CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION
1
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

The Automatic Road Reflector is a simple but effective system will help us
automate the traditional road reflectors. A raised pavement marker is a safety
device used on road to guide the vehicles along the path at the time of night. The
Automatic Road Reflector system is designed to replace this currently being
used safety device.

The proposed system is designed to sense the intensity of ambient light

and work accordingly. At the time of low light, the system senses the ambient
light has been decreased and it lights up the reflector. On the other hand, the
system will turn itself into power saving mode at the time of bright light and will
save energy.

To sense the intensity of light, the system consists of a photo resistor or

light-dependent resistor. The Light Dependent Resistor works on the basic
principle of photoconductivity, making them useful in light sensing. The term
photoconductivity stands for a phenomenon in which the conductivity of a
substance increases while in contact with light. In general terms, the LDR is
made up of substance who has a low conductivity in darkness, and whenever it
comes in the contact with light the conductive property of the sensor increases.
A typical light dependent resistor has a resistance in the darkness of 1MOhm and
in the brightness a resistance of a couple of KOhm.

2
CHAPTER – 2

EXISTING & PROPOSED SYSTEM

3
 CHAPTER- 2

2.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

LDR Sensor

The working principle of an LDR is photoconductivity, which is nothing

but an optical phenomenon. When the light is absorbed by the material then the
conductivity of the material enhances. When the light falls on the LDR, then the
electrons in the valence band of the material are eager to the conduction band.
But, the photons in the incident light must have energy superior to the bandgap
of the material to make the electrons jump from one band to another band
valance to conduction.

Hence, when light having ample energy, more electrons are excited to the
conduction band which grades in a large number of charge carriers. When the
effect of this process and the flow of the current starts flowing more, the
resistance of the device decreases.

Figure 2.1 LDR sensor

4
2.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC),
which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only
one direction.
The process is known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction
of current. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube
diodes, mercury-arc valves, stacks of copper and selenium oxide
plates, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based
semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical
switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios,
used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide)
to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".Rectifiers have many
uses, but are often found serving as components of DC
Power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission
systems. Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for
use as a source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers.
In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of a flame
A relay driver circuit is a circuit which can drive, or operate, a relay so
that it can function appropriately in a circuit. The driven relay can then operate
as a switch in the circuit which can open or close, according to the needs of the
circuit and its operation.
In this project, we will build a relay driver for both DC and AC relays.
Since DC and AC voltages operate differently, to build relay drivers for them
requires slightly different setup. We will also go over a generic relay driver
which can operate from either AC or DC voltage and operate both AC and DC
relays.
All the circuits are relatively simple to understand.
5
 A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one
circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's
coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying
magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through
the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is
called mutual induction
The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store
energy in the form of an electrical charge producing a potential difference (Static
Voltage) across its plates, much like a small rechargeable battery.There are
many different kinds of capacitors available from very small capacitor beads
used in resonance circuits to large power factor correction capacitors, but they
all do the same thing, they store charge.
In its basic form, a capacitor consists of two or more parallel conductive
(metal) plates which are not connected or touching each other, but are
electrically separated either by air or by some form of a good insulating material
such as waxed paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a liquid gel as used
in electrolytic capacitors. The insulating layer between a capacitors plates is
commonly called the Dielectric.
Due to this insulating layer, DC current can not flow through the capacitor
as it blocks it allowing instead a voltage to be present across the plates in the
form of an electrical charge.
The conductive metal plates of a capacitor can be either square, circular or
rectangular, or they can be of a cylindrical or spherical shape with the general
shape, size and construction of a parallel plate capacitor depending on its
application and voltage

6
CHAPTER – 3

BLOCK DIAGRAM

7
 CHAPTER-3
3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 3.1 Block Diagram

8
3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

EXPLANATION DIODE

Semiconductors are materials which are used to manufacture all electronic

and optoelectronic devices, computers components, ICs (integrated circuits),
mems (microelectromecahnical sytems) and even nanodevices (example
quantum dot leds ) today. They are so widely used because of their special band
gap and its related properties. They even differ from conductors and insulators in
their electrical and optical properties because of their band gap (Eg) being
different than that of conductors and insulators. Now band gap of a material is
defined as the energy difference between conduction band and valence band in
terms of electron energy. It is a major factor in deciding a material application
for e.g. Conductors have no Eg, semiconductors have an Eg of the order of 1ev.

At room temperature, conductors have very high number of charge

carriers in conduction band which gives high conductivity whereas for the case
of insulators very few electrons reach the conduction band at room temperature.
For semiconductors reasonable numbers of charge carriers reach the conduction
band. Refer table 1.1. There is a direct relation between intrinsic charge carrier
concentration (ni) and conductivities (σ). Since Ge has three orders of ni greater
than that of Si therefore its conductivity (σ) is also 3 orders higher. It is to be
noted that they are both good conductors at room temperature..

TIMER IC

Voltage sources in a circuit may have fluctuations resulting in not

providing fixed voltage outputs. A voltage regulator IC maintains the output
voltage at a constant value. 7805 IC, a member of 78xx series of fixed linear

9
voltage regulators used to maintain such fluctuations, is a popular voltage
regulator integrated circuit (IC). The xx in 78xx indicates the output voltage it
provides. 7805 IC provides +5 volts regulated power supply with provisions to
add a heat sink.

All voltage sources cannot able to give fixed output due to fluctuations in
the circuit. For getting constant and steady output, the voltage regulators are
implemented. The integrated circuits which are used for the regulation of voltage
are termed as voltage regulator ICs. Here, we can discuss about IC 7805.The
voltage regulator IC 7805 is actually a member of 78xx series of voltage
regulator ICs. It is a fixed linear voltage regulator. The xx present in 78xx
represents the value of the fixed output voltage that the particular IC provides.
For 7805 IC, it is
+5V DC regulated power supply. This regulator IC also adds a provision for a
heat sink. The input voltage to this voltage regulator can be up to 35V, and this
IC can give a constant 5V for any value of input less than or equal to 35V which
is the threshold limit.

The purposes of coupling the components to the IC7805 are explained

below. C1- It is the bypass capacitor, used to bypass very small extent spikes to
the earth. C2 and C3- They are the filter capacitors. C2 is used to make the slow
changes in the input voltage given to the circuit to the steady form. C3 is used to
make the slow changes in the output voltage from the regulator in the circuit to
the steady form. When the value of these capacitors increases, stabilization is
enlarged. But these capacitors single-handedly are unable to filter the very
minute changes in the input and output voltages. C4- like C1, it is also a bypass
capacitor, used to bypass very small extent spikes to the ground or earth. This is
done without influencing other components
10
RELAY

We will first go over how to build a relay driver circuit for relays which
operate from DC power.

To drive a DC relay, all we need is sufficient DC voltage which the relay

is rated for and a zener diode.

All relays come with a voltage rating. This is called on a relay's datasheet
its rated coil voltage. This is the voltage needed in order for the relay to be able
to operate and be able to open or close its switch in a circuit. In order for a relay
to function, it must receive this voltage at its coil terminals. Thus, if a relay has a
rated voltage of 9VDC, it must receive 9 volts of DC voltage to operate. So the
most important thing a DC relay needs is its rated DC voltage. If you don't know
this, look up what relay you have and look up its datasheet and check for this
specification.

And the reason why a diode is needed is usually because it functions to

eliminate voltage spikes from a relay circuit as the relay opens and closes. The
coil of a relay acts an inductor. Remember that inductors are basically coils of
wires wrapped around a conductive core. This is what relay coils are as well.
Therefore, they act as inductors. Inductors are electronic components that resist
changes in current. Inductors do not like sudden changes in current. If the flow
of current through a coil is suddenly interrupted, for example, a switch opening,
the coil will respond by producing a sudden, very large voltage across its leads,
causing a large surge of current through it. From a physics or physical
perspective, this phenomen is a result of a collapsing magnetic field within the
coil as the current is terminated abruptly. Mathematically, this can be understood
by noticing
11
how a large change in current (dI/dt) affects the voltage across a coil (V=LdI/dt).
Since we are opening the switch, in this case, the current literally goes from full
mode to 0 instantaneously. This creates a large voltage spike. Surges in current
that result from inductive effects can create very high voltage spikes (as high as
1000V) that can have nasty effects on neighboring devices with in the circuits,
such as switches and transistors getting zapped. Not only are these voltage
spikes damaging to other electronic components in a circuit but thye are also
damaging to the relay's switch contacts. The contacts will suffer from these
spikes as well.

12
CHAPTER – 4

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
13
 CHAPTER-4

4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 4.1 Circuit Diagram

4.1.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

This is a very useful device, indeed. With it, we can easily multiply or
divide voltage and current in AC circuits. Indeed, the transformer has made
long- distance transmission of electric power a practical reality, as AC voltage
can be “stepped up” and current “stepped down” for reduced wire resistance
power losses along power lines connecting generating stations with loads. At
either end (both the generator and at the loads), voltage levels are reduced by
transformers for safer operation and less expensive equipment. A transformer
that increases voltage from primary to secondary (more secondary winding turns
than primary winding turns) is called a step-up transformer. Conversely, a
transformer designed to do just the opposite is called a step-down transformer.

14
This is a step-down transformer, as evidenced by the high turn count of the
primary winding and the low turn count of the secondary. As a step-down unit,
this transformer converts high-voltage, low-current power into low-voltage,
high- current power. The larger-gauge wire used in the secondary winding is
necessary due to the increase in current. The primary winding, which doesn't
have to conduct as much current, may be made of smaller-gauge wire.
A current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of alternating electric
currents. Current transformers, together with voltage (or potential) transformers
(VT or PT), are known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is
too high to apply directly to measuring instruments, a current transformer
produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit,
which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A
current transformer isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very
high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used
in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry.

15
CHAPTER – 5

WORKING PRINCIPLE
16
 CHAPTER-5
6.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE

It automatically switches ON lights when the sunlight goes below the

visible region of our eyes. (e.g in evening after Sunset). It automatically switches
OFF lights when Sunlight fall on it ( i.e on LDR ) e.g in morning, by using a
sensor called LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) which senses the light just like
our eyes.

The working principle of an LDR is photoconductivity, which is nothing

but an optical phenomenon. When the light is absorbed by the material then the
conductivity of the material enhances. When the light falls on the LDR, then the
electrons in the valence band of the material are eager to the conduction band.
But, the photons in the incident light must have energy superior to the bandgap
of the material to make the electrons jump from one band to another band
(valance to conduction).

Hence, when light having ample energy, more electrons are excited to the
conduction band which grades in a large number of charge carriers. When the
effect of this process and the flow of the current starts flowing more, the
resistance of the device decreases.

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC),

which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only
one direction.

The process is known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction

of current. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube
diodes, mercury-arc valves, stacks of copper and selenium oxide
plates, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based
17
semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical
switches and motors have been used.

18
CHAPTER – 6

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
19
 CHAPTER-6

6.1 RECTIFIER

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one
direction.

The process is known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction

of current. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube
diodes, mercury-arc valves, stacks of copper and selenium oxide
plates, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based
semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical
switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios,
used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide)
to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of
DC power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems.
Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a
source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas
heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of a flame.

Depending on the type of alternating current supply and the arrangement of the
rectifier circuit, the output voltage may require additional smoothing to produce
a uniform steady voltage. Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies
for radio, television and computer equipment, require a steady constant DC
voltage (as would be produced by a battery). In these applications the output of
the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter, which may be a capacitor, choke,
or set of capacitors, chokes and resistors, possibly followed by a voltage
20
regulator to produce a steady voltage. The primary application of rectifiers is to
derive DC power from an AC supply (AC to DC converter).

Rectifiers are used inside the power supplies of virtually all electronic
equipment. AC/DC power supplies may be broadly divided into linear
power supplies and switched-mode power supplies. In such power supplies, the
rectifier will be in series following the transformer, and be followed by a
smoothing filter and possibly a voltage regulator.

6.2 RELAY

A relay driver circuit is a circuit which can drive, or operate, a relay so that it
can function appropriately in a circuit.

Figure 6.2 Relay

The driven relay can then operate as a switch in the circuit which can open or
close, according to the needs of the circuit and its operation.

In this project, we will build a relay driver for both DC and AC relays. Since
DC and AC voltages operate differently, to build relay drivers for them requires
slightly different setup. We will also go over a generic relay driver which can
operate from either AC or DC voltage and operate both AC and DC relays.
21
All the circuits are relatively simple to understand.

DC Relay Driver Circuit

We will first go over how to build a relay driver circuit for relays which
operate from DC power. To drive a DC relay, all we need is sufficient DC
voltage which the relay is rated for and a zener diode.

All relays come with a voltage rating. This is called on a relay's datasheet its
road coil voltage. This is the voltage needed in order for the relay to be able to
operate and be able to open or close its switch in a circuit. In order for a relay to
function, it must receive this voltage at its coil terminals. Thus, if a relay has a
rated voltage of 9VDC, it must receive 9 volts of DC voltage to operate. So the
most important thing a DC relay needs is its rated DC voltage. If you don't know
this, look up what relay you have and look up its datasheet and check for this
specification.

And the reason why a diode is needed is usually because it functions to eliminate
voltage spikes from a relay circuit as the relay opens and closes. The coil of a
relay acts an inductor. Remember that inductors are basically coils of wires
wrapped around a conductive core. This is what relay coils are as well.
Therefore, they act as inductors. Inductors are electronic components that resist
changes in current. Inductors do not like sudden changes in current. If the flow
of current through a coil is suddenly interrupted, for example, a switch opening,
the coil will respond by producing a sudden, very large voltage across its leads,
causing a large surge of current through it. From a physics or physical
perspective, this phenomen is a result of a collapsing magnetic field within the
coil as the current is terminated abruptly. Mathematically, this can be understood
by noticing how a large change in current (dI/dt) affects the voltage across a coil

22
(V=LdI/dt). Since we are opening

23
the switch, in this case, the current literally goes from full mode to 0
instantaneously. This creates a large voltage spike. Surges in current that result
from inductive effects can create very high voltage spikes (as high as 1000V)
that can have nasty effects on neighboring devices with in the circuits, such as
switches and transistors getting zapped. Not only are these voltage spikes
damaging to other electronic components in a circuit but thye are also damaging
to the relay's switch contacts. The contacts will suffer from these spikes as well.

The diode must be rated to handle currents equivalent to the maximum current
that woudl have been flowing through the coil before the supply current was
interrupted. Therefore, if the relay normally passes a certain amount of current
through it during normal operation, the diode must be rated for a current rating
above this value, as to not stop normal operation.

Components Needed

 DC Relay
 DC Voltage Source

Again, the DC relay must receive its rated voltage value in order to operate.

The DC power source can be either batteries, wall wart power, or a DC power
supply- any DC power source.

The zener diode is placed reverse biased in parallel to the relay.

DC Relay Driver Circuit Schematic

24
Below is the DC relay driver circuit which we will build:

Figure 6.2.1 Relay driver circuit

The relay which we use in this case is rated for 9V. Therefore, a 9-volt
DC voltage source feeds the resistor. To suppress transients that may be caused
by the relay opening and closing, we place a zener diode reverse biased in
parallel with the relay. This will shunt all excess power to ground once it reaches
a certain threshold. This is all that is needed to operate the relay. With sufficient
power, the relay will now closed, driving the loads that are connected to its
output.

Generic Relay Driver Circuit

The last relay driver circuit we will show is one which can be driven by an
arbitrary control voltage.

This is a relay driver circuit which can be driven by either AC or DC input

voltage. And unlike the other circuits, a specific voltage, such as the rated
voltage values we used to drive the others, does not need to be used. Because
this circuit contains a transistor, much less power needs to used on the input side
to drive it.
25
 Figure 6.2.3 Generic Relay Driver Circuit

Relay Driver IC Circuit

In order to drive the relay, we use transistor and only less power can be
possibly used to get the relay driven. Since, transistor is an amplifier so the base
lead receives sufficient current to make more current flow from Emitter of
Transistor to Collector. If the base once gets power that is sufficient, then the
transistor conduct from Emitter to Collector and power the relay.

The Transistor’s emitter-to-collector channel will be opened even though no

input current or voltage is applied to Base lead of Transistor. Therefore, blocking
current flows through relay coil.

The emitter-to-collector channel will be opened and allows current to flow

through relay’s coil if enough current or voltage is applied as input to the base
lead. AC or DC Current can be used to power the relay and circuit. Relays are
electromagnetic devices which allow low-power circuit to switch a high current
ON and OFF switching devices with the help of an armature that is moved by an
electromagnet.

26
 Driver Circuit is used to boost or amplify signals from micro-controllers to
control power switches in semi-conductor devices. Driver circuits take functions
that include isolating the control circuit and the power circuit, detecting
malfunctions, storing and reporting failures to the control system, serving as a
precaution against failure, analyzing sensor signals and creating auxiliary
voltages.

Advantages of Low Side Driver

More interface options are available which includes popular ULN2003 driver.

 Easy to interface to low voltage logic circuitry.

 Fewer components are used.
 Less expensive NPN drive transistors.
 Relay power reduces load on voltage regulator.
 It uses more commonly obtained NPN drive transistors.
 It is easier to interface relay.
 It is economic.
 Uses Industry standard technique.

The ULN2003 has internal clamp diodes. While these work OK in non-critical
applications and it leads to rise of glitches.

Clamp Diode

The clamp, free-wheeling or commutation diode provides a path for the

inductive discharge current to flow when the driver switch is opened. If not
provided, it will generate an arc in the switch while the arc will not generally
damage a switch contact, it will cause contact degradation over time and
yes, it will destroy

27
transistors been there, done that. The diode requirements are non-critical and a
1N4148 signal diode will generally work OK in low power applications.

Avoid emitter follower drivers. If the relay is switched to OFF in 4007 diode
eliminates back e.m.f and safe guards the transistor. ON status of the relay is
indicated by LED.

DC Relay Driver IC Circuit

Let us see construction of relay driver circuit for relays that are operated from
DC power. In order to drive a DC relay, DC voltage is needed in required
quantity to rate a relay and a zener diode. Voltage is required for the relay to
operate and to open or close its switch in a circuit. Relays exist with a voltage
rating. This is known as relay’s datasheet to rate its coil voltage. For the function
of relay, it must receive this voltage at its coil terminals. Thus, if a relay has a
rated voltage of 9VDC, it should get 9 volts of DC voltage for its working. In
order to eliminate voltage spikes from a relay circuit, a diode is required for its
proper functioning. The coil of a relay acts an Inductor.

6.3 REGULATOR 7805

Voltage sources in a circuit may have fluctuations resulting in not providing

fixed voltage outputs. A voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a
28
constant value. 7805 IC, a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage
regulators used to maintain such fluctuations, is a popular voltage regulator
integrated circuit (IC). The xx in 78xx indicates the output voltage it provides.
7805 IC provides +5 volts regulated power supply with provisions to add a heat
sink.

All voltage sources cannot able to give fixed output due to fluctuations in the
circuit. For getting constant and steady output, the voltage regulators are
implemented. The integrated circuits which are used for the regulation of voltage
are termed as voltage regulator ICs. Here, we can discuss about IC 7805.The
voltage regulator IC 7805 is actually a member of 78xx series of voltage
regulator ICs. It is a fixed linear voltage regulator. The xx present in 78xx
represents the value of the fixed output voltage that the particular IC provides.
For 7805 IC, it is
+5V DC regulated power supply. This regulator IC also adds a provision for a
heat sink. The input voltage to this voltage regulator can be up to 35V, and this
IC can give a constant 5V for any value of input less than or equal to 35V which
is the threshold limit.

Figure 6.3 regulator 7805

7805 IC Rating

 Input voltage range 7V- 35V

29
 Current rating Ic = 1A
 Output voltage range VMax=5.2V ,VMin=4.8V

30
Regulated Power Supply Circuit

The voltage regulator 7805 and the other components are arranged in the
circuit as shown in figure.

Figure 6.3.1 Regulated Power Supply Circuit

The purposes of coupling the components to the IC7805 are explained below.
C1- It is the bypass capacitor, used to bypass very small extent spikes to the
earth. C2 and C3- They are the filter capacitors. C2 is used to make the slow
changes in the input voltage given to the circuit to the steady form. C3 is used to
make the slow changes in the output voltage from the regulator in the circuit to
the steady form. When the value of these capacitors increases, stabilization is
enlarged. But these capacitors single-handedly are unable to filter the very
minute changes in the input and output voltages. C4- like C1, it is also a bypass
capacitor, used to bypass very small extent spikes to the ground or earth. This is
done without influencing other components.

Applications of Voltage Regulator 7805 IC

 Current regulator
 Regulated dual supply

31
  Building circuits for Phone charger, UPS power supply circuits, portable
CD player etc
 Fixed output regulator
 Adjustable output regulator etc.

6.4 BC547 TRANSISTORS

 Bi-Polar NPN Transistor

 DC Current Gain (hFE) is 800 maximum
 Continuous Collector current (IC) is 100mA
 Emitter Base Voltage (VBE) is 6V
 Base Current(IB) is 5mA maximum
 Available in To-92 Package

Note: Complete Technical Details can be found at the datasheet give at the end
of this page.

BC547 Equivalent Transistors

BC549, BC636, BC639, 2N2222 TO-92, 2N2222 TO-18, 2N2369, 2N3055,

2N3904, 2N3906, 2SC5200

Brief Description on BC547

BC547 is a NPN transistor hence the collector and emitter will be left open
(Reverse biased) when the base pin is held at ground and will be closed
(Forward biased) when a signal is provided to base pin. BC547 has a gain value
of 110 to 800, this value determines the amplification capacity of the transistor.
The maximum amount of current that could flow through the Collector pin is

32
100mA,

33
hence we cannot connect loads that consume more than 100mA using this
transistor. To bias a transistor we have to supply current to base pin, this current
(IB) should be limited to 5mA.

When this transistor is fully biased then it can allow a maximum of 100mA to
flow across the collector and emitter. This stage is called Saturation Region and
the typical voltage allowed across the Collector-Emitter (VCE) or Base-Emitter
(VBE) could be 200 and 900 mV respectively. When base current is removed the
transistor becomes fully off, this stage is called as the Cut-off Region and the
Base Emitter voltage could be around 660 mV.

BC547 as Switch

When a transistor is used as a switch it is operated in the Saturation and Cut-

Off Region as explained above. As discussed a transistor will act as an Open
switch during Forward Bias and as a Closed switch during Reverse Bias, this
biasing can be achieved by supplying the required amount of current to the base
pin. As mentioned the biasing current should maximum of 5mA. Anything more
than 5mA will kill the Transistor; hence a resistor is always added in series with
base pin. The value of this resistor (RB) can be calculated using below formulae.

RB = VBE / IB

Where, the value of VBE should be 5V for BC547 and the Base current
(IB depends on the Collector current (IC). The value of IB should not exceed
mA.

BC547 as Amplifier

A Transistors acts as an Amplifier when operating in Active Region. It can

amplify power, voltage and current at different configurations.

34
  Common emitter amplifier
 Common collector amplifier
 Common base amplifier

Of the above types common emitter type is the popular and mostly used
configuration. When uses as an Amplifier the DC current gain of the Transistor
can be calculated by using the below formulae

DC Current Gain = Collector Current (IC) / Base Current (IB)

Applications

 Driver Modules like Relay Driver, LED driver etc..

 Amplifier modules like Audio amplifiers, signal Amplifier etc..
 Darlington pair

2D model of the component

If you are designing a PCD or Perf board with this component then the
following picture from the Datasheet will be useful to know its package type and
dimensions.

6.5 DIODE

Semiconductors are materials which are used to manufacture all electronic

and optoelectronic devices, computers components, ICs (integrated circuits),
mems (microelectromecahnical sytems) and even nanodevices (example
quantum dot leds ) today. They are so widely used because of their special band
gap and its related properties. They even differ from conductors and insulators in
their electrical and optical properties because of their band gap (Eg) being
35
different

36
than that of conductors and insulators. Now band gap of a material is defined as
the energy difference between conduction band and valence band in terms of
electron energy. It is a major factor in deciding a material application for e.g.
Conductors have no Eg, semiconductors have an Eg of the order of 1ev.

Figure 6.5 Diode

At room temperature, conductors have very high number of charge carriers in

conduction band which gives high conductivity whereas for the case of
insulators very few electrons reach the conduction band at room temperature.
For semiconductors reasonable numbers of charge carriers reach the conduction
band. Refer table 1.1. There is a direct relation between intrinsic charge carrier
concentration (ni) and conductivities (σ). Since Ge has three orders of ni greater
than that of Si therefore its conductivity (σ) is also 3 orders higher. It is to be
noted that they are both good conductors at room temperature.

The resistance of conductors increases with increase in temperature because

the lattice vibrations block the free flow of electrons on application of potential.
For the case of intrinsic semiconductor the resistance decreases more electron
hole pairs are generated because of breakage of bonds. With an addition of small
amount of impurity (one in 10 7 atoms) from third group or fifth group , the
37
conductivity increases by an order of 10 5 . This si because number of free
charge carriers increases by 10 5 times ( 1012 / 107 ).

FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION

A diode is a two terminal device made by a P type and n type materials or

between a semiconductor and a metal. If the junction is made between a metal
and semiconductor then it is called a Schottky diode whose application is in
rectifying and non-rectifying contacts and Schottky devices.

Figure 6.5.1 diode 2

There are various methods of fabrication of a junction depending on the

application of the diode.

POTENTIAL BARRIER

When the pn junction is made, there is a transfer of charge through the junction
region because of concentration gradient of the charge carriers. The direction of
barrier potential is as shown by the arrow from n type to p type. It is the
formation of potential barrier that makes the device useful since it can be
controlled by various factors like biasing etc.

38
The direction of this field is from n side to p side as shown in figure 2. The
equation of this field barrier (Vbi) is given by

where Na and Nd are the acceptor and donor concentrations, ni is the intrinsic
concentration, q is the electron charge and T is the temperature in absolute
values.
Vbi

is lesser for Ge ( 0.2 V ) than for Si (0.6 V ) since ni is higher for Ge compared
to Si.

If a voltage V is applied across the diode, the current flowing across it is given
by the Shockley equation

where V is the bias potential across the diode. The factor ( is 1 for Si and 2 for
Ge diodes. Vt is volt equivalent of temperature and is given by 11,600 / T. Its
value at room temperature is 26 mV. Io is the reverse saturation current in mA
which depends upon temperature and doping. This is called reverse saturation
since its value cannot be increased by increasing Vr.

BIASING

Forward Biasing: If an external voltage is applied such that negative of

battery is connected to n side and positive to the p side then Vbi will get reduced
and more current can flow across the junction. Reverse Bias On the other hand if
an external voltage is applied in the reverse direction i.e. positive of battery to n

39
side and negative of battery to p side then the barrier potential increases and only
minority

40
charge carriers flow across the junction. Thus the current is very small in
microamperes and is independent of the external voltage, up to a certain voltage.
Beyond this voltage, the diode breaks down by either Avalanche breakdown
mechanism or Zener breakdown mechanism.

PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE

PIV is the maximum reverse bias voltage which can be applied safely to a
diode without its breaking down. Beyond this voltage a diode breaks down.

Avalanche Breakdown The minority carriers which are diffusing across the
junction get sufficient energy from the increased voltage to break the covalent
bonds and generate more Electron hole pairs. These generated pairs break more
bonds and this process is multiplicative. Thus at the breakdown condition the
current suddenly shoots up because of additional extra pairs.

ZENER breakdown This is applicable only to heavily doped junctions which

have a very narrow depletion layer. On increase of reverse voltage the electric
field increases so much that the covalent bonds break and generate minority
carriers which constitute the reverse current.

MULTIMETER TEST OF DIODES

One can know whether a specific terminal of a diode is n or p by

measuring the resistance with multimeter. To do so keep the multimeters in
resistance mode connect its positive lead to the anode of diode and negative lead
to its cathode. During the test ,the multimeter passes current through the diode
and the diode gets
41
forward biased. It thus indicated very low resistance of the order of 100. If the
leads are now reversed than the diode gets reverse biased and offers very high
resistance of the order of M(. This can be read in the multimeter again. If a diode
reads very low resistance in the forward as well as reverse bias then it is fused.
On the other hand if it reads high resistance in the forward as well as reverse bias
then it is open.

6.6 PUSH BUTTON

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a

simple switch mechanism to control some aspect of a machine or a process.
Buttons are typically made out of hard material, usually plastic or metal. The
surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand, so as
to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased switches,
although many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) still require a
spring to return to their un-pushed state. Terms for the "pushing" of a
button include pressing, depressing, mashing, slapping, hitting, and punching

USES

The "push-button" has been utilized in calculators, push-button

telephones, kitchen appliances, and various other mechanical and electronic
devices, home and commercial.

42
In industrial and commercial applications, push buttons can be connected
together by a mechanical linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the
other button to be released. In this way, a stop button can "force" a start button to
be released. This method of linkage is used in simple manual operations in
which the machine or process has no electrical circuits for control.

Red pushbuttons can also have large heads (called mushroom heads) for easy
operation and to facilitate the stopping of a machine. These pushbuttons are
called emergency stop buttons and for increased safety are mandated by the
electrical code in many jurisdictions. This large mushroom shape can also be
found in buttons for use with operators who need to wear gloves for their work
and could not actuate a regular flush-mounted push button.

Button Shaped as an Octagon.

As an aid for operators and users in industrial or commercial applications,

a pilot light is commonly added to draw the attention of the user and to
provide feedback if the button is pushed. Typically this light is included into the
center of the pushbutton and a lens replaces the pushbutton hard center disk. The
source of the energy to illuminate the light is not directly tied to the contacts on
the back of the pushbutton but to the action the pushbutton controls. In this way
a start button when pushed will cause the process or machine operation to be
started and a secondary contact designed into the operation or process will close
to turn on the pilot light and signify the action of pushing the button caused the
resultant process or action to start.

6.7 CAPACITOR

43
 The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store
energy in the form of an electrical charge producing a potential difference (Static
Voltage) across its plates, much like a small rechargeable battery.

There are many different kinds of capacitors available from very small
capacitor beads used in resonance circuits to large power factor correction
capacitors, but they all do the same thing, they store charge.

In its basic form, a capacitor consists of two or more parallel conductive (metal)
plates which are not connected or touching each other, but are electrically
separated either by air or by some form of a good insulating material such as
waxed paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a liquid gel as used in
electrolytic capacitors. The insulating layer between a capacitors plates is
commonly called the Dielectric.

Due to this insulating layer, DC current can not flow through the capacitor as it
blocks it allowing instead a voltage to be present across the plates in the form of
an electrical charge.

The conductive metal plates of a capacitor can be either square, circular or

rectangular, or they can be of a cylindrical or spherical shape with the general
shape, size and construction of a parallel plate capacitor depending on its
application and voltage rating.

When used in a direct current or DC circuit, a capacitor charges up to its

supply voltage but blocks the flow of current through it because the dielectric of
a capacitor is non-conductive and basically an insulator. However, when a
capacitor is connected to an alternating current or AC circuit, the flow of the
current appears to pass straight through the capacitor with little or no resistance.

44
 There are two types of electrical charge, positive charge in the form of Protons
and negative charge in the form of Electrons. When a DC voltage is placed
across a capacitor, the positive (+ve) charge quickly accumulates on one plate
while a corresponding and opposite negative (-ve) charge accumulates on the
other plate. For every particle of +ve charge that arrives at one plate a charge of
the same sign will depart from the -ve plate.

Then the plates remain charge neutral and a potential difference due to this
charge is established between the two plates. Once the capacitor reaches its
steady state condition an electrical current is unable to flow through the
capacitor itself and around the circuit due to the insulating properties of the
dielectric used to separate the plates.

The flow of electrons onto the plates is known as the capacitors Charging
Current which continues to flow until the voltage across both plates (and hence
the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vc. At this point the capacitor is
said to be “fully charged” with electrons.

The strength or rate of this charging current is at its maximum value when the
plates are fully discharged (initial condition) and slowly reduces in value to zero
as the plates charge up to a potential difference across the capacitors plates equal
to the source voltage.

The amount of potential difference present across the capacitor depends upon
how much charge was deposited onto the plates by the work being done by the
source voltage and also by how much capacitance the capacitor has and this is
illustrated below.

45
 Figure 6.7.1 Capacitor

The parallel plate capacitor is the simplest form of capacitor. It can be

constructed using two metal or metallised foil plates at a distance parallel to each
other, with its capacitance value in Farads, being fixed by the surface area of the
conductive plates and the distance of separation between them. Altering any two
of these values alters the the value of its capacitance and this forms the basis of
operation of the variable capacitors.

Also, because capacitors store the energy of the electrons in the form of an
electrical charge on the plates the larger the plates and/or smaller their separation
the greater will be the charge that the capacitor holds for any given voltage
across its plates. In other words, larger plates, smaller distance, more
capacitance.

By applying a voltage to a capacitor and measuring the charge on the plates, the
ratio of the charge Q to the voltage V will give the capacitance value of the
capacitor and is therefore given as: C = Q/V this equation can also be re-
46
arranged

47
to give the more familiar formula for the quantity of charge on the plates as: Q =
CxV

Although we have said that the charge is stored on the plates of a capacitor, it
is more correct to say that the energy within the charge is stored in an
“electrostatic field” between the two plates. When an electric current flows into
the capacitor, charging it up, the electrostatic field becomes more stronger as it
stores more energy.

Likewise, as the current flows out of the capacitor, discharging it, the potential
difference between the two plates decreases and the electrostatic field decreases
as the energy moves out of the plates. The property of a capacitor to store charge
on its plates in the form of an electrostatic field is called the Capacitance of the
capacitor. Not only that, but capacitance is also the property of a capacitor which
resists the change of voltage across it.

CAPACITANCE

Capacitance is the electrical property of a capacitor and is the measure of a

capacitors ability to store an electrical charge onto its two plates with the unit of
capacitance being the Farad (abbreviated to F) named after the British physicist
Michael Faraday.

Capacitance is defined as being that a capacitor has the capacitance of One

Farad when a charge of One Coulomb is stored on the plates by a voltage of One
volt. Note that capacitance, C is always positive in value and has no negative
units. However, the Farad is a very large unit of measurement to use on its own
so sub-

48
multiples of the Farad are generally used such as micro-farads, nano-farads and
pico-farads, for example.

VOLTAGE RATING OF A CAPACITOR

All capacitors have a maximum voltage rating and when selecting a capacitor
consideration must be given to the amount of voltage to be applied across the
capacitor. The maximum amount of voltage that can be applied to the capacitor
without damage to its dielectric material is generally given in the data sheets as:
WV, (working voltage) or as WV DC, (DC working voltage).

If the voltage applied across the capacitor becomes too great, the dielectric
will break down (known as electrical breakdown) and arcing will occur between
the capacitor plates resulting in a short-circuit. The working voltage of the
capacitor depends on the type of dielectric material being used and its thickness.

The DC working voltage of a capacitor is just that, the maximum DC voltage

and NOT the maximum AC voltage as a capacitor with a DC voltage rating of
100 volts DC cannot be safely subjected to an alternating voltage of 100 volts.
Since an alternating voltage has an r.m.s. value of 100 volts but a peak value of
over 141 volts.

Then a capacitor which is required to operate at 100 volts AC should have a

working voltage of at least 200 volts. In practice, a capacitor should be selected
so that its working voltage either DC or AC should be at least 50 percent greater
than the highest effective voltage to be applied to it.

Another factor which affects the operation of a capacitor is Dielectric

Leakage. Dielectric leakage occurs in a capacitor as the result of an unwanted
leakage current which flows through the dielectric material. Generally, it is
assumed that
49
the resistance of the dielectric is extremely high and a good insulator blocking
the flow of DC current through the capacitor (as in a perfect capacitor) from one
plate to the other. However, if the dielectric material becomes damaged due
excessive voltage or over temperature, the leakage current through the dielectric
will become extremely high resulting in a rapid loss of charge on the plates and
an overheating of the capacitor eventually resulting in premature failure of the
capacitor. Then never use a capacitor in a circuit with higher voltages than the
capacitor is rated for otherwise it may become hot and explode

6.8 TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one

circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's
coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying
magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through
the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is
called mutual induction

Figure 6.8 Transformer

50
 This is a very useful device, indeed. With it, we can easily multiply or divide
voltage and current in AC circuits. Indeed, the transformer has made long-
distance transmission of electric power a practical reality, as AC voltage can be
“stepped up” and current “stepped down” for reduced wire resistance power
losses along power lines connecting generating stations with loads. At either end
(both the generator and at the loads), voltage levels are reduced by transformers
for safer operation and less expensive equipment. A transformer that increases
voltage from primary to secondary (more secondary winding turns than primary
winding turns) is called a step-up transformer. Conversely, a transformer
designed to do just the opposite is called a step-down transformer.

This is a step-down transformer, as evidenced by the high turn count of the

primary winding and the low turn count of the secondary. As a step-down unit,
this transformer converts high-voltage, low-current power into low-voltage,
high- current power. The larger-gauge wire used in the secondary winding is
necessary due to the increase in current. The primary winding, which doesn't
have to conduct as much current, may be made of smaller-gauge wire.

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

51
 Figure 6.8.1 Potential Transformer

A voltage transformer theory or potential transformer theory is just like a

theory of general purpose step down transformer. Primary of this transformer is
connected across the phase and ground. Just like the transformer used for
stepping down purpose, potential transformer i.e. PT has lower turns winding at
its secondary. The system voltage is applied across the terminals of primary
winding of that transformer, and then proportionate secondary voltage appears
across the secondary terminals of the PT.

The secondary voltage of the PT is generally 110 V. In an ideal potential

transformer or voltage transformer, when rated burden gets connected across the
secondary; the ratio of primary and secondary voltages of transformer is equal to
the turns ratio and furthermore, the two terminal voltages are in precise phase
opposite to each other. But in actual transformer, there must be an error in the
voltage ratio as well as in the phase angle between primary and secondary
voltages.

Potential transformers (PT) (also called voltage transformers (VT)) are a

parallel connected type of instrument transformer. They are designed to present
52
negligible load to the supply being measured and have an accurate voltage ratio
and phase relationship to enable accurate secondary connected metering.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER

A current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of alternating electric

currents. Current transformers, together with voltage (or potential) transformers
(VT or PT), are known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is
too high to apply directly to measuring instruments, a current transformer
produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit,
which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A
current transformer isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very
high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used
in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry.

CT DESIGN

53
 Figure 6.8.2 CT Design

Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a

magnetic core and a secondary winding. The alternating current in the primary
produces an alternating magnetic field in the core, which then induces an
alternating current in the secondary winding circuit. An essential objective of
current transformer design is to ensure the primary and secondary circuits are
efficiently coupled, so the secondary current is linearly proportional to the
primary current.

The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped

many times around a silicon steel ring passed 'around' the circuit being
measured. The CT's primary circuit therefore consists of a single 'turn' of
conductor, with a secondary of many tens or hundreds of turns. The primary
winding may be a permanent part of the current transformer, with a heavy
copper bar to carry current through the magnetic core. Window-type current
transformers (aka zero sequence current transformers, or ZSCT) are also
common, which can have circuit cables run through the middle of an opening in
the core to provide a single-turn primary

54
winding. When conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the circular
(or oval) opening, slight inaccuracies may occur.

Shapes and sizes can vary depending on the end user or switchgear
manufacturer. Typical examples of low-voltage single ratio metering current
transformers are either ring type or plastic molded case. High-voltage current
transformers are mounted on porcelain insulators to isolate them from ground.
Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high-voltage transformer or
circuit breaker, which automatically centers the conductor inside the CT
window.

Current transformers can be mounted on the low voltage or high voltage

leads of a power transformer; sometimes a section of bus bar is arranged to be
easily removed for exchange of current transformers.

CT USES

Many digital clamp meters utilize a current transformer for measuring

alternating current (AC).Current transformers are used extensively for measuring
current and monitoring the operation of the power grid. Along with voltage
leads, revenue-grade CTs drive the electrical utility's watt-hour meter on
virtually every building with three-phase service and single-phase services
greater than 200 amperes.

The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to

secondary. Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses. For
example, protection devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs to
provide isolation between metering and protection circuits, and allows current
transformers with different characteristics (accuracy, overload performance) to
be used for the devices.
55
 The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. The
rated secondary current is commonly standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For
example, a 4000:5 CT secondary winding will supply an output current of 5
amperes when the primary winding current is 4000 amperes. The secondary
winding can be single or multi-ratio, with five taps being common for multi-ratio
CTs.

The load, or burden, of the CT should be a low resistance. If the voltage

time integral area is higher than the core's design rating, the core goes into
saturation toward the end of each cycle, distorting the waveform and affecting
accuracy

Accuracy of CT

The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including:

 Burden
 Burden class/saturation class
 Rating factor
 Load
 External electromagnetic fields
 Temperature and
 Physical configuration.
 The selected tap, for multi-ratio CTs
 Phase change

For the IEC standard, accuracy classes for various types of measurement
are set out in IEC 61869-1, Classes 0.1, 0.2s, 0.2, 0.5, 0.5s, 1 and 3. The class
designation is an approximate measure of the CT's accuracy. The ratio (primary
to secondary current) error of a Class 1 CT is 1% at rated current; the ratio error
56
of a Class 0.5 CT is 0.5% or less. Errors in phase are also important especially in
power measuring circuits, and each class has an allowable maximum phase error
for a specified load impedance.

Current transformers used for protective relaying also have accuracy

requirements at overload currents in excess of the normal rating to ensure
accurate performance of relays during system faults. A CT with a rating of
2.5L400 specifies with an output from its secondary winding of 20 times its rated
secondary current (usually 5 A × 20 = 100 A) and 400 V (IZ drop) its output
accuracy will be within 2.5 percent.

APPLICATIONS

Current transformers are used for protection, measurement and control in

high-voltage electrical substations and the electrical grid. Current transformers
may be installed inside switchgear or in apparatus bushings, but very often free-
standing outdoor current transformers are used. In a switchyard, live tank current
transformers have a substantial part of their enclosure energized at the line
voltage and must be mounted on insulators. Dead tank current transformers
isolate the measured circuit from the enclosure. Live tank CTs are useful because
the primary conductor is short, which gives better stability and a higher short-
circuit current rating. The primary of the winding can be evenly distributed
around the magnetic core, which gives better performance for overloads and
transients. Since the major insulation of a live-tank current transformer is not
exposed to the heat of the primary conductors, insulation life and thermal
stability is improved.

A high-voltage current transformer may contain several cores, each with a

secondary winding, for different purposes (such as metering circuits, control, or

57
protection).A neutral current transformer is used as earth fault protection to

58
measure any fault current flowing through the neutral line from the wye neutral
point of a transformer.

59
 CHAPTER –7

PHOTOGRAPHY

CHAPTER

PHOTOGRAPHY

60
61
 CHAPTER –8

ADVANTAGES

CHAPTER-8

ADVANTAGES

 They can be used to divide the road show a curvature or an exit on

the road.

62
  They can be very useful at the places like the airport and airport hangers
where various colors of road reflectors are used to fulfill various purposes

CONCLUSION

This is useful and on the other hand it is also very energy consumption one
the automatic road light reflector is commonly used for the airport because the
light travels faster than sound .so the this is very effective to use in the road to
avoid road accident and viability in the rainy season.

63
CHAPTER –9

OUTPUT
64
 CHAPTER-9

OUTPUT

Figure 9.1 Output

65
 CHAPTER -10
REFERENCE

66
 CHAPTER-10

REFERENCE

1. Energy efficient Smart Road Light, IEEE conference 2017, Ravi kishorekodali
and Subbachary Yerroju, Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal.

2. Solar LED road light system with Automatic Scheme-2017, Omveer Singh,
IEEE SR.Member, Electrical Engineering Department, Greater Buddha
University,Tushar Singh Sisodia Electrical Department, Greater Noida.

3. A smart road light intensity optimizer, IEEE Conference/2017, Bilam Roy and
Jayita Datta, Department of Applied Electronics and Instrumentation
Engineering, Guru Nanak Institute of Technology, Kolkata, W.B., India.

4. Internet of Things Based Intelligence Street Lighting System for Smart city,
IJIRSET, May 2016, Parkash, Prabhu V, Dandu Rajendra

5. Automatic Road Light Control System using Wireless Sensor Networks,

IEEE- 2017. Dhiraj Sunehra, SMIEEE, JNTU college of Engineering,
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Telangana, India.

6. The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded systems by Muhammad Ali

Mazidi and Janice Gillispie Mazidi , Pearson Education.

7. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, Boylestad.

8. Sensors: Advancements in Modeling, Design Issues, Fabrication and Practical

by Subhas Chandra

9. Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and Applications by Jacob

Fraden.

10. The 8051 Microcontroller by Kenneth J. Ayala,

11. Hand Book of Electronics by A.K. Maini.

12. Digital Systems Principles and Application by Ronald Ltocci (Sixth

Addition).
67
13. Digital Design by Moris Mano (Second Addition),

14.Relays and Its Application Sharma, M.C. (BPB-Publishers)

68