Introduction to

Electrical and Electronics Elements

Introductory Circuit Analysis

Robert L. Boylestad

Prepared by –
Md. Jahidul Islam
Lecturer, Department of Engineering
BGMEA University of Fashion and Technology
 The Electrical/Electronics Industry
 Technology and its effects on our lives
 Healthcare and the arts
 Computer simulations
 The Integrated Circuit (IC)
 First developed in the late 1950’s
 Understanding of fundamental concepts
 Once understood, will not be replaced
 Voltage
   flow of charge is established by an external “pressure” derived from the energy that a mass has by
The
virtue of its position: Potential energy
 Energy: the capacity to do work
 If a mass (m) is raised to some height (h) above a reference plane, it has a measure of potential energy
expressed in joules (J) that is determined by –

where g is the gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2)

 A potential difference of 1 volt (V) exists between two points if 1 joule
(J) of energy is exchanged in moving 1 coulomb (C) of charge between
the two points.
 The unit of measurement volt was chosen to honor Alessandro Volta
 A potential difference or voltage is always measured between two points in the system. Changing
either point may change the potential difference between the two points under investigation.
 Potential difference between two points is determined by: V = W/Q (volts)
 Voltage
 Notations for sources of voltage and loss of potential
 E - Voltage sources (volts)
 V - Voltage drops (volts)
 Potential: The voltage at a point with respect to another point in the electrical system. Typically the
reference point is the ground, which is at zero potential.
 Potential difference: The algebraic difference in potential (or voltage) between two points of a network.
 Voltage: When isolated, like potential, the voltage at a point with respect to some reference such as ground.
 Voltage difference: The algebraic difference in voltage (or potential) between two points of a system. A
voltage drop or rise is as the terminology would suggest.
 Electromotive force (emf): The force that establishes the flow of charge (or current) in a system due to the
application of a difference in potential.
 Summary:
The applied potential difference (in volts) of a voltage source in an electric circuit is the “pressure” to set the
system in motion and “cause” the flow of charge or current through the electrical system.
 Current
  The applied voltage is the starting mechanism—the current is a reaction to the applied voltage.
 The applied voltage (or potential difference) in an electrical/electronics system is the “pressure”
to set the system in motion, and the current is the reaction to that pressure.
 The unit of current measurement, ampere, was chosen to honor the efforts
of André Ampère in the study of electricity in motion.
 If electrons (1 coulomb) pass through the imaginary plane in
1 second, the flow of charge, or current, is said to be 1 ampere (A).
 Using the coulomb as the unit of charge, we can determine the current in amperes from the
following equation:

where I = amperes (A), Q = coulombs (C), and t = time (s)

 Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors
 Conductors are those materials that permit a generous flow of electrons with very little external force
(voltage) applied.
 In addition, Good conductors typically have only one electron in the valance (most distant from the
nucleus) ring.
 Insulators are those materials that have very few free electrons and require a large applied potential
(voltage) to establish a measurable current level.
 Insulators are commonly used as covering for current-carrying wire, which, if uninsulated, could cause
dangerous side effects.
 Even the best insulator will break down if a sufficiently large potential is applied across it.
 Semiconductors are a specific group of elements that exhibit characteristics between those of insulators
and conductors.
 Semiconductor materials typically have four electrons in the outermost valence ring.
 Semiconductors are further characterized as being photoconductive and having a negative temperature
coefficient.
 Ammeters and Voltmeters
 Ammeter (Milliammeter or Microammeter)
 Used to measure current levels
 Must be placed in the network such that the charge will flow through the meter
 Voltmeter
 Used to measure the potential difference between two points
 Volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) and digital multimeter (DMM)
 Both instruments will measure voltage and current and a third quantity, resistance
 The VOM uses an analog scale, which requires interpreting the position of the pointer on a
continuous scale
 The DMM provides a display of numbers with decimal point accuracy determined by the
chosen scale.
 Resistance
 The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area is determined by the
following factors:
 Material
 Length
 Cross-sectional Area
 Temperature
 Material and its unique molecular structure will react differently to pressures to establish current
through its core.
 Conductors – Permit generous flow of charge
 Insulators – Have high resistance
 As the temperature of most conductors increases, the increased motion of particles within the
molecular structure makes it increasingly difficult for the “free” carriers to pass through, and
the resistance level increases.
 Resistance
 The higher the resistivity of a conductor, the higher its resistance.
 The longer the length of a conductor, the higher its resistance.
 The lower the cross-sectional area of a conductor, the higher its resistance.
 The higher the temperature of a conductor, the higher its resistance.
 Resistance increases almost linearly with an increase in temperature to the inferred absolute
temperature of ̶ 234.5 C
 Superconductors and Types of Resistors
 Superconductors are conductors of electric charge that, for all practical purposes, have zero
resistance.
 The relatively low speed of electrons through conventional conductors is due to collisions with
atoms and repulsive forces from other electrons.
 Cooper effect: Electrons travel in pairs and help each other maintain a significantly higher
velocity through the medium.
 Types of Resistors: Resistors are made in many forms but all belong in either of two groups:
 Fixed resistors – are made of metal films, high-resistance wire or carbon composition
 Variable resistors – have a terminal resistance that can be varied by turning a dial, knob,
screw, or anything else appropriate for the application
 Color Coding for Resistor Values
 Color coding was developed to identify resistors that were too small for their resistance value to
be printed on them.
 Color bands are always read from the end that has the bands closest to it.
 1st and 2nd band represent the first two digits
 3rd band determines the power-of-ten multiplier (the number of zeros following the second digit)
 4th band is the manufacturer’s tolerance (precision of the resistor)
 Color Coding for Resistor Values
  Example 1.1: Find the value of the resistor in the following figure.

 Solution: Reading from the band closest to the left edge, we find that the first two colors of
brown and red represent the numbers 1 and 2, respectively. The third band is orange,
representing the number 3 for the power of the multiplier as follows:

resulting in a value of 12 kΩ. As indicated above, if 12 kΩ is written as 12,000 Ω, the third

band reveals the number of zeros that follow the first two digits.
Now for the fourth band of gold, representing a tolerance of 5%: To find the range into
which the manufacturer has guaranteed the resistor will fall, first convert the 5% to a
decimal number by moving the decimal point two places to the left:

Then multiply the resistor value by this decimal number: 0.05(12 kΩ) = 600 Ω
 Color Coding for Resistor Values
  Example 1.1: Find the value of the resistor in the following figure.

Finally, add the resulting number to the resistor value to determine the maximum value, and
subtract the number to find the minimum value.
That is,

 The result is that the manufacturer has guaranteed with the 5% gold band that the resistor will
fall in the range just determined.
 In other words, the manufacturer does not guarantee that the resistor will be exactly 12 kΩ, but
rather that it will fall in a range as defined above.
 Conductance, and Ohmmeters
  The reciprocal of resistance is conductance (G), measured in siemens (S)

 Ohmmeters: An Ohmmeter is used to perform the following tasks:

 Measure the resistance of individual or combined elements
 Detect open-circuit (high-resistance) and short-circuit (low-resistance) situations
 Check continuity of network connections and identify wires of a multilead cable
 Test some semiconductor (electronic) devices
 Resistance is measured by simply connecting the two leads of the meter across the resistor. It
doesn’t matter which lead goes on which end.
 When measuring the resistance of a single resistor in a network, it is usually best to remove the
resistor from the network before making the measurement.
 Multimeter
 A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (volt-ohm-milliammeter), is an electronic
measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit.
 A typical multimeter can measure voltage, current, and resistance.
 Analog multimeters use a microammeter with a moving pointer to display readings.
 Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) have a numeric display, and may also show a graphical bar
representing the measured value.
 Ohm’s Law
  Every conversion of energy from one form to another can be related to the following equation.

 In electric circuits, the effect we are trying to establish is the flow of charge, or current. The
potential difference, or voltage, between two points is the cause (“pressure”), and the opposition
is the resistance encountered.
 Substituting the terms introduced above into Eq. (1.1) results in

 Note that the symbol E is applied to all sources of voltage and the alternative symbol V is
applied to all voltage drops across components of the network.
 Ohm’s Law
  Eq. (1.2) is known as Ohm’s law in honor of Georg Simon Ohm.
 The law states that for a fixed resistance, the greater the voltage (or pressure)
across a resistor, the greater is the current; and the greater the resistance
for the same voltage, the lower is the current.
 In other words, the current is proportional to the applied voltage and inversely
proportional to the resistance.
 For any resistor, in any network, the direction of current through a resistor will define the
polarity of the voltage drop across the resistor.

 Example 1.2: Determine the current resulting from the application of a 9 V battery across a
network with a resistance of 2.2 Ω.
 Solution: Eq. (1.2) -
 Power
  In general, the term power is applied to provide an indication of how much work (energy
conversion) can be accomplished in a specified amount of time; that is, power is a rate of doing
work.

 The power associated with any supply is not simply a function of the supply voltage. It is
determined by the product of the supply voltage and its maximum current rating.
 Try Yourself:
Example 4.6 - 4.9
(Ref. Book: Introduction to Circuit Analysis, Robert L. Boylestad, 13th Edition.)
 Energy
   power, which is the rate of doing work, to produce an energy conversion of any form, it must be
For
used over a period of time.
 The energy (W) lost or gained by any system is therefore determined by –

 Since power is measured in watts (or joules per second) and time in seconds,
the unit of energy is the wattsecond or joule honor of James Prescott Joule.
 The wattsecond, however, is too small a quantity for most practical purposes, so the watthour (Wh)
and the kilowatthour (kWh) are defined, as follows:
 Energy
  Example 1.3: What is the total cost of using all of the following at $ per kilowatthour?
 A 1200 W toaster for 30 min
 Six 50 W bulbs for 4 h
 A 500 W washing machine for 45 min
 A 4300 W electric clothes dryer for 20 min
 An 80 W PC for 6 h
 Solution:
 Efficiency
  Conservation of energy requires that

 Dividing both sides of the relationship by t gives

 Efficiency
  Since P = W/t, we have the following from Eq. 1.8 –

 The efficiency (h) of the system is then determined by the following equation:

 In terms of the input and output energy, the efficiency in percent is given by

 Try Yourself:
Example 4.15 - 4.17
(Ref. Book: Introduction to Circuit Analysis, Robert L. Boylestad, 13th Edition.)
 Summaries
 Voltage, Current, Resistance, Conductance
 Voltmeter, Ammeter, Ohmmeter, Multimeter
 Conductors, Insulators, Semiconductors, Superconductors
 Color Coding
 Ohm’s Law
 Power, Energy, Efficiency

 Reference Book:
Introduction to Circuit Analysis, Robert L. Boylestad, 13th Edition (Chapter 1 – 4)