EEE20005 Week 6 7

Faculty of Science, Engineering
and Technology
EEE20005 Electrical Machine
A./Prof. Weixiang Shen
Telephone +61 3 9214 5886

Office room no. EN701b
Email wshen@swin.edu.au
1
DC Machinery Fundamentals, DC motors
and generators (Chapters 7 and 8)
• Learning objectives:
1. DC machinery fundamentals: induced voltage and torque
2. Introduction to DC motors: separately excited dc motors,
shunt dc motors and series dc motors
3. Equivalent circuit, torque-speed characteristics and speed
control. Speed regulation and efficiency of DC motors
4. Introduction to DC generators: separately excited dc
generators, shunt dc generators and equivalent circuit of DC
generators
5. Voltage regulation and efficiency of generators
2
Introduction to DC machines
• DC machines can be used as generators that convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy and as motors
that convert electric energy into mechanical energy.
• The earliest power system were dc systems, but by
1890s ac power systems were clearly winning out over
dc systems due to the invention of transformers.
• Despite this fact, dc motors continued to be a
significant fraction of the machinery since
(1). dc power system supplies are still common in cars,
trucks, and aircraft.
(2). the speed of dc machines can be easily controlled
by power electronics circuits.
3
DC machine
fundamentals
• The fundamental principles involved in the operation of
dc machines are very simple. However, they are usually
somewhat obscured by the complicated construction of
real DC machines.
• To explain the principles of dc
machines, a simple rotating loop
between curved pole faces will
be adopted. Fig. 7-1a shows
this simple dc machine.
• It consists of a single loop of
wire rotating about a fixed axis.
The rotating part is called the
rotor, the stationary part is Fig. 7-1a
called the stator. 4
DC machines fundamentals (cont.)
• The magnetic field for the machine is supplied by
the magnetic north and south poles shown on the
stator in Fig.7-1.
View of field lines
Top view
for a loop
of wire
Fig.7-1
Perspective view 5
Front view
-The voltage induced in a rotating loop
• If this DC machine is used as a generator, the rotor is rotated
and a voltage will be induced in the loop of wire. To determine
the magnitude and shape of the voltage, we examine Fig. 7-2.
• The loop of wire is rectangular,
with sides ab and cd perpendicular
to the plane of the page and with
sides bc and da parallel to the
N S
plane of the page.
• The magnetic field is constant and
perpendicular to the surface of the
Fig. 7-2 rotor everywhere under the pole
faces and rapidly falls to zero
beyond the edges of the poles.
6
• To determine the total voltage etot on the loop, we
examine each segment of the loop separately and
sum the resulting voltages. The voltage on each
segment is given by eq. (1-45)
eind  (V  B)  l (1-45)
• Segment ab.
eba  (V  B)  l (7-1)
vBl (X) Positive into page under pole faces

0 Beyond pole edges
• Segment bc. N S
ecb  0 (7-2) 7
• Segment cd.
edc  (V  B )  l (7-3)
VBl ( ) Positive out of page under pole faces

0 Beyond pole edges
• Segment da.
ead  0 (7-4)
• The total induced voltage eind on N S
the loop is given by eind  eba  ecb  edc  ead

2VBl Under pole faces
eind  (7-5)
0 Beyond pole edges 8
• When the loop rotates through 1800, segment ab is under
the north pole face instead of the south pole face. At
that time, the direction of the voltage on the segment
reverses, but its magnitude remains constant. The resulting
voltage etot is shown as a function of time in Fig. 7-3.
N S
Fig. 7-3
9
eind  2VBl (7-5)
• There is an alternative way to express eq. (7-5), which

relates the behavior of single loop DC machines to the
behavior of large and real dc machines. To derive this
alternative expression, examine Fig. 7-4.
• Notice that the tangential

velocity V of the edges
N S
of the loop can be
expressed as
V  r
Fig. 7-4 10
V  r eind  2VBl
where r is the radius from an (7-5)
axis of rotation out to the edge
of the loop and ω is the angular
velocity of the loop.
• Substituting this expression into eq. (7-5) gives,
Under pole 2
2rlB faces  Ap B Under pole faces
eind  eind  
0 Beyond 0
pole edges  Beyond pole edges
2 Notes: Ap  2rl / 2  rl

  Under pole faces (7-6)
eind  
0 Beyond pole   Ap B
 edges 11
• Thus, the voltage generated in a machine is
equal to the product of the flux inside the
machine and the speed of rotation of the
machine, multiplied by a constant representing
the mechanical construction of the machine.
• In general, the voltage in any real DC machine
will depend on the same three factors:
Under pole
1. The flux in a machine 2
  faces
2. The speed of rotation eind   
0 Beyond pole
3. A constant representing  edges
the construction of a machine.
12
-Getting DC voltage out of the rotating loop
• Fig. shows the voltage etot generated by the

rotating loop, it can be seen that the voltage
output of the loop is not DC but AC with constant
amplitude.
13
-Getting DC voltage out of the rotating loop
• One way to produce DC is shown in Fig. 7-5a,
where two semicircular conducting
segments (commutators or slip rings) are
added to the end of the loop, and two fixed
contacts (brushes) are set up to produce DC
(see Fig. 7-5b).
Fig. 7-5b
14
Fig. 7-5a
-The induced torque in the rotating loop
• If this DC machine is used as a motor, a battery supplies
power to the machine, the resulting configuration is shown
in Fig. 7-6. To determine the torque, look at the close-up of
the loop shown in Fig. 7-6b.
15
Fig. 7-6
• The force on a segment of the loop is given by equation
(1-43) and the torque on the segment of the loop is
given by F  i(l  B) (1-43)
  r  F  rF sin  (1-6)
where θ is the angle between r and F.
• This torque is essentially zero
whenever the loop is beyond
the pole edges. While the loop
is under the pole faces, the
torque can be found from each
segment of the loop and then
sum the effects of all the
individual segments (Fig.7-6a). Fig.7-6a 16
1. Segment ab. Fab  i(l  B)  ilB (7-7)
Tangent to direction of motion
 ab  rF sin   r (ilB ) sin 90  rilB 0 (7-8)
Counter-clockwise (CCW)
2. Segment bc. Fbc  i(l  B)  0 (7-9)
Since l is parallel to B
 bc  0 (7-10)
17
3. Segment cd. Fcd  i(l  B)  ilB (7-11)
Tangent to direction of motion
 cd  rF sin   r (ilB ) sin 90  rilB 0 (7-12)
Counter-clockwise (CCW)
4. Segment da. Fda  i(l  B)  0 (7-13)
Since l is parallel to B
 da  0 (7-14)
18
• The resulting total induced torque on the loop is
given by  ind   ab   bc   cd   da
2rilB Under pole faces (7-15)

 ind 
0 Beyond the pole edges
By using the facts Ap  rl and   Ap B

the torque expression can be reduced to
2
 i Under pole faces (7-16)
 ind  
0 Beyond pole edges
19
• Thus, the torque produced in the machine is the
product of the flux in the machine and the current
in the machine times some quantity representing
the mechanical construction of the machine.
• In general, the torque in any real machine will
depend on the same three factors:
1. The flux in the machine 2
 i faces
Under pole
2. The current in the machine  ind  
3. A constant representing 0 Beyond
pole edges
the construction of the machine
20
Introduction to DC motors
• DC motors are often compared by their speed regulations,
the definition is
nl   fl nnl  n fl
SR  100% or SR  100%
 fl (8-1)
n fl
(8-2)
• It is a rough measure of the shape of a motor’s torque-
speed characteristic
1. A positive speed regulation means that a motor’s speed
drops with increasing load,
2. A negative speed regulation means that a motor’s speed
increase with increasing load.
• The magnitude of the speed regulation tells approximately
how steep the slope of the torque-speed curve is.
21
(cont.)
• Different torque-speed curves can be obtained
in different manners in which their magnetic
fluxes are applied, which leads to four types
of dc motors introduced in this unit:
1.The separately excited dc motor
2.The shunt dc motor (the permanent-magnet
dc motor also belongs to this category.)
3.The series dc motor.
22
(cont.)
• The basic structure of a real motor is similar to the one
shown in the following Fig. The motor has two separate
circuits. One is the field winding circuits which surround
each pole and are normally in series. These field windings
will produce the magnetic flux () for this DC motor.
• The other is the armature circuits
which convey the power or current
(IA) to the brushes and then to the
rotor, converting electrical power
into mechanical power.
23
http://zeva.com.au/Tech/Motors/
http://www.electrical4u.com/working-or-operating-principle-of-dc-motor/
The equivalent circuit of a DC
motor-armature circuit
• The equivalent circuit of a dc motor is shown in Fig. 8-2, an
ideal voltage source EA and a resistor RA represents an
armature circuit, which is Thevenin equivalent of the entire
rotor structure. Vbrush is the brush voltage drop which is ignored
later.
24
Fig. 8-2
motor (cont.)-field circuit
• RF and LF represent the resistance and inductance
of field coils. The Field coils produce the magnetic
flux (field) for the DC motor. The separate resistor
Radj represents an external variable resistor used
to control the amount of current in the field circuit.
25
motor (cont.)
• As we learn before, the internal generated voltage (back
EMF) in the DC motor depends on three factors: 1. the flux
in the machine, 2. the speed of rotation, 3. a constant
representing the construction of the machine, which is
given by the equation 2
 
E A  K (7-38) eind   
0

• The induced torque developed by the motor (also called as
a driving torque) depends on three factors too: 1. the flux
in the machine, 2. the current in the machine, 3. a constant
representing the construction of the machine, which is
given by the equation 2
 i
 ind  KI A (7-49)  ind  
0
26
motor (cont.)
• These two equations as well as Kirchhoff’s
voltage law (KVL) of armature circuit and
field winding circuit (or the machine’s E A  K
magnetization curve (nonlinear)) are the
tools necessary to analyze behaviors and
performances of a DC motor.
 ind  KI A
• The internal generated voltage (back
EMF) EA of a DC motor is directly
proportional to the flux in the machine and
the rotation speed of the machine.
• How is the internal generated voltage
(back EMF) related to the field current in
the machine?
27
motor (cont.)
• The field current flowing through the fielding windings
produces a magnetic flux (field) using magnetomotive force
(MMF) given by F=NFIF , where NF is the number of turns of
fielding winding. This MMF produces a flux in the machine in
accordance with its magnetization curve (Fig. 8-3).
F=NFIF=RФ
Fig. 8-3
28
motor (cont.)
• Since the field current is directly proportional to the
MMF (F=NFIF) and EA is directly proportional to the
flux (Ф) for the given speed, the magnetization
curve is normally presented as a plot of EA versus
field current IF for a given speed 0 (see Fig. 8-4).
E A  K
Fig. 8-4 29
Equivalent circuits of separately
excited and shunt DC motors
• The equivalent circuit of a
separately excited dc
motor is shown in Fig. 8-5a.
The field circuit is supplied
from a separate constant-
voltage power supply (VF).
• The equivalent circuit of a
shunt dc motor is shown in
Fig. 8-5b. The field circuit
gets its power directly
across the armature
terminals of a motor. Fig. 8-5
30
The terminal characteristic (speed
versus torque) of a shunt DC motor
• The terminal characteristics of a shunt DC motor is a plot of
the shaft (load) torque versus speed. Suppose that the
load on the shaft of a shunt motor is suddenly increased,
 load   ind   load   
E A ( K ) 
I A  (VT  E A ) / RA 
 ind  KI A   ind   load
at low speed
31
The terminal characteristic (speed versus
torque) of a shunt DC motor (cont.)
• Mathematically, its terminal characteristic can be
derived from the induced voltage and torque
equations of the motor plus KVL voltage law.
VT  E A  I A R A (8-3)
VT  K  I A R A (8-4)
 ind
 ind  KI A  I A  (8-5)
K
 ind
VT  K  RA (8-6)
K
VT RA
  
K ( K ) 2 ind (8-7)
32
The terminal characteristic (speed versus
torque) of a shunt DC motor (cont.)
VT RA
  
K ( K ) 2 ind
• The equation is just a straight line with a negative slope.

The resulting torque-speed characteristic of a shunt dc
motor is shown in Fig. 8-6.
• In order for the speed of the
motor to vary linearly with
torque, the other terms in this
expression must be constant as
the load changes.
• The terminal voltage supplied
by DC power source is normally
assumed to be constant.
Fig. 8-6 33
Example 8-1
• A 50hp, 250V, 1200 rpm dc shunt motor has an armature
resistance of 0.06 ohm, its field circuit has a total resistance
Radj+RF of 50 ohm, which produces a no-load speed of 1200
rpm (see Fig. 8-7). (no-load means IA is almost zero, so we
can assume EA =VT)
Notes: 1hp=746W)
(a). Find the speed of this motor
when its input current (IL) is 100A.
(b). Find the speed of this motor
when its input current is 200A.
(c). Find the speed of this motor
when its input current is 300A
(d). Plot the torque-speed
characteristic of this motor.
Fig. 8-7 34
Example 8-1 (cont.)
• The speed of the motor is linked to the internal
generated voltage (back EMF),
E A  K (7-41)
E A2 K2 K (2 n2 / 60)
   (8-8)
E A1 K1 K (2 n1 / 60)
E A2 n2 E
   n2  A2 n1 (8-9)
E A1 n1 E A1
(a) If IL=100A,
VT 250
IF    5 A,
RF 50
I A  I L  I F  100  5  95 A
35
E A  VT  I A RA  250  95  0.06  244.3V
Example 8-1 (cont.)
E A2 244.3
n2  n1  1200  1173r / min
E A1 250
(b) If IL=200A,
I A  I L  I F  200  5  195 A
E A  VT  I A RA  250  195  0.06  238.3V
E 238.3
n2  A2 n1  1200  1144r / min
E A1 250
(c) If IL=300A,
I A  I L  I F  300  5  295 A
E A  VT  I A RA  250  295  0.06  232.3V
E A2 232.3
n2  n1  1200  1115r / min
E A1 250
36
Example 8-1 (cont.)
(d) To plot the terminal (output) characteristics of this motor, it
is necessary to find the torque corresponding to each value
of speed. At no load, the induced torque is zero. The
induced torque for any other loads can be found from the
fact that power converted in a DC motor is
Pconv  E A I A   ind (7-55, 7-56)
EAI A
 ind  (8-10)

EAI A 244.3  95
 ind    190 N  m
 1173(2 ) / 60
E I 238.3 195 Fig. 8-8
 ind  A A   388 N  m
 1144(2 ) / 60
E I 232.3  295
 ind  A A   587 N  m
 1115(2 ) / 60
Fig. 8-8 show these results. 37
Speed control of DC motors
• There are two common methods and one less common
method to control the speed of motors.
E A  K
VT RA
 ind  KI A   
Two common methods are K ( K ) 2 ind
1. Adjusting field resistance RF and thus field flux.

2. Adjusting terminal voltage applied to an armature.
One less common method is
3. Inserting a resistor in series with an armature circuit.
38
Speed control of shunt
DC motors (cont.)
• Changing the field
resistance, Fig. 8-11
shows a shunt DC
motor with an internal
resistance of 0.25
ohm.
R F  I F (  VF / RF )    E A (  K )  Fig. 8-11
I A (  (VT  E A ) / RA )   ind (  K I A ) 
  ind   load the motor speeds up.
E A (  K )  I A (  (VT  E A )   ind 
• Decreasing IA decreases  ind until  ind   load
at a high speed, namely R F  I F   
39
R F  I F   
Example E A  K
• Fig shows a shunt DC motor
with an internal armature
resistance of 0.25 ohm. It is
currently operating with a
terminal voltage of 250V
and an internal generated
voltage of 245V. Therefore,
the armature current is: I A  (250  245) / 0.25  20 A
• What happens if there is a 1 percent decrease in flux?
• If the flux decreases by 1 percent, then EA must decrease by
1 percent too, namely EA  0.99(245)  242.55V
• The armature current must rise to
I A  (250  242.55) / 0.25  29.8 A
• Thus 1% decreases in flux produces a 49% increase in
armature current. 40
Example (cont.)
• The increase in current predominates over the
decrease in flux, hence the induced torque rises:
 ind  KI A (the significant rise of current offset the
reducing flux, overall the induced torque will rise).
• Since  ind   load the motor speeds up.
• As motor speeds up, the internal generated voltage
EA rises, causing IA to fall. As IA falls, the induced
torque falls too, finally the induced torque again
equals (or match) load torque at a higher steady-
state speed than the original speed.
41
DC motors (cont.)
• The effect of increasing the field resistance RF
on the terminal characteristic of a shunt DC motor
is shown in Fig. 8-12a. V
 T 
RA

K ( K ) 2
ind
• As the field resistance RF
increases, the field current
reduces and magnetic flux in the
machines decreases, it can be
seen from the figure that the no-
load speed of the motor increases,
while the slope of the torque-
speed curve becomes steeper.
• Naturally, decreasing RF would
reverse the whole process, and
the speed of the motor would
drop. Fig. 8-12a 42
DC motors (cont.)
• In the very low speed, an increase in field
resistance will actually decrease the speed of the
motor, as shown in Fig. 8-12b.
• The reason is that the
increase in armature
current caused by EA is no
longer large enough to
compensate the decrease
in flux in the induced torque
equation in very low speed.
• In this very low speed,
the armature voltage
method should be used
Fig. 8-12b  ind  ( K  I A )  to control the speed. 43
Speed control of separately
excited DC motors (cont.)
• Changing the armature
voltage without
changing the voltage
applied to the field.
• A connection is similar to Fig. 8-13
that in Fig. 8-13.
V A I A ( (V A  E A ) / R A ) 
  ind ( KI A ) 
  ind   load the motor speeds up.
E A ( K )  I A ( (VT  E A ) 
  ind   ind   load
VT RA
at a higher speed,  Fig. 8-14  
K ( K ) 2
 ind
44
(cont.)
• Inserting a resistor in series with the armature
circuit, the effect is to drastically increase the slope
of the motor’s torque-speed characteristic, making it
operate more slowly if loaded (Fig. 8-15).
• This fact can be easily seen
from following Eq. using
RA+Rinsert to replace RA.
Fig. 8-15
VT R A  Rinsert
   ind
K ( K ) 2
RA+Rinsert
• The insertion of a resistor is
very wasteful method of speed
control, it is rarely used. 45
(cont.)
• If a motor is running at its rated terminal voltage,
power and field current, then it will be running at
rated speed, also known as base speed.
• Field resistance control should be normally used
to regulate speeds of a motor above base speed
while armature voltage control works well only for
speeds below base speed.
• By combining two speed-control techniques in the
same motor, it is possible to get a wide range of
speed variations for DC motors.
46
Example 8-3 E A  K
• Fig. 8-17a shows a 100hp, 250V, 1200r/min shunt dc motor
with an armature resistance of 0.03 ohm and a field
resistance of 41.67 ohm. The motor is driving a load with a
line current of 126A and the speed of 1103 rpm. If the
machine’s magnetization curve is shown in Fig. 8-9, what is
the motor’s speed if the field resistance raises to 50 ohm?
To simplify the problem,
assume that the amount of
armature current drawn by
the motor remains constant
when the field resistance
increases (the rotational
losses can be ignored).
47
Fig. 8-17a
Example 8-3 (cont.)
VT 250
I F1    6A
RF 1 41.67
I A1  I L1  I F 1  126  6  120 A
E A1  VT  I A1 RA  250  120(0.03)
 246.4V
VT 250
IF2    5A K2n2 2n2
RF 2 50 1 1
K1n1 1n1
E A2 K2n2
 1
E A1 K1n1 n2  n1
2
Since the armature current
is assumed to be constant, now we need find the ratio
of magnetic fluxes under
E A  VT  I A RA E A2  E A1 different field currents. 48
Example 8-3 (cont.)
• A magnetization curve is a plot of EA versus IF for a given
speed (n=1103 rpm). Since the value of EA on the curve are
directly proportional to the flux, the ratio of the internal
generated voltages which can be read from curve is equal
to the ratio of the fluxes within the machine (see Fig. 8-9).
I F1  6 A  E A01  268V
I F 2  5 A  E A02  250V n=1103 rpm
1 E A01 268
   1.076 E A  K
2 E A02 250
1 Fig.8-9
n2  n1  1.076 1103
2
 1187r / min . 49
Note: if machine’s magnetization curve is linear, what is speed?
Example 8-4
• The motor in previous example is now connected separately
excited, as shown in Fig. 8-17b. The motor is initially
running with VA=250V, IA=120A, and n=1103 rpm, while
supplying a constant-torque load. What will be the speed
of this motor if VA is reduced to 200V?
• Solutions:
E A1  VT1  I A RA  250  120(0.03)  246.4V
Since the torque is constant
and flux is constant, IA is
constant too ( ind  KI A ).
E A2  VT 2  I A RA  200  120(0.03)  196.4V
E A2 K2n2 n2 E 196.4
   n2  A2 n1  1103  879r / min . Fig. 8-17b
E A1 K1n1 n1 E A1 246.4
50
Notes for examples 8-3 and 4 (cont.)
• Previous two examples show the speed control of DC

motors by changing either field current or armature voltage.
1. The example 8-3 shows that increasing field resistance and
thus reducing field current can increase motor speed.
2. The example 8-4 shows that reducing armature voltage can
reduce motor speed.
• In DC shunt motors, it is prohibited to lose the field
current which can cause very high speed (also called
“run away”).
VT RA
  
K ( K ) 2 ind
51
The permanent-magnet
DC motor
• A permanent-magnet dc (PMDC) motor is a dc motor
whose magnetic poles are made of permanent
magnets. They offer a number of benefits compared
with shunt DC motors in some applications.
• Since there is no external field circuit, they do not
have copper losses in field circuit. Thus, they can be
made smaller in size with higher efficiency.
• PMDC motors are widely used in smaller fractional
and sub-fractional-horsepower motor sizes (e.g. 1/4,
1/6, 1/8, 1/10, 1/15, 1/25 Hp (1Hp=746W) ), where the
expense and space of a separate field circuit can
not be justified. 52
The permanent-magnet
DC motor (cont.)
• The disadvantages are that permanent magnets can
not produce as high flux density as an externally
supplied shunt field and thus lower induced torque.
• PMDC motors run the risk of demagnetization (for
example, lose magnetism at curie temperature).
Demagnetization may also be caused by excessive
heating which can occur during prolonged periods of
overload.
• The PMDC motor is basically the same machine as
a shunt DC motor, except that the flux is produced
by permanent magnet and fixed. The speed control
can be done only by changing armature voltage or
inserting armature resistance. 53
Armature reaction
• In a dc machine, when a
current will flow into its
armature windings.
• This current will produce a
magnetic field of its own,
which will distort the original
magnetic field from the
machine’s magnetic poles.
• This distortion of the flux in a
machine is called armature
reaction.
Armature reaction
(cont.) Fig 8-23
• As shown in Fig. 8-23, at locations on the pole surfaces

where rotor MMF adds to the pole MMF, only a small
increase in flux occurs due to magnetic saturation.
• In contrast, at locations on the pole surfaces where rotor
MMF subtracts from the pole MMF, there is large decrease
in flux.
• A net result is that the total average flux under the entire
pole face is decreased. Thus, the armature reaction will
generally cause flux to reduce or flux-weakening, which
will affect speed of motor.   V  R 
T A 55
K ( K ) 2
ind
The series DC motor
• A series DC motor is a dc motor
whose field windings consist of a
relatively a few turns connected in
series with the armature circuit.
The equivalent circuit of a series
dc motor is shown in Fig. 8-20.
Fig. 8-20
Note: F=NSEIA (MMF), where NSE is the

56
number of turns of field windings.
The series DC motor (cont.)
• In a series DC motor, the armature current, field current,
and line current are the same.
VT  E A  I A ( RA  RS ) (8-18)
• Induced torque in a series DC motor with
the assumption of a linear magnetization
curve,
 ind  KI A
  cI A   ind  KcI A2 (8-19 and 20)
• The torque in motor is proportional to square of its armature
current. As a result of this relationship, a series motor gives
more torque per ampere than any other types of dc motors.
• The following are some examples of high torque applications:
starter motors in cars, elevator motors and tractor motors.
57
• The terminal characteristic of a series DC motor
VT  E A  I A ( R A  RS )  K  I A ( R A  RS ) (8-21)
 ind
 ind  KcI A2  I A  ,
Kc
 ind c
  cI A  c   ind (8-22)
Kc K
c  ind
VT  K  I A ( R A  RS )  K  ind   ( R A  RS )
K Kc
 ind
VT  Kc  ind   ( R A  RS )
Kc
VT 1 R A  RS (8-23)
 
Kc  ind Kc
58
VT 1 RA  RS
 
Kc  ind Kc
Fig. 8-21
• The ideal torque-
speed characteristic is
shown in Fig. 8-21
• One disadvantage of series motors can be
immediately seen from this equation. When the
torque goes to zero, its speed goes to infinity.
• In practice, never completely unload a series
motor, and never connect on to a load by a belt or
other mechanism that could break. 59
• Speed control of series DC motor
Unlike the shunt DC motor, there is only one
common and efficient way to change the speed of
a series motor, which is to change the terminal
voltage of the motor.
VT 1 RA  RS
 
Kc  ind Kc
• If the terminal voltage is increased, the motor
speed will increase for a given torque.
• The speed of series motor can also be controlled
by insertion of a series resistor into the motor
circuit, but this is very wasteful of power.
60
DC motor starters
E A  K
• In order for a dc motor to function properly, it must be
protected from physical damage during the starting period.
• At starting, the motor is not turning, so back EMF EA = 0 V.
Since the internal resistance of a normal dc motor is very low,
a very high starting current will flow.
• Consider, for example, the 50hp, 250V motor in example 8-1.
this motor has an armature resistance RA = 0.06 ohm, and a
full-load current less than 200A, but the current on starting is
VT  E A 250  0
IA    4167 A
RA 0.06
this current is over 20 times the motor’s rated full-load
current. It is possible for a motor to be severely damaged by
such a current, even if they last for only a moment. 61
DC motor starters (cont.)
E A  K
• A solution to the problem of excess current during starting is to
insert a starting resistor in series with the armature to limit the
current flow until EA can build up to do the limiting.
• Fig.8-28 shows a shunt motor with an extra starting resistor
that can be cut out of the circuit in segment by the closing of
the normal open contacts: 1A, 2A and 3A, in the relay.
• A manual dc motor starter was also used to cut out of the
circuit gradually by a person moving its handle (see Fig. 8-29).
Fig. 8-29
Fig.8-28 62
DC motor efficiency calculations
• To calculate the efficiency of a dc motor, the
following losses must be determined:
1. Copper losses: they are the I2R losses in the
armature and field circuits of the motor. They
are given by
Armature loss: PA  I A RA
2 (7-52)
Field loss: PF  I F2 RF (7-53)
2. Brush drop losses: they are just the product of
the brush voltage drop VBD and the armature
current IA. P V I
BD BD A (7-54)
63
DC motor efficiency calculations (cont.)
3. Core losses: the core losses are the hysteresis
losses and eddy current losses occurring in the
core (metal) of the motor. These losses vary as the
1.5th power of the speed of rotation for the rotor.
4. Mechanical losses: in a dc machine they are the
losses associated with mechanical effects. There
are two basic types of mechanical losses:
(a). Friction losses, they are caused by the friction
of the bearings in the machine.
(b). Windage losses, they are caused by the
friction between the moving parts of the machine
and the air inside the motor’s casing.
These losses vary as the cube of the speed of
rotation. 64
(cont.)
• Mechanical and core losses can be determined
as follows:
• if the motor is allowed to turn freely at no load
and at rated speed, then there is no output power
from the machine.
• Therefore, the mechanical and core losses can
be obtained by the difference between the
copper losses and input power, and also called
no-load rotational losses.
5. Stray losses: they can not be placed in any one
of the previous categories of the losses. For most
DC machines, they are taken by convention to be
1 percent of input power.
65
(cont.)
• The power flow diagram: one of the most convenient
techniques to account for power losses in a machine is the
power-flow diagram. A power-flow diagram for a dc motor
is shown in Fig. 7-39b.
Fig. 7-39b
• The efficiency of a dc motor is defined by the equation
Pout Pout Pin  Ploss
  100% (8-50)  100% (8-51)
Pin Pout  Ploss Pin
66
Example 8-8
A 250V, 1200 rpm shunt DC motor has a rated armature

current of 170A and a rated field current of 5A. When its
rotor is blocked, an armature voltage of 10.2V (exclusive of
brushes) produces 170A of current flow, and a field voltage
of 250V produces a field current flow of 5A. The brush
voltage drop is assumed to be 2V. At no load, with the
terminal voltage equal to 240V, the armature current is
equal to 13.2A, the field current is 4.8A and the motor’s
speed is 1150 r/min. Assume that stray losses are taken to
be 1 percent of input power. Determine:
(a). How much power is output from this motor at rated
conditions?
(b). What is the motor’s efficiency? 67
Example 8-8 (cont.)
• Armature resistance
VT  E A  RA I A  RA  (VT  E A ) / I A
 VT / I A  10.2 / 170  0.06
where EA  K  0
• Armature losses: PA,cu  RA I A2  (0.06)(170) 2  1734W
• Field resistance RF  VF / I F  250 / 5  50
• Field losses: PF ,cu  RF I F2  (50)(5) 2  1250W
• Brush losses: Pbrush  VBD I A  (2)(170)  340W

• Mechanical and core losses (rotational losses):
Prot  Pcore  P mech  (240)(13.2)  3168W 68
Example 8-8 (cont.)
(a). Input power of this motor at the rated load is
given by
Pin  VT I L  (250)(175)  43750W
• Its output power is given by
Pout  Pin  Pbrush  PA,cu  PF ,cu  Prot  Pstray
 43750  340  1734  1250  3168  (0.01)(43750)
 36820.5W
where the stray losses are taken to be 1 percent
of the input power.
(b). The efficiency of the motor at the full load is
  Pout / Pin  100%  36820.5 / 43750  84.2% 69
Example 8-8 (cont.)
• C) Mechanical power developed (conversion
power) at full load:
Answer: 41615W (Pconv=EAIA=(VT-VBD-IARA)IA)
• D) Torque developed (induced torque) at full load
Answer: 331.3N.m
• E) Shaft torque developed (load torque) at full load
Answer: 322.6N.m
• F) starting current
Answer: 4166.7A.
70
Introduction to DC generators
• DC generators are dc machines used as
generators. There are three major types of dc
generators, classified according to the manner
in which their field flux is produced.
1. Separately excited generator, the field flux is
supplied by a separate power source
independent of the generator itself.
2. Shunt generator, the field flux is supplied by
connecting the field circuit directly across the
terminals of the generator (Permanent-magnet
dc generator (PMDG) belong to this category,
the only difference is the field flux supplied by
a permanent magnet.
71
(cont.)
• These various types of dc generators differ in their
terminal (voltage-current) characteristics, therefore
they will be applied to which they are suited. DC
generators are compared by their voltages, power
ratings, efficiencies, and voltage regulations.
• Voltage regulation (VR) is defined by the equation
Vnl  V fl
VR  100% (8-39)
V fl
where Vnl is the no-load terminal voltage of the
generator and Vfl is the full-load terminal voltage of
the generator.
72
(cont.)
• It is a rough measure of the shape of the generator’s
voltage-current characteristic— a positive voltage
regulation means a drooping characteristics, and a
negative voltage regulation means a rising
characteristic.
• All generators are driven by a source of mechanical
power, which is usually called the prime mover of
the generator. A prime mover for a dc generator
may be a steam turbine, a diesel engine, or even an
electric motor.
• Since the speed of the prime mover affects the
output voltage of a generator, it will be assumed to
be constant unless otherwise specified. 73
(cont.)
• DC generators are quite rare in modern power systems. If
the DC power is required, we can use AC generators plus
rectifiers to produce dc power.
• The equivalent
circuit of a dc
generator is shown
in Fig. 8-43. they
look similar to the
equivalent circuits of
a dc motor, except
that the direction of
current flow is
Fig. 8-43 reversed.
74
The separately excited
generator
• A separately excited dc generator is a generator
whose field current is supplied by a separate
external dc voltage source. The equivalent circuit of
such a generator is shown in Fig. 8-44.
• In this circuit, the voltage VT
represents the actual voltage
measured at the terminals of
the generator, and the current
IL represents the current
flowing in the lines connected
Fig. 8-44 to the terminals.
75
generator (cont.)
• The terminal characteristic
of a separately excited DC
generator is a plot of its
terminal voltage and line
current for a constant
speed.
• It can be seen from the Fig. that
I A  IL (8-40)
• By KVL, the terminal voltage is
VT  E A  I A RA (8-41) Fig 8-45a
Fig 8-45a shows the terminal characteristic of a dc generator.76
generator (cont.)
• Control of terminal voltage: the terminal voltage of
a separately excited dc generator can be controlled
by changing the internal generated voltage EA of
the machine.
• By KVL,VT  EA  I A RA , so if EA increases, VT will
increase, and if EA decreases, VT will decrease.
Since the internal generated voltage EA is given by
the equation E A  K , there are two possible
methods to control the voltage of this generator:
1. Change the speed of rotation. If  increases, then
E A  K  increases, so VT  E A   I A RA
increases too.
77
generator (cont.)
2. Change the field current, if RF decreases,
then the field current increases I F  (VF / RF )  .
Therefore, the flux  in the machine
increases. As the flux rises, EA  ( K  ) 
must rise too, so VT  ( EA  I A RA ) 
increases.
• In many applications, the speed range of the
prime mover is quite limited, so the terminal
voltage is most commonly controlled by
changing the field current (E A  K ).
78
generator (cont.)
VT  ( E A  I ARA )
E A  K
Fig. 8-46a
• A separately excited generator driving
a resistive load is shown in Fig. 8-46a.
• Fig.8-46b shows the effect of a
decrease in field resistance and hence
the increase in flux on the terminal
voltage of the generator when it is
operating under a load.
Fig. 8-46b 79
The shunt DC generator
• A shunt dc generator supplies its own field current by having
its field connected directly across the terminals of the
machine.
• The equivalent circuit of a shunt dc generator is shown in
Fig. 8-49. In this circuit, the armature current of the machine
supplies both the field circuit and load attached to the
machine:
I A  IF  IL (8-44)
• The KVL for the armature circuit

of this machine is
VT  E A  I A RA (8-45) 80
80
Fig. 8-49
(cont.)
• This type of generator has a
distinct advantage over the
separately excited dc
generator in that no external
power supply is required
for the field circuit.
• But that leaves an important
question unanswered: if the
generator supplies its own
field current, how does it get
the initial field flux to start
when it is first turned on?
81
(cont.)
• Voltage buildup in a shunt generator
• Assume that the generator in Fig. has
no load connected to it and that the
prime mover starts to turn the shaft of
the generator. How does an initial
voltage appear at the terminals of the
machine?
• The voltage buildup in a DC generator
depends on the presence of a residual
flux in the poles of the generator.
• When a generator first starts to turn, an internal voltage will
be generated which is given by
E A  Kres 82
(cont.) E A  Kres
• This voltage (EA) appears at the terminals of the
generator (it may only be a volt or two). But when
that voltage appears the terminals, it causes a
current to flow in the generator’s field coil (IF=VT/RF)
• This field current produces a MMF in
the poles, which increases the flux
in the magnetic poles.
• The increase in magnetic flux
causes an increase in EA , which
increases the terminal VT.
• When VT rises, IF increases further,
increasing the magnetic flux more,
which in turn increases EA. 83
(cont.)
• This voltage buildup behavior
is shown in Fig. 8-50.
• Notice that it is the effect of
magnetic saturation in the
magnetic pole faces which
eventually limits the terminal Fig. 8-50
voltage of the generator.
• Fig. shows the voltage
buildup as if it occurred in
discrete step. In a real
generator, both EA and IF
increase simultaneously
until steady-state conditions
are reached. 84
(cont.)
• What if a shunt generator is started and no voltage
builds up? There are several possible reasons for
the voltage to fail to build up during starting. Among
them are:
1. There may be no residual magnetic flux in the
generator to start the process. If the residual flux is
zero, then there is no initial EA, and the voltage will
never build up.
2. The direction of rotation of the generator may have
been reversed, or the connection of the field may
have been reversed. In either case, the residual flux
produces an internal generated voltage EA. The
voltage EA produces a field current and thus a flux
opposing a residual flux, instead of adding to it.
85
(cont.)
3. The field resistance may be adjusted to a value
greater than the critical resistance (such as R2).
To understand this, refer to the Fig. 8-51.
• Normally, the
shunt generator
will build up its
voltage to the
point where the
magnetization
curve intersects Fig. 8-51
the field
resistance line. 86
(cont.)
• If the filed resistance has the value shown at R2 in the Fig.,
its line is nearly parallel to the magnetization curve. At this
resistance, the voltage of generator can fluctuate very
widely with only tiny changes in RF or IF. This value of the
resistance is called the critical resistance.
• If RF exceeds the
critical resistance (as
at R3 in the Fig.), then
steady-state operating
voltage is essentially at
the residual level, and it
never builds up. The
solution to this problem
is to reduce RF .
87
(cont.)
• The terminal characteristic of a shunt DC generator differs

from that of a separately excited dc generator, because the
amount of field current in the machine depends on its
terminal voltage.
• To understand the terminal characteristic of a shunt
generator, we can start with the machine unloaded, then
we add loads and observe what happens?
• As loads on the generator is added and increased,
I L  I A  ( I F  I L )  VT  ( EA  I A  RA ) 
This is precisely the same behavior observed in a
separately excited generator. 88
(cont.)
• However, when VT decreases, the field current in the

machine decreases too, this causes the flux in the
machine decreases, which in turn further decreases
terminal voltage E A  (k   )  VT  ( EA   I A RA ) 
• The resulting terminal characteristic is shown in Fig. 8-52.
• Notice that the voltage
drop-off is steeper than
just the IARA drop in a
separately excited DC
generator, where the
flux does not change.
Fig. 8-52 89
(cont.)
• Voltage control for a shunt DC generator
1. Change the shaft speed of the generator, but it
seldom used. E A  K
2. Change the field resistance of the generator,
thus changing the field current, it is normally used.
• Changing the field resistance is the principal
method used to control terminal voltage in real
shunt generators, if the field resistor RF is
decreased
RF  I F  (VT / RF )   
 E A  K  VT  ( E A  I A RA )  90
(cont.)
• The analysis of shunt DC generators
The analysis of a shunt DC generator is more
complicated than the analysis of a separately
excited generator, because the field current in the
machine depends directly on the machine’s own
output terminal voltage.
• Fig. 8-53 shows a
magnetization curve
for a shunt dc
generator drawn at the
actual operating
speed of the machine. Fig. 8-53 91
(cont.)
• The field resistance RF, which is
just equal to VT/IF, is shown by a
straight line laid over the
magnetization curve.
• At no load, VT =EA and the
generator operates at the voltage
where the magnetization curve
intersects the field resistance line.
• When the load is added, there is voltage drop cross RA.
Thus, the key to understanding terminal voltage is to use
graphical analysis of shunt generator with KVL:
VT  E A  I A RA (8-45)
E A  VT  I A RA (8-46) 92
(cont.) E A  VT  I ARA
• The difference between
the internal generated
voltage and the terminal
voltage is just the IARA
drop in the machine.
• The line of all possible
values of EA is the
magnetization curve, and
the line of all possible
terminal voltages is the
resistor line (IF=VT/RF).
• Therefore, to find the terminal voltage for a given load, just
determine IARA drop and locate the place on the graph
where the drop fits exactly between EA line and VT line.
93
The shunt DC generator (cont.)
• There are at most two

places on the curve
where IARA will fit
exactly. In these two
possible positions, the
one nearer the no-load
voltage will represent a
normal operating point.
• The detailed plot
showing several
different points on a
shunt generator’s
characteristic is shown
in Fig. 8-54.
Fig. 8-54 VT  E A  I A RA
E A  VT  I A RA 94
Efficiency of generators
• Fig. 8-79a shows the power-flow diagram for a dc
generator. In this Fig., mechanical power is the
input into the machine, and then the stray losses,
mechanical losses, and core losses are subtracted.
• After they have been subtracted, the remaining
power is ideally converted from mechanical power
to electrical power at the point labeled PCONV.
PCONV
Fig. 7-39a
95
Efficiency of generators (cont.)
PCONV
• The mechanical power that is converted is given by

Pconv   indm (7-55)
and the resulting electric power is given by
Pconv  E A I A (7-56)
• However, this doesn’t appear at the machine’s terminals.
Before that terminals are reached, the electrical losses (I2R),
which include the copper losses from Rf and Ra and the
brush losses, must be subtracted. 96

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Faculty of Science, Engineering

EEE20005 Electrical Machine

A./Prof. Weixiang Shen

Telephone +61 3 9214 5886

View of field lines

the loop is given by eind  eba  ecb  edc  ead

eind  2VBl (7-5)

• There is an alternative way to express eq. (7-5), which

• Notice that the tangential

2 Notes: Ap  2rl / 2  rl

• Fig. shows the voltage etot generated by the

Tangent to direction of motion

 ab  rF sin   r (ilB ) sin 90  rilB 0 (7-8)

2. Segment bc. Fbc  i(l  B)  0 (7-9)

Tangent to direction of motion

 cd  rF sin   r (ilB ) sin 90  rilB 0 (7-12)

4. Segment da. Fda  i(l  B)  0 (7-13)

2rilB Under pole faces (7-15)

By using the facts Ap  rl and   Ap B

• The equation is just a straight line with a negative slope.

1. Adjusting field resistance RF and thus field flux.

• Previous two examples show the speed control of DC

• As shown in Fig. 8-23, at locations on the pole surfaces

Note: F=NSEIA (MMF), where NSE is the

A 250V, 1200 rpm shunt DC motor has a rated armature

• Brush losses: Pbrush  VBD I A  (2)(170)  340W

• The KVL for the armature circuit

• The terminal characteristic of a shunt DC generator differs

• However, when VT decreases, the field current in the

• There are at most two

• The mechanical power that is converted is given by

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