Basic Circuit Concepts Explained

1 A Course Manual on Basic Electronics Engineering
Chapter 1
Basic Circuit Concepts
1. Introduction
Basic Terminologies
Charge: The electric charge is the most basic quantity arises from the atomic particles of which
matter is made. This physical property of the matter causes it to experience a force when close to
other charged matter. It is denoted by letter symbol q or Q and measured in coulomb, C.
Potential and Potential Difference: An electric potential at any point in the electric field is the
amount of work done in moving a unit positive test charge from infinity to that point against the
electric field.
Work done
Potential 
Ch arg e
The potential difference, also known as voltage, is the work done (or energy required) to move a unit
positive charge from the point of lower potential to the point of higher potential. Both the potential
and potential difference are denoted by letter symbol v or V and measured in volt, V.
Current: The electric current is the rate of charge (positive) flow in a circuit. The conventional
direction of current is assumed in the direction opposite to that of flow of electron. Current is denoted
by letter symbol i or I and measured in Ampere, A.
dq
i
dt
Energy: The Energy is the capacity of doing work. It is denoted by letter symbol w or W and unit are
same as that of work (i.e. Joule, J). The energy expended in passing 1 A current for 1 second through
a resistance of 1  is taken as 1 J.
Power: The electric power is the rate of change of energy. It is denoted letter symbol p or P and
measure in watt, W or J/sec. The power expended when there is unvarying current of 1 A between
two points having a potential difference of 1 V is taken as 1 watt.
Prepared by: Ashok Chhetry for Himalaya College of Engineering, Lalitpur, Nepal
2. Circuit Components
Electric Network
A connection of various elements (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage source, Current source)
in any manner whatsoever is called an electric network. But, an electric circuit is a network that
has a closed path, giving a return path for the current. A network is a connection of two or more
elements, and may not necessarily be a circuit. Here, we will be using electric circuit and electric
network interchangeably throughout the course. We may classify circuit elements into two
categories, active and passive elements.
Active Element
The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active element. Examples of active
elements include voltage and current sources, generators, and electronic devices that require
power supplies. A transistor is an active circuit element, meaning that it can amplify power of a
signal. On the other hand, transformer is not an active element because it does not amplify the
power level and power remains same both in primary and secondary sides. Transformer is an
example of passive element.
Passive Element
The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either converts it into heat or
stores it in an electric or magnetic field is called passive element. The most basic of the passive
circuit elements are the resistance, inductance and capacitance.
Resistance
It may be defined as the property of substance due to which it opposes or restricts the flow of electron
through it. Those substances which offer relatively lower hindrance to the passage of electrons are
said to be conductors. Metals, acids and salt solutions are good conductors of electricity. Resistance is
denoted by letter symbol R and practical unit is Ohm, . For insulators whose resistances are very
high, a much bigger unit is used i.e. k, M. In the case of very small resistances, smaller units like
m, µ are used. The symbol for resistor is,
or
Figure 1.1: Symbols for resistor
Types of Resistors
The three main resistor types are:
1) Carbon film: This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. It is a combination of carbon
particles and resin in different proportions for desired value of resistance. Usually the
tolerance of the resistance value is ± 5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are
frequently used. They have low failure rates when properly used. The disadvantage of using
carbon film resistors is that they tend to be electrically noisy.
2) Metal film: Metal film resistors are used when a higher tolerance (more accurate value) is
needed. Nichrome (Ni-Cr) is generally used for the material of resistor. They are much more
accurate in value than carbon film resistors. They have about ± 0.05% tolerance.
3) Wire wound: A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because of this,
they can be manufactured to precise values. Wire wound resistors cannot be used for high-
frequency circuits.
The different types of resistor so far we discussed are linear resistor. Another family of resistors
whose resistance characteristic is nonlinear is called nonlinear or variable resistor. Examples of non-
linear resistors are:
4) Potentiometer: The resistance value for potentiometer is obtained by turning them over the
range of resistance they offer. This allows for very precise adjustments of their value.
5) Thermistors: They are thermally sensitive resistor. The resistance value of the thermistor
changes according to temperature. They are used as a temperature sensor. There are generally
two types of thermistors, with Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) and Positive
Temperature Coefficient (PTC).
6) Varistors: It is a voltage dependent metal-oxide material whose resistance decreases sharply
with increasing voltage.
Law of Resistance
The resistance R offered by a conductor varies,
a) directly with its length, l
b) inversely with cross-section area, A of the conductor and
c) depends on nature of the material and temperature of the conductor
Figure 1.2: A conductor of length, l and cross-section area, A

l l
R or R   Where,  is a constant depending on the nature of the material of the conductor
A A
and is known as its specific resistance or resistivity. The unit of resistivity is -m. The reciprocal of
resistivity is called conductivity () and is measured in Siemens (S) or mho.
1


Ohm's Law
The relation between the current flowing through a conductor and the corresponding potential
difference across it is given by Ohm's law, which may be stated as follows:
"The current through the conductor (I) is directly proportional to the potential difference (V) across
the conductor, provided the physical condition (e.g. temperature, etc.) of the conductor remains the
same".
or
"The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points on a conductor to the current (I) flowing
through them, is constant, provided the physical condition (e.g. temperature, etc.) of the conductor
remains the same".
Mathematical form of Ohm's law is,
V
I  V or  Constant
I
V
 R or V  IR
I
The constant R is called resistance of the conductor.
Figure 1.3: Voltage and current relationship for resistor

If we wish to calculate the power absorbed by the resister, then,
V2
P  VI  I 2 R  watts
R
Limitations of Ohm's law

As indicated in the diagram, the voltage and current relationship in resister is represented by straight
line. Thus, resistor is a linear element. Ohm's law cannot be applied for:
a) non-linear element and
b) physical parameter varying situations.
Inductance
Inductance is the property of the material which opposes any change in current through a conductor.
It is denoted by letter symbol L and measured in Henry (H).
The voltage and current relationship is,

di
vL
dt
The voltage across the inductor would be zero if the current through it remains constant.
Power absorbed by the inductor is given by
di
P  vi  Li
dt
Energy absorbed by the inductor will thus be given by
di 1
E   Li dt  Li 2
dt 2
From this expression, it is evident that the inductor can store finite amount of energy in magnetic
field.
Capacitance
Capacitance is the capability of an element to store electric charge within it. It is denoted by letter
symbol C and has units of Coulombs/Volt, often referred to as a Farad (1 Farad = 1 Coulomb/Volt). A
Farad is a huge capacitance, and more common values are microfarads, nanofarads, or picofarads.
The current and voltage relationship is,

dv
iC
dt
The current across the capacitor would be zero if the voltage through it remains constant.
Power absorbed by the capacitor is given by
dv
P  vi  Cv
dt
Energy stored by the capacitor will thus be given by
dv 1
E   Cv dt  Cv 2
dt 2
From this expression, it is evident that the capacitor can store finite amount of energy in electric field.
Types of Capacitors
Ceramic Capacitors: Limited to quite small values but have high voltage ratings. They range from
1pF to 0.47µF and are not polarized.
Electrolytic Capacitors (Electrochemical type capacitors): Used for all values above 0.1µF.
Electrolytics have lower accuracy and temperature stability than most other types and are almost
always polarised. It's usually best to only use an electrolytic when no other type can be used or for all
values over 100µF.
Series and Parallel Connection of Resistors

Let three pure resistances R1 , R 2 and R3 be connected in series against a dc voltage source V as
shown in figure below.
Figure 1.4: Three resistors connected in series

If V 1 , V 2 and V 3 being the voltage drop against individual resistances, it can be written that,
V  V1 V 2 V 3
Assuming I to be the circuit current, and R being the equivalent resistance, above equation can be
written as,
IR  I R1  I R2  I R3
i.e. R  R1  R2  R3
This proves that the equivalent resistance in series connection of resistors is the simple sum of
individual resistances.
V
Also, I 
R1  R2  R3
and P, the total power loss is given by
P  I 2 R1  I 2 R2  I 2 R3
If resistors are connected in parallel as in the figure shown below,
Figure 1.5: Three resistors connected in parallel
The voltage drop in each branch is same. Let I 1 , I 2 and I 3 be branch currents, we can write
V  I 1 R1  I 2 R2  I 3 R3
Also, I  I 1  I 2  R3 , For equivalent resistance R
V V V V
  
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
  
R R1 R2 R3
R1 R2 R3
R
R2 R3  R1 R3  R1 R2
It may be noted that for two parallel resistors,
R  R1 R2
R1  R2
Also, I  I 1  I 2
 1 1   R  R2 
I  V     I 1 R1  1 
 R1 R2   R1 R2 
R2 ..........(1)
I1  I
R1  R2
Similarly,
R1 ..........(2)
I2  I
R1  R2
These formulae (1) and (2) are popularly called current divider formula.
Series and Parallel Connection of Inductors

Let three inductors having inductances L1 , L2 and L3 are connected in series with voltage v.
Figure 1.6: Three inductors connected in series

Here, the supply voltage being equal to the summation of voltage drops across each of the inductors.
di di di
v  L1  L2  L3
dt dt dt
 L1  L2  L3
di di
L
dt dt
L  L1  L2  L3
Where, L is the equivalent inductance for series connection.
In the case of parallel connection as in figure below,
Figure 1.7: Three inductors connected in parallel

Here, we can write
i  i1  i2  i3
1 1 1 1
 v dt   v dt   v dt   v dt
L L1 L2 L3
1 1 1 1
 v dt       v dt
L  L1 L2 L3 
1 1 1 1
  
L L1 L2 L3
Series and Parallel Connection of Capacitors

Let three capacitors having capacitances C1 , C 2 and C 3 are connected in series with voltage v.
Figure 1.8: Three capacitors connected in series
Here, the supply voltage being equal to the summation of voltage drops across each of the capacitors.
1 1 1 1
 i dt   i dt   i dt   i dt
C C1 C2 C3
1  1 1 1 
 i dt       i dt
C  C1 C 2 C 3 
1 1 1 1
   where C is equivalent capacitance for series connection.
C C1 C 2 C 3
In the case of parallel connection,
Figure 1.9: Three capacitors connected in series

We can write
i  i1  i2  i3
dv dv dv dv
C  C1  C 2  C 3
dt dt dt dt
 C1  C 2  C 3
dv dv
C
dt dt
C  C1  C2  C3
Kirchhoff's Laws
These laws are more comprehensive than Ohm's law and are particularly useful for determining the
equivalent resistance of a complicated network and for calculating current flowing in the various
circuit branches. The two laws are:
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) or Point Law
It states that "In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or
junction) is zero".
Put in another way, it simply means that the total current leaving a junction is equal to total current
entering that junction. It is obviously true because there is no accumulation of charge at the junction
of the network.
i.e. I  0
Illustration:
Consider a case of few conductors meeting at a point A as shown in figure.
Figure 1.10: Illustration of KCL

Assuming incoming currents to be positive and the outgoing currents negative, we have
 I1  I 2  I 3  I 4  I 5  I 6  0
I 2  I 3  I 6  I1  I 4  I 5
incoming currents = outgoing currents
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) or Mesh Law

It states that "The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each of the conductors
in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the emfs in that path is zero".
i.e. IR  emf  0
While starting from a particular junction and go around the mesh, particular attention should be paid
to the algebraic signs of the voltage drops and emfs. Following sign convention is suggested.
a) Sign of emf source
As we go from -ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal, there is a rise in potential, hence this
voltage should be given a +ve sign. On the other hand, if we go from +ve terminal to -ve terminal,
then there is a fall in potential, hence this voltage should be given a -ve sign as indicated below.
Figure 1.11: Sign convention for emf

It is important to note that, the sign of the battry emf is independent of the direction of the current
through that branch.
b) Sign of IR drop
If we go through a resistor in the same direction as the current, then there is fall in potential. Since,
current always flows from higher potential to lower potential. Hence, this voltage should be taken -ve
sign. On the other hand, if we go in the direction opposite to that of current, then there is a rise in
potential. Hence, this voltage rise should be given a +ve sign.
Figure 1.11: Sign convention for IR drop

It is clear that the sing of the voltage drop across a resistance depends on the direction of the current
through that resistor.
Illustration: Consider the close path as shown in the figure below.
Figure 1.12: Illustration of KVL in a mesh
As we travel around a mesh in clockwise direction, KVL will be,

V 1  I 1 R1  V 2  I 2 R2  I 3 R3  V 3  I 4 R4  0
It is important to note that you cannot assume different directions in different meshes while solving a
particular problem!
Linearity
A linear circuit is one whose parameters do not change with voltage or current. More specifically, a
linear system is one that satisfies
a) Homogeneity property: response of  u(t ) equals  times the response of u(t ) .
b) Additive property: response of system due to an input 1 u1 (t )   2 u2 (t ) equals the sum of the
response of input 1 u1 (t ) and the response of input  2 u2 (t ) . Fig. 1.13 explains the meaning of
homogeneity and additive properties of a system. The homogeneity and additive properties
together are called the superposition principle.
Figure 1.13: Input output behavior of a linear system or network
3. Signal Sources
A signal is a physical quantity that varies with time, space or any other independent variable. A
function representing some variable contains some information. Signals that are functions of time are
continuous-time signals and those which are sequences in time are called discrete-time signals.
Continuous-time signals have a very convenient mathematical representation. We represent a
continuous-time signal as a function x(t) of the real variable t. For example: an electrical signal may
represent a time-varying voltage measured across a resistor.
Dependent and Independent Source

Those voltage or current sources, which do not depend on any other quantity in the circuit, are called
independent sources. An independent voltage and current sources are shown below.
Figure 1.12: Independent voltage and current sources

A dependent voltage or current source is one which depends on some other quantity in the circuit
which may be either voltage or a current. Such sources are represented by diamond-shaped symbol.
There are four possible dependent sources which are often met in electronic circuits as follows:
1) Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)
2) Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)
3) Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)
4) Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)
Concept of Gain
Gain is a measure of the ability of a two-port circuit (e.g. amplifier) to increase the power or
amplitude of the signal from the input to the output port. It is usually defined as the ratio of
the signal amplitude or power at the output port to the amplitude or power at the input port. It is often
expressed using the logarithmic decibel (dB) units.
Figure 1.1: Two-port network

Voltage gain is defined by,
V out
Voltage gain ( Av ) 
V in
In much the same way,
I out
Current gain ( Ai ) 
I in
V out I out
Power gain ( A p )  Pout   Av Ai
Pin V in I in
Voltage gain (in dB)  20 log Av dB
Current gain (in dB)  20 log Ai dB
Since power is related to voltage (or current) squared, the power gain A p can be expressed in decibel
as, Power gain (in dB)  10 log A p dB
The absolute values of Av and Ai are used because in some cases they may be negative. The negative
value of gain means there is a phase difference of 1800 between input and output signal; it does not
imply that the system is attenuating the signal. But, Av (dB)  20 dB is in fact attenuating the input
voltage by a factor of 10 (i.e. Av  0.1 ).
Transconductance
The word transconductance is the contraction of the transfer conductance. It is the ratio of the current
variation at the output to the voltage variation at the input. It has the unit of conductance (i.e.
Siemens). For direct current it is related as,
 I out
gm 
 V in
For small signal alternating current it is related as,
iout
gm 
vin
Transconductance for three terminal devices (BJT, FET, etc.) will be studied in detail in subsequent
chapters!
Transimpedance
The word transimpedance is the contraction of the transfer Impedance. In two ports network the ratio
of the voltage variation at the output to the current variation at the input is called transimpedance. In
other words, it is the gain of a current to voltage convertor. It has the unit of Ohm. Mathematically, it
is related as,
V out
rz 
I in
4. DC Network Theorems
There are certain theorems, which when applied to the solution of electric networks, either simplify
the network itself or make their analytical solution very easy. These theorems are also equally
applicable to ac system, where Ohmic resistance of dc system is replaced by impedance. Some of the
theorems are as follows:
Superposition Theorem
This theorem may be stated as follows:
"In a network of linear resistances containing more than one source of emf, the current through any
branch is the algebraic sum of all the currents which would flow at that point if each source were
considered separately for a time being all other sources replaced by resistances equal to their
internal resistances".
In other words, current through (or voltage across) any branch of the network is algebraic sum of
currents (or voltages) which each emf would have produced while acting singly. It is important to
keep in mind that this theorem is applicable to only linear networks.
Illustration:
Two sources of emfs V 1 and V 2 are acting for the network shown below and it is required to find the
current (I) through R 2 . This is achieved by superimposing the currents produced by V 1 and V 2 .
Figure 1.14: Illustration of superposition theorem

While activating V 1 , we replace V 2 by internal resistance (short circuit for ideal voltage source)
The current supplied by V 1 is,
V1
I1 
R 2 R3
R1 
R 2  R3
Using current divider rule,
I '  I1 R2
R 2  R3
Activating V 2 ,
The current supplied by V 2 is,
V2
I2 
R1 R2
R3 
R1  R2
Using current divider rule,
R2
I " I2
R1  R2
Thus, form superposition theorem, the total current when all of the sources acting together is the
summation of individual currents. i.e. I  I ' I " .
Thevenin's Theorem
This theorem provides the mathematical technique for replacing given network by a single voltage
source with a series resistance. It is extremely applicable to make the solution for complicated
network. This theorem may be stated as follows:
"Any two terminal linear, active bilateral network containing resistances and generators may be
replaced by a constant voltage source and series resistance. The constant voltage is equal to the open
circuit voltage viewed back from the open-circuited terminal when load is removed and series
resistance is the resistance of the network when viewed from open-circuited terminals after all
voltage and current sources have been replaced by their internal resistances".
Figure 1.15: Equivalent Thevenin's network
V Th
IL 
RTh  R L
Where V Th is Thevenin's voltage which appears across the terminals when load resistance, R L is
removed. It is also known as open-circuit voltage, V OC .
RTh is the Thevenin's resistance which appears across the terminals when load resistance, R L is
removed for a time being all other sources are replaced by their internal resistances.
General Procedure for Thevenizing given network

1) Remove the load resistance, R L from the terminal A and B at which current (or voltage) is to
be calculated.
2) Calculate the open-circuit voltage, V Th across the terminal A and B with load open.
3) Replace all the sources by their internal resistance (short circuit for ideal voltage source and
open circuit for ideal current source) and calculate equivalent resistance, RTh between
terminal A and B.
4) Now, replace the entire network by single value of voltage V Th and single value of resistance
RTh placed in series.

5) Connect R L back to terminal A and B and calculate R L using
V Th
IL 
RTh  R L
When given network contains dependent and independent sources, the process is quite different.
Students can follow the procedures from text books!
Norton's Theorem
This theorem is an alternative to Thevenin's theorem. Thevenin's theorem reduces a two-terminal
active network of linear resistances and generators by an equivalent constant voltage source and
series resistance, whereas, Norton's theorem reduces same network by an equivalent constant current
source and parallel resistance. This theorem may be stated as follows:
"Any two terminal active network containing resistances and generators may be replaced by a
constant current source and parallel resistance. The constant current is equal to the current which
would flow in a short-circuit placed across the terminals and parallel resistance is the resistance of
the network when viewed from open-circuited terminals after all voltage and current sources have
been replaced by their internal resistances".
Figure 1.16: Equivalent Norton's network
RTh
I L  I SC
RTh  R L
Where I SC is short-circuit current which flows through the terminals when load resistance, R L is
shorted. And RTh is the equivalent resistance (same as Thevenin's resistance) which appears across the
terminals when load resistance, R L is removed for a time being all other sources are replaced by their
internal resistances.
General Procedure for Nortonizing given network

1) Remove the load resistance, R L from the terminal A and B at which current (or voltage) is to
be calculated and put a short-circuit across them.
2) Calculate the short-circuit current, I SC through the terminal A and B.
3) Replace all the sources by their internal resistance (short circuit for ideal voltage source and
open circuit for ideal current source) and calculate equivalent resistance, RTh between
terminal A and B.
4) Now, replace the entire network by single value of current I SC and single value of resistance
RTh placed in parallel.

5) Connect R L back to terminal A and B and calculate R L using
RTh
I L  I SC
RTh  R L
5. Introduction to Filter
A filter is an electrical network that can transmit signals within a specified frequency range. This
frequency range is called pass band and other frequency band where the signals are suppressed is
called attenuation band or stop band. The frequency that separates the pass band and stop band is
known as cut-off frequency.
Properties of Filter
The chief properties of a passive filter are generally characterized by the following properties:
Characteristic impedance: The characteristic impedance of a filter matches with the circuit to which it
is connected throughout the pass band in order to avoid reflection loss.
Pass band characteristic: The filter should have minimum attenuation in its pass band and high
attenuation in stop band range. The degree of attenuation is characterized by attenuation constant  ,
and measured in Neper or decibel. (1 Neper = 8.69dB)
Cutoff frequency characteristic: The filter should possess frequency distinguishing capability in pass
band and stop band. It should be capable of identifying lower as well as higher cutoff frequency for
transmitting through it.
Types of Filters
On the basis of frequency characteristics, filters are classified as:
a) Low Pass Filter (LPF)
Low pass filter allows to pass signals up to specified frequency and attenuates all other frequency.
The pass band extends from f  0 to f  f c , where f c is known as cut-off frequency. The
magnitude response of low pass filter is shown below.
Figure 1.17: Magnitude response of low pass filter

A commonly used simple type of R-C low pass passive filter is shown below.
Figure 1.18: First order R-C low pass passive filter

The gain of the filter is calculated as,
1
jC 1
V out  V in  V in
1 jRC  1
R
jC
V out 1
 H ( ) 
V in RC 2  1
The phase of the output voltage is,
   tan1 RC 
1 1
At   the output voltage drops to of initial value, consequently power drops to half (-
RC 2
3dB). At 3dB frequency,
1
fc If we choose R = 20 k and C = 1200 pF, then f c  6631 . 46 Hz .
2RC
The plot (bode plot) of gain and phase for the low pass filter are shown below.
b) High Pass Filter (HPF)

Simply speaking, a high pass filter is the revere of low pass filter. It attenuates all the frequency
below the cut-off frequency and allows to pass all other frequency. The frequency band for stop
band is from 0 to f c and pass band extends from f c to  .
Figure 1.19: Magnitude response of high pass filter

A commonly used simple type of R-C high pass passive filter is shown below.
Figure 1.20: First order R-C high pass passive filter
The gain of the filter is calculated as,

R jRC
V out  V in  V in
1 jRC  1
R
jC
V out RC
 H ( ) 
V in RC 2  1
The phase of the output voltage is,
  900  tan1 RC 
1 1
At   the output voltage rises to of final value, consequently power is half (-3dB). At
RC 2
3dB frequency,
1
fc
2RC
The plot (bode plot) of gain and phase for the high pass filter are shown below.
c) Band Pass Filter (BPF)

Band pass filter is one which allows to pass limited band of frequencies extending from f 1 to f 2
and rejects all other frequencies below or above.
Figure 1.21: Magnitude response of band pass filter

Students are advised to obtain gain, cut-off frequency and to plot the magnitude and phase
response for the following R-C band pass filter.
d) Band Stop Filter (BSF)

A band stop filter or band elimination filter is the one which rejects band of frequencies extending
from f 1 to f 2 and allows to pass all other frequencies below or above. These filters are also
sometimes called notch filters.
Figure 1.22: Magnitude response of band stop filter

Basic Circuit Concepts Explained

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Basic Circuit Concepts Explained

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1 A Course Manual on Basic Electronics Engineering

Figure 1.2: A conductor of length, l and cross-section area, A

Figure 1.3: Voltage and current relationship for resistor

Limitations of Ohm's law

The voltage and current relationship is,

The current and voltage relationship is,

Series and Parallel Connection of Resistors

Figure 1.4: Three resistors connected in series

If resistors are connected in parallel as in the figure shown below,

Figure 1.5: Three resistors connected in parallel

Series and Parallel Connection of Inductors

Figure 1.6: Three inductors connected in series

Figure 1.7: Three inductors connected in parallel

Series and Parallel Connection of Capacitors

Figure 1.8: Three capacitors connected in series

Figure 1.9: Three capacitors connected in series

Figure 1.10: Illustration of KCL

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) or Mesh Law

Figure 1.11: Sign convention for emf

Figure 1.11: Sign convention for IR drop

Figure 1.12: Illustration of KVL in a mesh

As we travel around a mesh in clockwise direction, KVL will be,

Figure 1.13: Input output behavior of a linear system or network

Dependent and Independent Source

Figure 1.12: Independent voltage and current sources

2) Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)

3) Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)

4) Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)

Figure 1.1: Two-port network

Voltage gain (in dB)  20 log Av dB

Current gain (in dB)  20 log Ai dB

as, Power gain (in dB)  10 log A p dB

Figure 1.14: Illustration of superposition theorem

The current supplied by V 1 is,

The current supplied by V 2 is,

Figure 1.15: Equivalent Thevenin's network

General Procedure for Thevenizing given network

RTh placed in series.

Figure 1.16: Equivalent Norton's network

General Procedure for Nortonizing given network

RTh placed in parallel.

magnitude response of low pass filter is shown below.

Figure 1.17: Magnitude response of low pass filter

Figure 1.18: First order R-C low pass passive filter

b) High Pass Filter (HPF)

Figure 1.19: Magnitude response of high pass filter

Figure 1.20: First order R-C high pass passive filter

The gain of the filter is calculated as,

c) Band Pass Filter (BPF)

and rejects all other frequencies below or above.

Figure 1.21: Magnitude response of band pass filter

d) Band Stop Filter (BSF)

sometimes called notch filters.

Figure 1.22: Magnitude response of band stop filter

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