a LED to the
battery because the LED can typically only handle 2 volt across it with about 20 mA
of current running through it. We need to put a resistor in series (in line) with the LED
to limit the current flowing through the LED.

How do we calculate the value of the resistor? We need the current flowing
through it and we need the voltage over the resistor and then we can calculate the
resistance. We have the required current of 20 mA for the LED and because the
resistor is in series (in line) with the LED it also flows through the resistor.

15
 Do we have the voltage over the resistor? We have the voltage of the battery
and we know that the LED needs 2 volt over it to be switched on. The voltage over
the resistor is just the battery voltage minus the LED voltage, Vr = Vb – Vl. Vr = 9-2
volt = 7 volt.  We can now calculate the value of the resistor as R = V/I = 7/0.020 =
350 Ohm. If we use the 5% range of resistors (later more about that) there is no
resistor with that value and we have to select the first available resister bigger than
350 Ohm in the range and that is 360 Ohm.

Ohm’s Law can be extended to electrical power and we then get the Power
Triangle. The following three formulas is represented in the triangle where V=Voltage
measured in volt, I=Current measured in Ampere and P=Power measured in Watts:

P=IxV
I = P/V
V = P/I

If we know the Voltage over a component and the current flowing through it
we can calculate the dissipated power in the component. If we use the above example
we can calculate the power rating of the required resistor which is also a very
important parameter when you want to buy a resistor.

16
 CHAPTER 6

AUTOMATIC WATER PUMP CONTROLLER CIRCUIT

Fig:6.1 Automatic Water Pump Controller Circuit

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

1. Step-down Transformer 9V or 12V 200MA

6. Diodes IN4007 (4) IN4148 (2)

3. Transistor 2N4401 (1)

4 Relay 9V or 12V (1)

5 LED Light 5MM (1)

6. TRIAC BT139 (1)

7. Resistor 1K Ohm’s (3)

8 AC Pump Motor (1)

9. Connection Wires.

CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

Automatic water pump controller circuit, it is only using some transistors, a

relay, transformer, a BT139 TRIAC, and a few other discreet components.

The purpose of this circuit is to control any liquid or water pump according to
the desired upper and lower level or the container or tank. This circuit is completely
automatic.

17
 A transformer will step down the mains voltage 230V to 9V or 12V to the
circuit. This voltage through a bridge rectifier and then filtered through an electrolytic
capacitor. Now the input signal is ready for the circuit and will activate the transistors.
This will activate the relay and the LED there is a pump motor connected so when the
water will be sensor B level this circuit will turn ON the motor.

Water Level Detect Sensor Working

There are three sensor points specified for each level marked as A,B, and C as
shown in the circuit diagram, they will be placed at different levels in the water tank .
the sensor C is fir the bottom level of the tank. The sensor B is placed where you want
the pump to start filling water in the sensor and top level where you want the pump to
stop filling as the tank is completely filled at this level.

18
 CHAPTER 7

WATER LEVEL INDICATOR WITH ALARM CIRCUIT

Fig:7.1 Water Level Indicator With Alarm Circuit

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

1. Transistor BC547 (4)

2. Buzzer 9Volt (1)

3. LED Lights (3)

4. Resistors 330 Ohm’s (4) 220 Ohm’s (3)

5. Battery 9Volt (1)

6. 9volt Battery clip (1)

7. Connection Wires.

19
CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

This water level indicator circuit with alarm works properly when the sensing
wires L1--L4 and common supply wires are placed correctly in the water tank ,use
insulation less wire (remove the insulation plastic and use conducting core)in the
water tank and first place the common supply wire to the possible bottom of water
tank and it should be below the L1,L2,L3 and L4 with different height level in the
water tank. Each level wires are connected to the separate transistors based and
transistors Q1 -- Q4 are connected with LED Light indicators and one buzzer device,
this circuit powered by 9volt battery. When the supply applied to this circuit all
transistors are works as a witch and if it don`t have based supply then it reacts as
open switch, if the water tank fills and connects common supply wire to level wires
(L1,L2,L3,L4) corresponding transistor will get base supply and reacts as closed
switch, then LED Lights starts glow, buzzer produce alert sound when the water
reaches L4 water

20
 CHAPTER 8

SECURITY DOOR ALARM CIRCUIT

Fig:8.1 Security Door Alarm Circuit

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

1. Transistor BC547 (2)

2. Resistors 680 Ohm’s (2) 100K Ohm’s (2)

3. Capacitor 220mf/50volt

4. LED Light 5MM (1)

5. Buzzer 9volt (1)

6. Battery 9volt (1)

7. 9volt Battery clip (1)

8. Connection Wires.

21
CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

This security door alarm using magnetic reed switch circuit can be attached to
any entry point such as doors, gates, etc, or any storage unit such as safes or drawers,
where want no intruders to trespass. As the safe/door with one terminal of reed
switch attached to the surface is opened &brought close to the second terminal of the
reed switch placed in close proximity. The magnetic connection is made through
mutual inductance and sends a control signal to the base of the first BC547 transistor.

The collector out put of the first transistor triggers the 5volt buzzer and the
alarm goes OFF. In order to turn off the alarm, you simply displace the door back to
its original position, moving the two reed switch terminals away from each other, this
demagnetizes the two terminals and turns OFF the alarm.

Applications of commonly used in high-risk areas such as security stations,

polices stations and check points. an important security feature in sensitive
workplaces such as military compounds.

Magnetic Reed Switch Working

Security door alarm using magnetic reed switch circuit is a Magnetic reed
switch. A reed switch comprises two ferromagnetic blades, separated by only a few
microns. When another magnet comes close to these blades, the two blades pull
towards one another.

Once touching, the blades close the Normally open (NO) contacts, allowing
electricity, to flow some reed switches also contain a non-ferromagnetic contact,
which forms a normally closed (NC) output, any approaching magnet will disconnect
the contact and pull away from the switching contact.

22
 CHAPTER 9

SIMPLE RAIN DETECT ALARM CIRCUIT

Fig:9.1 Simple Rain Detect Alarm Circuit

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

1. Transistor BC547 (1)

2. Variable Resistors 300K Ohm’s (1)

4. Rain detect sensor in Conductivity (1)

5. Buzzer 9volt (1)

6. Battery 9volt (1)

7. 9volt Battery clip (1)

8. Connection Wires.

CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

The Simple Rain Detect Alarm Circuit is a BC547 Transistors that is working
as a switch this circuit. The sensor is very sensitive to rain drops. The sensitivity of
the circuit is adjustable and can be adjusted by a variable resistor of 300K Ohm’s.
when the water droplets fall onto the strips of the sensor it turns the circuit on as
water is a great conductor of the electricity. Now the voltage will be passed to the
transistor and it receives its required 9 volt. This will activate the transistor which
results in activating the buzzer acts as an alarm in this circuit and it will let the user
know about rain.

23
 While making this circuit make sure that the sensor strips should not have a
gap more that 1 millimeter to get better performance. The sensor can be made by
several techniques depending on your convenience and choice. A rain sensor is a
very useful device to alert when it is raining. It can be used in several areas and places
where the user wants to be alerted the moment a single rain drop falls.

24
 CHAPTER 10

MOSQUITO REPELLENT CIRCUIT

Fig:10.1 Mosquito Repellent Circuit

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

1. Transistor 2N3904 (2)

2. Resistors 1.5K Ohm’s (2) 100K Ohm’s (2)

3. Non polar Capacitor 560pf (1) 2nF (1)

4. LED Light 5MM (1)

5. Piezo element (1)

6. Battery 3volt (1)

7. 9volt Battery clip (1)

8. Connection Wires

CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

The working of the Mosquito Repellent Circuit is simple and can easily be
made using few components. The circuit sses 3volt DC as operating voltage. This
electronic mosquito repellent circuit is actually a multivibrator which oscillates and
generates a high frequency sound which is not audible to humans. Two NPN 2N3904
transistors are used along with the resistors and capocitors.

25
 The sound frequency depends on the two 100k resistors and capacitors used in
the circuit. A piezo element is used at the output of the circuit to generate the output
of the circuit to generate these high frequency sound.

This mosquito repellents circuit generates some output frequencies which

repls mosquitoes. It can also be used for other pests such as rodents. Avian and
nocturnal insects by adjusting its frequency. It is a simple, harmless and easily
portable circuit that can be placed anywhere in room.

26
 CHAPTER 11

MOISTURE LEVEL LED METER CIRCUIT

Fig:11.1 Moisture Level Led Meter Circuit

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

1. Transistor BC 547 (1)

2. Resistors 1K Ohm’s (2) 100K Ohm’s (1) 680 Ohm’s (2)

3. LED Light 5MM (4)

4. Zener diode IN 4148 (1)

5. Battery 9V or 12volt (1)

7. 9volt Battery clip (1)

8. Connection Wires

CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

This Moisture level LED Meter Circuit can be operated at 9volt or12 volt DC
Supply or battery supply.we are using a 12volt input supply in this circuit.

Probesare used to detect the moisture level. When probes are placed on the
material whose moisture is to be detected it will sense the presence of the moisture.

27
 Sin ce water is a good conductor of electricity, the circuit will now start
conducting and the transistor BC547 which is acting as a switch in this circuit will
turn on. IN4148 diode are used in this circuit for the purpose of the fast switching
operation so, when the moisture level is low LED light 1 will glow, when moisture
level LED light 2 will glow, when moisture is at high level LED light 3 will glow, to
adjust the sensitivity of this circuit we have used a variable resistor pf 100K Ohm’s if
you are going to operate this circuit at 9volt then just remove the diode D5and D6 and
connect the 680 Ohm’s resistor near LED 4 directly with D4. make sere that you use
LED lights brightness so it can affect the accuracy of circuit.

28
 CHAPTER 12

LED BULBS MAKING DIFFERENT TYPES OF LED

LIGHTS

Fig:12.1 Multimeter

Fig:12.2 Soldering

29
LED Bulbs Making Using tools

Different types OF LED Lights

30
31
Fig:12.3 Different types OF LED Lights

32
 CHAPTER 13

CONCLUSION
I have successfully done the project on electrical and electronic devices. Using
little amount of voltage and current . There are many uses using electronic and
electrical devices .To move along with new trends and techno logs like solving many
of the common difficulties into simple one. In this project we have learnt how can we
simplify the circuit and how the circuit designing is important to the circuits in our
day to day life we use most of the electronic components. We can implement most of
the designs and new experiments here electrical components gives more support to the
electronic components. These electronics devices may be plays a major role in the
future.

33
 REFERENCES
[1].Power Electronics by P.S.Bimbhra.
[2].International Journal of Innovative Research in Computer and Communication
Engineering.
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